Barriers to social inclusion in Ireland: Change over time and space, 2016-2022

De lin, Anne; McGuinness, Séamus; Whelan, Adele
Resea ch Repo
Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime
and space, 2016-2022
Resea ch Se ies, No. 212
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
The Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e (ESRI), Dublin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: De lin, Anne; McGuinness, Séamus; Whelan, Adele (2025) : Ba ie s o social
inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022, Resea ch Se ies, No. 212, The
Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e (ESRI), Dublin,
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Ba ie s o social inclusion in
I eland: Change o e ime
and space, 2016-2022
ANNE DEVLIN, SEAMUS MCGUINNESS
AND ADELE WHELAN
ESRI
RESEARCH SERIES
Numbe 212, May 2025
BARRIERS TO SOCIAL INCLUSION IN IRELAND:
CHANGE OVER TIME AND SPACE, 2016-2022
Anne De lin
Seamus McGuinness
Adele Whelan
May 2025
RESEARCH SERIES
NUMBER 212
A ailable o download om www.es i.ie
h ps://doi.o g/10.26504/ s212
 2025 The Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e
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Fu he in o ma ion is a ailable a www.es i.ie.
THE AUTHORS
Anne De lin is a Resea ch Office a he Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e
(ESRI) and an Adjunc Assis an P o esso a T ini y College Dublin (TCD). Adele
Whelan is a Senio Resea ch Office a he ESRI and Adjunc Associa e P o esso a
TCD. Seamus McGuinness is a Resea ch P o esso a he ESRI and an Adjunc
P o esso a TCD.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The wo k ca ied ou in his epo was unded by Pobal as pa o he Resea ch
P og amme on Communi y De elopmen and Social Inclusion. We would like o
hank all he indi iduals wi hin Pobal who p o ided assis ance du ing he p ojec ,
pa icula ly Alana Ryan, Ela Hogan and Ma in Quigley. Valuable con ibu ions we e
made by membe s o he Resea ch P og amme S ee ing Commi ee: Delma By ne,
John Cu is, Paul Ge agh y, Dei d e Kelly, Helen Russell, and John O’Toole. We a e
ex emely g a e ul o he membe s o he Resea ch P og amme
S ee ing Commi ee o hei ongoing suppo and eedback on he esea ch.
Finally, we a e since ely g a e ul o Jona han P a schke and T u z Haase (now
deceased) who c ea ed he Pobal HP Dep i a ion Index, wi hou which his
esea ch would no be possible.
This epo has been accep ed o publica ion by he Ins i u e, which does no i sel ake ins i u ional
policy posi ions. All ESRI Resea ch Se ies epo s a e pee e iewed p io o publica ion. The au ho s
a e solely esponsible o he con en and he iews exp essed.

Table o con en s | iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................ V
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE AND POLICY CONTEXT .................................................................................... 4
2.1 Policy con ex ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Social inclusion and COVID-19 in I eland ............................................................................ 6
2.3 In e na ional e idence ........................................................................................................ 8
CHAPTER 3 DATA AND METHODS ........................................................................................................ 10
3.1 Da a .................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2 Me hodology .................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................ 18
4.1 Ba e s o social inclusion – economic, social and heal h ................................................ 18
4.2 Econome ic modelling ..................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Robus ness checks ............................................................................................................ 40
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY .............................................................. 43
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................................. 50
i | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 P e alence o ba ie s o social inclusion: I eland, 2016 and 2022 ............................. 19
Table 4.2 P e alence o ba ie s o social inclusion by dep i a ion quin iles:
economic ba ie s, 2016 and 2022 .............................................................................. 20
Table 4.3 P e alence o ba ie s o social inclusion by dep i a ion quin iles:
social ba ie s, 2016 and 2022 ..................................................................................... 21
Table 4.4 P e alence o ba ie s o social inclusion by dep i a ion quin iles:
heal h ba ie s, 2016 and 2022.................................................................................... 22
Table 4.5 P e alence o ba ie s o social inclusion by le el o u banisa ion:
economic ba ie s, 2016 and 2022 .............................................................................. 23
Table 4.6 P e alence o ba ie s o social inclusion by le el o u banisa ion:
social ba ie s, 2016 and 2022 ..................................................................................... 24
Table 4.7 P e alence o ba ie s o social inclusion by le el o u banisa ion:
heal h ba ie s, 2016 and 2022.................................................................................... 26
Table 4.8 Resul s o OLS models, SA le el, 2016 and 2022: economic ba ie s .......................... 30
Table 4.9 Resul s o OLS models, SA le el, 2016 and 2022: social ba ie s ................................. 31
Table 4.10 Resul s o OLS models, SA le el, 2016 and 2022: heal h ba ie s ............................... 32
Table 4.11 Tes ing o s a is ical di e ences be ween 2016 and 2022: economic ba ie s ........... 35
Table 4.12 Tes ing o s a is ical di e ences be ween 2016 and 2022: social ba ie s ................. 36
Table 4.13 Tes ing o s a is ical di e ences be ween 2016 and 2022: heal h ba ie s ................ 37
Table 4.14 Resul s o OLS speci ica ion a ying he e e ence case o dep i a ion,
2016 and 2022, SA Le el. ............................................................................................. 39
Table 4.15 Resul s o p opensi y sco e ma ching models, SA le el, 2022, all ba ie s ................. 41
Table 4.16 Di e ence-in-di e ences in e ac ion and OLS coe icien change compa a o s ........ 42
LIST OF FIGURES
Figu e 3.1 Six-way u ban- u al a ea classi ica ion ........................................................................ 14
Figu e 3.2 Six-way u ban- u al classi ica ion using Census 2016 ................................................. 15
Figu e A.1 Composi ion o he Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index ........................................... 50
Execu i e summa y |
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Social inclusion is an inc easingly impo an concep in policymaking, emphasising
a mo e holis ic measu e o well-being beyond income and po e y indica o s. The
Eu opean Union de ines social inclusion as ensu ing ci izens ha e he oppo uni ies
and esou ces necessa y o pa icipa e ully in economic, social, and cul u al li e.
This concep is cen al o Eu opean and I ish policy.
This s udy examines how po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland ha e
e ol ed o e ime and space, using Census 2016 and 2022 da a. Despi e I eland’s
s ong economic pe o mance, subs an ial inequali ies emain, pa icula ly o
people wi h disabili ies and lone pa en s. Geog aphic concen a ions o social
disad an age a e e iden , wi h ba ie s o inclusion ha ing been ound o be place
dependen . This s udy ocuses on nume ous po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion:
Unemploymen , economic inac i i y, low educa ional a ainmen , lone
pa en hood, being a ca e , e hnic mino i y s a us, disabili y s a us and poo heal h.
The majo i y, bu no all, o hese ba ie s dec ease be ween 2016 and 2022. We
ind declines in he p e alence o unemploymen , lone pa en hood, and low
educa ional a ainmen a he a ea le el; his esul s in a deg ee o con e gence
be ween mo e and less disad an aged a eas. Howe e , we see inc eases in poo
heal h and disabili y, pe haps no su p ising gi en he COVID-19 pandemic. And we
also see highe sha es o e hnic mino i ies.
Examining he p e alence o po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion a he spa ial le el
also inds no able change be ween 2016 and 2022. Declines in unemploymen
we e mos p onounced in u al a eas and ‘independen u ban owns’. This is
pa icula ly in e es ing gi en p e ious indings by Whelan e al. (2024) ha hose
owns which end o be u he om ci ies a e mo e likely o lack in economic
oppo uni ies. While economic inac i i y was s able be ween he wo ime pe iods,
i did inc ease in ‘independen u ban owns’. Low educa ion le els dec eased
ac oss all a ea ypes. The sha e o e hnic mino i ies inc eased in all a eas, wi h he
la ges inc eases in ci ies and u al a eas wi h high u ban in luence.
I is wo h no ing ha hese cha ac e is ics and a ibu es do no necessa ily mean
an indi idual is socially excluded bu hey do inc ease he likelihood o no being
able o ully pa icipa e in socie y. These g oups a e also no homogeneous bu
display conside able di e ences be ween hem which will impac how hey
in e ac wi h socie y. Fu he mo e, while hese a ibu es may inc ease he
likelihood o being socially excluded in I eland, hese g oups also b ing bene i s o
he economy and socie y e.g. heal hca e p o ision p o ided by ca e s, he inc ease
in he wo king age popula ion due o inwa ds mig a ion.
i | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
The decline in economic ba ie s sugges s posi i e impac s om mac oeconomic
changes and go e nmen policies, al hough his is in ligh o highe cos s o li ing,
and we canno accoun o job quali y. The inc ease in heal h ba ie s indica es a
need o imp o ed heal hca e planning and esou ce alloca ion. The s udy
unde sco es he impo ance o unde s anding he dynamics o po en ial ba ie s
o social inclusion o e ime. While some ba ie s ha e dec eased, o he s ha e
inc eased, e lec ing he complex in e play o economic, social, and heal h ac o s.
While ecen policy changes and mac oeconomic condi ions may ha e suppo ed
hese imp o emen s in some social inclusion ba ie s, hei esilience in he ace o
u u e challenges is unce ain. Policymake s should con inue o ocus on c ea ing
a ully inclusi e socie y. A p esen , conce ns a ound he long- e m heal h impac s
o COVID-19 a e impo an pa icula ly conside ing an ageing popula ion. While
lowe p opo ionally in ela i e e ms compa ed o he o he ba ie s examined,
he p opo ion o ca e s is also impo an as his will ha e impac s o he labou
ma ke , social secu i y eceip as well as indi iduals’ well-being. Fu he esea ch
on he quali y o wo k and who has mo ed in o wo k and why would also be
insigh ul.
Li e a u e and policy con ex | 7
highe in ec ion a es han mo e a luen a eas h oughou he pandemic pe iod
examined. In an ea lie pape , Whelan e al. (2023) also e ealed di e en ial
economic ou comes be ween dep i ed and a luen communi ies because o he
COVID-19 pandemic. By examining he up ake o he Pandemic Unemploymen
Paymen (PUP),6 he au ho s ound ha mo e disad an aged communi ies we e
mo e likely o expe ience disp opo iona ely high a es o pandemic-induced
unemploymen ela i e o mo e well-o communi ies. Disad an aged a eas
he e o e expe ienced mo e ola ili y in employmen and mo e dep i ed a eas
we e mo e suscep ible o changes in go e nmen es ic ions; employmen
dis up ion in dep i ed a eas was g ea e han was he case in mo e a luen a eas
when es ic ions we e imposed, and ell as e when es ic ions we e eased. I is
possible ha hese disp opo iona e economic and heal h impac s on dep i ed
communi ies du ing he pandemic may also ha e been obse ed wi h espec o
ba ie s o inclusion.
Some mo e ecen e idence sugges s ha speci ic subg oups ( ha expe ience
ba ie s o social inclusion) expe ienced disp opo iona e ad e se e ec s o he
pandemic, hough he e idence base o his is limi ed. Using he Su ey on Income
and Li ing Condi ions (SILC), Roan ee e al. (2024) p o ide desc ip i e e idence
ha lone pa en s expe ienced a sha pe decline in li e sa is ac ion h oughou he
pandemic when compa ed o o he g oups. Fu he mo e, lone pa en s ha e
consis en ly had he lowes le els o li e sa is ac ion when compa ed o o he
household ypes since he ea ly 2010s. Complemen a y esea ch o his comes
om By ne and Sassi (2023), who shed u he ligh on he expe iences o lone
pa en s, speci ically hose li ing in he p i a e en al sec o ,7 h oughou he
pandemic. In a se ies o in e iews, he au ho s ind ha lone pa en s we e
pa icula ly conce ned abou long- e m esiden ial secu i y, despi e he
in oduc ion o an e ic ion ban in Ma ch 2020. This was due in la ge pa o hei
wan ing hei child en o g ow up in a secu e en i onmen . Fu he mo e, some
lone pa en s ou lined ha he subs anda d quali y o en al housing was b ough
o he o e du ing es ic ions on physical dis ancing, due o mo e ime being spen
a home.
McHugh and Walsh (2024) shed ligh on he in e play be ween he pandemic,
emo e wo king policies, gende and ca e s’ men al heal h. The pape unco e s
se e al indings. Fi s , he au ho s epo ed a s iking gap in men al heal h s a us
be ween ca e s and non-ca e s, wi h ca e s being a mo e likely o epo poo
men al heal h. The au ho s also ound a subs an ial gende gap in wo sening
men al heal h o bo h ca e s and non-ca e s. B oadly, women we e mo e likely
6 The PUP is I eland’s p incipal wel a e paymen affo ded o hose whose employmen was dis up ed due o he public
heal h es ic ions imposed h oughou he COVID-19 pandemic.
7 I is wo h no ing ha lone pa en amilies a e a mo e likely o eside in p i a e en al accommoda ion han o he
amilies (Hea n and Mu phy, 2017; Russell and Maî e, 2024).

8 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
han men o epo poo e men al heal h since he s a o he pandemic (Sil e io,
2025). Howe e , his gende di e ence was h ee imes as la ge among ca e s
ela i e o non-ca e s. Valliè es e al. (2022) come o a simila conclusion o I ish
adul s.
Much o he exis ing I ish esea ch examines he ou comes o disad an aged
g oups du ing he pandemic. Compa a i ely less esea ch has ocused on
compa ing bo h he incidence and ou comes o hese g oups p e- and pos -
pandemic. One excep ion o his is a ecen epo by Alami e al. (2024), who
examined di e en ial labou ma ke impac s o he pandemic on hose wi h
disabili ies and lone pa en s using Labou Fo ce Su ey (LFS) da a. Gene ally, he
I ish labou ma ke expe ienced a s ong eco e y pe iod pos -pandemic, wi h li le
o no di e en ial impac s be ween speci ic subg oups o he popula ion, albei wi h
he ca ea ha he e a e s a k di e ences p e-pandemic (e.g. lowe labou o ce
pa icipa ion a es amongs hose wi h disabili ies, lone pa en s).
2.3 INTERNATIONAL EVIDENCE
In e na ional e idence documen ing he ou comes o subg oups o he popula ion
ha expe ience po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion du ing he pandemic is a ied.
B own and Ciciu kai e (2023) p o ide e idence o di e en ial men al heal h and
employmen ou comes be ween hose wi h disabili ies and hose wi hou in he
Uni ed S a es du ing he pandemic. Speci ically, he au ho s highligh he ole o
disc imina ion and p eca ious employmen in p edic ing psychological dis ess
among hose wi h disabili ies, inding an ele a ed likelihood o expe iencing
dis ess among hose wi h disabili ies ela i e o hose cu en ly wi hou .
Addi ional e idence on employmen ou comes (Ma o o e al., 2021), and men al
heal h (Ciciu kai e e al., 2022) u he suppo e idence o a di ide in employmen
ou comes on he g ounds o disabili y due o he pandemic.
Much o he in e na ional esea ch ega ding lone pa en hood du ing he
COVID-19 pandemic ocuses on he case o single mo he s. B oadly, he pandemic
led o he closu e o o mal childca e se ices and he in oduc ion o physical
dis ancing es ic ions. In many cases, pa en s could no ely on o mal childca e
o in o mal childca e (i.e. ia amily o iends) due o public heal h es ic ions.
This le many pa en s wi h an ele a ed ca e bu den. The ele a ed ca e bu den
dis up ed many single mo he s’ abili y o pa icipa e in bo h paid wo k (Radey e
al., 2022; Wakai e al., 2023; Salin e al., 2023) and educa ion (T o e , 2023). Salin
e al. (2024) conduc a su ey o e alua e adequacy o esou ces, employmen and
policy esponses o single mo he s in Finland du ing he pandemic. The au ho s
ind ha he added p essu es o lockdowns led o single mo he s expe iencing
subs an ial ime ba ie s o employmen (i.e. due o emo e schooling, he absence
Li e a u e and policy con ex | 9
o o mal childca e and he loss o suppo ne wo ks due o physical dis ancing
es ic ions).
While ela i ely ew s udies examine how he COVID-19 pandemic migh ha e
impac ed he p e alence o ca e s, he li e a u e on he emo ional and
psychological e ec s is mo e plen i ul (see Sousa e al., 2022; Ligh oo e al., 2021;
Libe a i e al., 2021 o examples). In a sys ema ic e iew o he li e a u e, Bailey
e al. (2022) show ha hose engaged in in o mal ca e expe ienced signi ican
emo ional and men al dis ess h oughou lockdowns in a ange o coun ies.
Speci ically, he au ho s e eal a pa e n o ca e s ci ing conce ns a ound he
p o ision o heal hca e, ambiguous go e nmen messaging conce ning physical
dis ancing policies, he decline o hei social ou le s and he acu e physical
ulne abili y o hose in hei ca e.
Tha hose who ace po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion expe ienced
disp opo iona e impac s as a esul o he COVID-19 pandemic ein o ces he need
o be e unde s and he p e alence and he spa ial dis ibu ion o ba ie s o
inclusion ac oss I eland in ecen yea s.
10 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
CHAPTER 3
Da a and me hods
3.1 DATA
The da a used he ein a e p ima ily om he I ish Censuses o 2016 and 2022.
These allow us o examine he p esence o ba ie s o social inclusion amongs he
en i e I ish popula ion and allow o compa abili y o e ime. The Censuses o
I eland collec da a on a wide ange o pe sonal and sociodemog aphic
cha ac e is ics as well as labou ma ke and educa ion in o ma ion, p esence o
disabili y and heal h s a us, as well as in o ma ion a he household le el such as
household size, occupancy ype and access o ca s/in e ne e c. The Census
in o ma ion is collec ed using pape o ms sen o e e y household in I eland e e y
i e yea s. Howe e , he 2021 Census was delayed due o he COVID-19 pandemic
and became he 2022 Census.
The da a collec ed con ain a Small A ea (SA) le el indica o o which he e a e
18,641 in I eland in 2016 and 18,919 in 2022. This is ou p ima y le el o analysis.
Small a eas ha e been used since 2011 and a e he lowes le el o geog aphy used
o da a pu poses, ypically con aining be ween 50 and 200 households. Gi en hey
a e c ea ed based on popula ion size and dis ibu ion hey a e ed awn wi h each
new Census, hence he inc ease in he numbe o SAs be ween 2016 and 2022. As
is o be expec ed, his causes some inconsis encies examining da a a his le el o e
ime.
We include Census da a as con ols in ou econome ic modelling o accoun o
di e ences be ween a eas. We u ilise in o ma ion on he a ea-le el sex
composi ion, he age s uc u e ( hose aged 18 and unde and hose 65 plus), he
sha e o he popula ion who a e e hnic mino i y g oups ( o he pu poses o his
s udy we conside anyone no Whi e I ish o be an e hnic mino i y), and he sha e
o people in poo heal h. Fo hose in poo heal h, i is hose who epo as ha ing
ei he ‘ e y bad’ o ‘bad’ heal h in he Census.
3.1.1 Ba ie s o social inclusion examined
The Census da ase s a e used o collec all he ba ie s examined. The ba ie s
examined a e based on he li e a u e on social inclusion (e.g. Whelan e al., 2024),
Pobal’s 12 a ge g oups o he Social Inclusion and Communi y Ac i a ion
P og amme8 and he da a which a e a ailable. Based on hese conside a ions and
8 12 p e-defined a ge g oups ha e been se o SICAP. These ha e been selec ed based on he socioeconomic con ex ,
he le el o need in socie y, and go e nmen p io i ies. 1) People li ing in disad an aged communi ies; 2) People
Da a and me hods | 11
o he pu poses o his s udy we he e o e examine a ea-le el a es o
unemploymen , economic inac i i y, lone pa en amilies, e hnic mino i ies, low
educa ional a ainmen ,9 being a ca e , being in poo heal h o ha ing a disabili y.
We no e ha hese a e po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion and ha an indi idual
ha aces any o hese po en ial ba ie s, o a combina ion o hese ba ie s, is no
necessa ily socially excluded bu is a isk o o mo e likely o be excluded han hei
pee s.
Fo he pu pose o his s udy, e hnic mino i y s a us is measu ed as anyone who
does no epo as ‘Whi e I ish’10 ( he mos common e hnici y epo ed in he I ish
Census). This de ini ional app oach means we cap u e a ange o e hnici ies; ‘o he
e hnici y’ in his ins ance includes membe s o he I ish T a elle communi y. While
he e is conside able he e ogenei y wi hin his g oup, his app oach allows us o
pick up hose who a e di e en in some way om he majo i y popula ion al hough
his may be o di e en easons (e.g. due o hei ace, language abili y, accen
e c). I is wo h no ing howe e ha while mino i y s a us can be a po en ial ba ie
o inclusion i is no necessa ily he case o all mig an s ha hey a e socially
excluded. In I eland, he mig an popula ion ha e highe educa ional a ainmen
and a highe employmen a e han he I ish-bo n popula ion (McGinni y e al.,
2025). The highe educa ional a ainmen is pa icula ly no able gi en I eland has
high educa ion le els (Smy h e al., 2022). The e has been p og ess in ecen yea s
in e ms o he in eg a ion o some g oups who p e iously did no a e so well in
I eland, in pa icula mig an s om A ica (McGinni y e al., 2025). Issues emain
howe e wi h access o English language p o ision and, no su p isingly, access o
housing. Conce ns also emain gi en he inc eased salience o immig a ion and,
al hough o e all a i udes owa ds mig an s emain posi i e, he e has been a
sligh downwa d end in ecen yea s (Lau ence e al., 2024). The mig an
popula ion in I eland plays a signi ican ole in suppo ing he labou o ce
pa icipa ion a e (and he e o e economic g ow h), gi en he mig an popula ion
is on a e age younge han he I ish-bo n popula ion (Depa men o Finance,
2024).
I is wo h no ing ha while disabili y is seen in he li e a u e as a po en ial ba ie
o inclusion, heal h is no seen as an equi alen ba ie . Howe e , heal h is used
he e as an addi ional p oxy measu e, as he ele an ques ion o disabili y in he
Census changes sligh ly be ween he 2016 and 2022 Censuses. We use wo heal h
measu es: i s ly, hose who epo as being in e y bad heal h and, secondly, hose
impac ed by educa ional disad an age; 3) People li ing in jobless households o households whe e he p ima y income
sou ce is low-paid and/o p eca ious; 4) People who a e long- e m unemployed; 5) People wi h a c iminal his o y; 6)
Re ugees; 7) In e na ional P o ec ion Applican s; 8) Disabled People/People wi h Disabili ies; 9) Heads o One-pa en
Families; 10) T a elle s; 11) Roma; 12) Island esiden s (Pobal, 2024b).
9 Defined as hose wi h no o mal educa ion o a mos a p ima y le el o educa ion.
10 The op ions o e hnici y in he Census a e ‘Whi e I ish’, ‘Whi e I ish T a elle ’, ‘O he Whi e’, ‘Black o Black I ish’, ‘Asian
o Asian I ish’, ‘O he ’, ‘No S a ed’.
12 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
who epo as being in e y bad heal h as well as hose in bad heal h. The o me
me hod allows us o collec hose who a e sickes , and i is likely ha gi en hey
ha e he wo s le els o heal h hey may also be impac ed in hei day- o-day li e
as a esul . Howe e , he g oup ha epo being in e y bad heal h is ela i ely
small, so we also u ilise a b oade measu e o poo heal h.
Wi h ega ds he disabili y measu e, in 2016 and 2022 he Census asks:
do you ha e any o he ollowing long-las ing condi ions o difficul ies:
blindness o a se ious ision impai men , dea ness o a se ious hea ing
impai men , a difficul y wi h basic physical ac i i ies, an in ellec ual
disabili y, a difficul y wi h lea ning, emembe ing o concen a ing, a
psychological o emo ional condi ion, a difficul y wi h pain, b ea hing, o any
o he ch onic illness o condi ion?
While he ques ion i sel emains consis en ac oss Census wa es, he esponses
di e . In 2016, he possible esponses a e ‘Yes’ o ‘No’ compa ed o ‘Yes, o a g ea
ex en ’, ‘Yes, o some ex en ’, o ‘No’ in 2022. Fo he 2022 da a, we combine he
wo posi i e esponses o compa e o he ‘Yes’ esponses in 2016. Howe e , gi en
people may answe hese di e en ly based on he choices a ailable o hem, we
supplemen wi h addi ional da a on heal h o see i he pa e ns a e consis en o
whe he changes may be e lec i e o di e ences in possible esponses.
Speci ically, he e is a s ong isk ha indi iduals epo ing some disabili y in he
2022 Census will ha e answe ed ‘No’ in he 2016 da a, poin ing o a highe
incidence in 2022 as a di ec esul o he change in he ques ions esponse
ca ego ies.
Gi en we use an a ea-le el da ase , i is impossible o accoun o compounding
disad an age amongs hose who may ace nume ous po en ial ba ie s o social
inclusion which is a ca ea o his s udy.
3.1.2 Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index
We a e in e es ed in whe he he incidence o po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion
ha e changed o e ime, wi h an emphasis on he ex en o which dep i ed a eas
and a luen a eas may ha e expe ienced any change di e en ly. The Pobal Haase
P a schke (HP) Rela i e Dep i a ion Index is used o accoun o di e ing le els o
a ea-le el dep i a ion. The Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index is a composi e
measu e gene a ed using he I ish Census da a wi h a iew o p o iding an up- o-
da e analysis o he geog aphic dis ibu ion o dep i a ion ac oss I eland.11 The
measu e is based on h ee key ac o s: demog aphic p o ile, social class
11 Fo mo e in o on he Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index see: h ps://www.pobal.ie/app/uploads/2018/06/The-2016-
Pobal-HP-Dep i a ion-Index-In oduc ion-07.pd .

Da a and me hods | 13
composi ion, and he labou ma ke si ua ion o an a ea. Va ious Census a iables
om each o hese dimensions a e used in he p oduc ion o he index. Figu e A.1
in he appendix shows a basic model o he index.
The 2016 Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index o small a eas anges om -39.3
(mos dep i ed) o 40.5 (mos a luen ). Fo 2022, gi en he Pobal HP Rela i e
Dep i a ion Index is e-gene a ed using he la es Census da a, i anges be ween
-56.1 and 29.4. As he Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index is a con inuous a iable,
we ope a ionalise i he e using ca ego ies which ha e been used in p e ious
esea ch.12 P e ious esea ch ound he ela ionship wi h dep i a ion no o be
linea ; he e o e using a con inuous a iable is no deemed app op ia e (Whelan
e al., 2024). We ca ego ise all small a eas in o one o ou g oups: he mos
dep i ed, ma ginally below a e age, ma ginally abo e a e age and he mos
a luen .
3.1.3 Six-way u ban- u al classi ica ion
Using small a ea-le el indica o s, we ma ch o he CSO six-way u ban- u al
classi ica ion o a eas. This six-way classi ica ion sys em is de ailed in Figu e 3.1 o
2016. As i is based on popula ion i also changes be ween 2016 and 2022,13
al hough he me hodology and de ini ions emain consis en . The de elopmen o
he six-way classi ica ion o a eas is based on bes p ac ice used elsewhe e (New
Zealand and Canada o example) and is d i en by he ac ha a eas ega dless o
whe he hey a e u al o u ban will no be he e ogenous (CSO, 2019). Dis ance o
se ices, employmen oppo uni ies and ameni ies will ha e signi ican impac s on
s anda ds o li ing o hose in u al a eas and, by using employmen in mo e u ban
a eas as a p oxy o his, he six-way classi ica ion allows some o hese di e ences
o be conside ed. Whelan e al. (2024) a gue ha he six-way classi ica ion should
be used, when possible, o esea ch as hei indings di e conside ably om wha
hey ound when using a simple u ban- u al bina y.
12 This ca ego isa ion has been u ilised in nume ous o he ele an s udies (e.g. Whelan e al., 2024; De lin e al., 2024).
13 h ps://www.cso.ie/en/census/census2022/census2022smalla eapopula ions a is ics/.
14 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
FIGURE 3.1 SIX-WAY URBAN-RURAL AREA CLASSIFICATION
Type Defini ion
U ban
a eas
Ci ies Town/se lemen s wi h popula ions g ea e han 60,000 - using Census 2016
defini ions/b eakdowns.
Sa elli e u ban
owns
Town/se lemen s wi h popula ions be ween 1,500 and 49,999, whe e 20 pe cen o mo e
o he usually esiden employed popula ion's wo kplace add ess is in 'Ci ies'.
Independen
u ban owns
Towns/se lemen s wi h popula ions be ween 1,500 and 49,999, whe e less han 20 pe
cen o he usually esiden employed popula ion's wo kplace add ess is in 'Ci ies'.
Ru al
a eas
Ru al A eas wi h
high u ban
influence
Ru al a eas ( hemsel es defined as ha ing an a ea ype wi h a popula ion less han 1,500
pe sons, as pe Census 2016) a e alloca ed o one o h ee sub-ca ego ies, based on hei
dependence on u ban a eas. Again, employmen loca ion is he defining a iable. The
alloca ion is based on a weigh ed pe cen age o esiden employed adul s o a u al Small
A ea who wo k in he h ee s anda d ca ego ies o u ban a ea ( o simplici y he
me hodology uses main, seconda y and mino u ban a eas). The pe cen ages wo king in
each u ban a ea we e weigh ed h ough he use o mul iplie s. The mul iplie s allowed o
he inc easing u banisa ion o diffe en sized u ban a eas. Fo example, he pe cen age o
u al people wo king in a main u ban a ea had double he impac o he u ban cen e has
on i s su ounding a eas. The adop ed weigh o : Main U ban a eas is 2; Sa elli e u ban
communi ies is 1.5; Independen u ban communi ies is 1. The weigh ed pe cen age is
di ided in o e ials o assign one o he h ee u al b eakdowns.
Ru al a eas wi h
mode a e u ban
influence
As abo e
Highly u al/
emo e a eas As abo e
Sou ce: CSO, see h ps://www.cso.ie/en/ eleasesandpublica ions/ep/p-u li/u banand u alli eini eland2019/in oduc ion/.
Figu e 3.2 is a map showing he six-way u ban- u al classi ica ion ac oss I eland a
he SA le el. The ci ies o Dublin, Co k, Galway, Lime ick and Wa e o d a e clea
and a e su ounded by u al a eas wi h high u ban in luence in e spe sed wi h
sa elli e u ban owns (o wha migh be known as commu e owns). Ou side o
hese hin e lands a e u al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence as well as highly
u al/ emo e a eas. Highly u al and emo e a eas a e pa icula ly common in
coun ies Donegal, Lei im, Sligo, Galway, and Ke y. Independen u ban owns a e
hen in e spe sed h oughou hese mos u al a eas and in pa icula a e loca ed
in he bo de egion and in a spine up he middle o he coun y.
Da a and me hods | 15
FIGURE 3.2 SIX-WAY URBAN-RURAL CLASSIFICATION USING CENSUS 2016
Sou ce – CSO I eland.
3.1.4 Homelessness o housing exclusion
We ecognise ha homelessness and housing dis ess o housing exclusion a e an
impo an ba ie o ull social pa icipa ion. This is pa icula ly impo an gi en he
ongoing housing c isis in I eland. Howe e , homelessness and housing dis ess a e
no examined in de ail in his wo k, as hey a e ha d o measu e pa icula ly a a
spa ially disagg ega ed le el. Fo examining homelessness he e a e ob ious issues
wi h using Census da a. Census da a a e based on whe e Census esponden s a e
s aying on Census nigh e.g. hose who a e s aying in p i a e eme gency
accommoda ion, suppo ed empo a y accommoda ion o amily hub
accommoda ion. The me hodology used by he Cen al S a is ics O ice (CSO) o
iden i y homeless indi iduals has e ol ed o e ime and has been c ea ed in
16 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
conjunc ion wi h he Census Homeless Me hodology Liaison G oup.14 Howe e , i
should be no ed ha his me hodology may be impe ec o de ec ing housing
dis ess and is unlikely o pick up hose who a e homeless and no in some o m o
accommoda ion (e.g. ough sleepe s). Fu he mo e, he da a a e no a ailable a a
spa ially disagg ega ed le el which would be necessa y o he analysis which is
conduc ed in his wo k. On ha basis we do no examine homelessness o housing
dis ess bu ecognise ha his is a limi a ion o his wo k.
3.2 METHODOLOGY
3.2.1 Desc ip i e analysis
We begin wi h an ex ensi e desc ip i e exe cise o examine he p e alence o
po en ial ba ie s o social inclusion, a he na ional le el by dep i a ion ca ego ies,
and hen using he six-way u ban- u al classi ica ion in 2016 and 2022. We hen
look a how he a e ages change based on dep i a ion ca ego ies and based on
a ea ype using he six-way classi ica ion.
3.2.2 Econome ic analysis
We hen go on o examine he de e minan s o ba ie s o social inclusion a he
a ea le el in 2016 and 2022. This ollows a simila me hodology o wha is used in
Whelan e al. (2024), albei i is a he indi idual le el. Gi en ou ou come a iables
( he po en ial ba ie s o inclusion) a e con inuous a iables as hey a e a he a ea-
le el we begin by using OLS eg essions. These models ake he o m:
Ba ie i =β0 + β1Dep i a ioni + β2A ea Typei + β3Con olsi +ϵi (1)
whe e he ou come a iable is he p opo ion o he popula ion in each SA who
expe ience ha po en ial ba ie o inclusion. The main a iables o in e es hen
a e dep i a ion in he ou ca ego ies as discussed abo e and he six-way u ban-
u al classi ica ion. O he a ea-le el ac o s a e hen con olled o in he model.
These a e: sha e o emales in an a ea; age s uc u e o an a ea (sha e o young
people and sha e o olde people); sha e o e hnic mino i ies in a small a ea; and
p opo ion o hose in poo heal h in an a ea. The con ols change sligh ly
depending on he ou come in ques ion; o example when he ba ie being
examined is poo heal h, heal h is no included as a con ol a iable.
As he e could be po en ial collinea i y be ween dep i a ion and o he con ols
which also in luence he likelihood o ba ie s being expe ienced, his may lead o
con oundedness and he e o e biased es ima es on he a iables o in e es . To
14 Fo mo e in o ma ion on how homelessness is cap u ed in he Census see
h ps://www.cso.ie/en/ eleasesandpublica ions/ep/p-cpp6/censuso popula ion2022p ofile6-
homelessness/backg oundno es/.
Resul s | 23
educa ion o e he COVID-19 pe iod a e e lec i e o long- e m policy changes in
I eland. Howe e spa ial inequali ies do emain, wi h highe p e alence o low
educa ional a ainmen ound in he mos u al/ emo e a eas, independen u ban
owns, and u al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence.
TABLE 4.5 PREVALENCE OF BARRIERS TO SOCIAL INCLUSION BY LEVEL OF URBANISATION:
ECONOMIC BARRIERS, 2016 AND 2022
2016 2022
Change
PP % di e ence
Unemploymen
Ci ies
7.0
4.5
-2.5
-36%
Sa elli e u ban owns
6.6
4.1
-2.5
-38%
Independen u ban owns
10.6
5.9
-4.7
-44%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
4.9
2.9
-2.0
-41%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence
6.0
3.3
-2.7
-45%
Highly u al/ emo e 7.8 4.2 -3.6 -46%
Economic inac i i y
Ci ies
37.1
36.9
-0.2
-1%
Sa elli e u ban owns
34.4
35.4
1.0
3%
Independen u ban owns
39.0
40.4
1.4
4%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
38.2
38.6
0.4
1%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence
40.4
40.5
0.1
0%
Ru al/ emo e 44.1 44.5 0.4 1%
Low educa ion
Ci ies
9.4
7.5
-1.9
-20%
Sa elli e u ban owns
7.4
5.9
-1.5
-20%
Independen u ban owns
12.2
9.9
-2.3
-19%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
9.8
7.7
-2.1
-21%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence 13.2 10.1 -3.1 -23%
Ru al/ emo e
17.2
13.2
-4.0
-23%
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
Table 4.6 displays he p opo ions o indi iduals in a eas who ace possible ba ie s
o inclusion which a e mo e social in na u e. The sha e o e hnic mino i ies
inc eased in all le els o u banisa ion, albei wi h inc eases la ges in mo e u ban
a eas. This is an in e es ing inding as, while mig an s o en mo e o a eas whe e
economic oppo uni ies a e g ea e and which a e also associa ed wi h g ea e
public se ices and ameni ies and exis ing mig an ne wo ks and suppo se ices
(Cen e o Ci ies, 2015), his has no been he case in I eland wi h mig an
popula ions ai ly equally dis ibu ed ac oss he coun y (Fahey, 2019). Ci ies and
mo e u ban a eas also end o ha e mo e libe al iewpoin s and be mo e accep ing
o mig an s (Luca e al., 2024).

24 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
In e ms o lone pa en households, hese ell sligh ly below he wo census pe iods
al hough he magni ude o he di e ence is small o all a eas. The p opo ion o
ca e s inc eased o all le els o u banisa ion om 2016 o 2022. Mo e u al a eas
see highe p opo ions o ca e s han u ban a eas, al hough his may be e lec i e
o he age s uc u e o u al a eas ela i e o u ban a eas, o ep esen a i e o
lowe le els o o mal heal h and social ca e suppo in hese a eas which he e o e
necessi a es highe le els o amily ca e. Se en pe cen o he popula ion a e
ca e s in u al/ emo e a eas compa ed o 5.3 pe cen in ci ies and sa elli e u ban
owns.
TABLE 4.6 PREVALENCE OF BARRIERS TO SOCIAL INCLUSION BY LEVEL OF URBANISATION:
SOCIAL BARRIERS, 2016 AND 2022
2016 2022
Change
PP
% di e ence
E hnic mino i y s a us
Ci ies
8.5
11.9
3.4
40%
Sa elli e u ban owns 6.2 8.4 2.2 35%
Independen u ban owns
6.5
9
2.5
38%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
1.5
2.1
0.6
40%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence
1.1
1.5
0.4
36%
Highly u al/ emo e
1.4
1.7
0.3
21%
Lone pa en households
Ci ies
11.9
11.7
-0.2
-2%
Sa elli e u ban owns 12.2 12.2 0.0 0%
Independen u ban owns
13.8
13.8
0.0
0%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
8.9
8.6
-0.3
-3%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence
9.8
9.4
-0.4
-4%
Ru al/ emo e
10.7
9.9
-0.8
-8%
Ca e s
Ci ies
3.8
5.3
1.5
39%
Sa elli e u ban owns 3.6 5.3 1.7 47%
Independen u ban owns
3.9
5.5
1.6
41%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
4.5
6.6
2.1
47%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence
4.6
6.7
2.1
46%
Highly u al/ emo e
5.0
7.0
2.0
40%
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
In Table 4.7, we p esen he p opo ions o indi iduals acing ba ie s which a e
heal h- ela ed by le el o u banisa ion. The sha e o indi iduals wi h disabili ies has
inc eased subs an ially be ween 2016 and 2022. Howe e , as discussed, his may
be pa ly due o he changes in he possible answe s in he 2022 Census. Be ween
2016 and 2022 he p opo ion who epo as disabled inc eased by a leas
8 pe cen age poin s ac oss all le els o u banisa ion, al hough p opo iona ely his
di e ed due o a ying le els o disabili y in 2016. Sa elli e u ban owns ha e seen
Resul s | 25
he la ges inc eases om 12.4 pe cen in 2016 o 20.9 pe cen in 2022, an
inc ease o 69 pe cen . The mos u al a eas saw he smalles inc eases
p opo ionally om 14.8 pe cen in 2016 o 22.9 pe cen in 2022, equi alen o a
ise o 55 pe cen . The a ea ypes ha s a ed wi h he lowes le els o disabili y
expe ienced he la ges inc eases.
To ge a g asp o whe he disabili y may ha e ma e ially inc eased o e he same
pe iod we also examine he sel - epo ed heal h ques ion om he Census. While
heal h and disabili y a e no p oxies o one ano he , we would expec hem o be
s ongly posi i ely co ela ed. The p e alence o poo heal h albei a much smalle
magni udes han disabili y inc eased be ween 2016 and 2022 in all a eas. While
he p e alence is low and he pe cen age changes a e low, he same canno be said
o he p opo ional change. In ci ies, e y bad sel - epo ed heal h p e alence
inc eased om 0.3 pe cen o 0.4 pe cen (bo h ounded), a change ha equa es
o a ise o 18 pe cen . Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence saw an inc ease o
27 pe cen o e he pe iod examined, while Sa elli e u ban owns expe ienced a
much lowe inc ease o 8 pe cen . When we combine bad and e y bad heal h, all
le els o u banisa ion see inc eases be ween 2016 and 2022. Howe e he
inc eases a e no as big when compa ed o wha we ha e seen o e y bad heal h
only. Bad/ e y bad heal h inc eased by be ween 7 pe cen and 17 pe cen ac oss
he a ea ypes. Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence saw he la ges inc eases
be ween 2016 and 2022 ega dless o wha sel - epo heal h measu e was used.
As was seen o disabili y, hese a eas which had he la ges inc eases had he
lowe baseline a es in 2016.
Disabili y and bo h measu es o sel - epo ed heal h all inc eased be ween 2016
and 2022. The p opo ions a e highes in he ‘independen u ban owns’ ega dless
o which measu e was used. In e es ingly, ci ies and u al/ emo e a eas ha e he
nex highes le els o disabili y and ill-heal h. Whelan e al. (2024) s ongly suppo
he impo ance o a mo e speci ic spa ial u ban/ u al classi ica ion a he han he
commonly used u ban/ u al dicho omy. These non-linea indings a ound he
p e alence o poo heal h a he six-way u ban- u al classi ica ion u he con i m
his inding.
Tha he p e alence o disabili y di e s o a high deg ee, which is likely o be in
pa d i en by he pandemic bu also pa ly by he change in he possible
esponses, is a inding in and o i sel . The e is a subs an ial in e na ional li e a u e
conce ning he measu emen o disabili y and he impo ance o he nuances wi h
speci ic ques ions and he possible answe s. The e is a consensus wi hin his
li e a u e ha inc easing he speci ici y o ques ions is key o ensu ing eliable
esponses (Bake e al., 2004). I may be ha he op ion o being disabled ‘a li le’
o ‘a lo ’ inc eases he likelihood o indi iduals o epo as disabled a he han a
26 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
disabili y dicho omy o ei he disabled o no . The o me wi h mo e de ailed
esponses is also mo e in line wi h he a ious disabili y measu emen me hods
which exis in su eys ac oss he globe (e.g. Washing on G oup measu es o
disabili y, Global Ac i i y Limi a ion Ins umen and o he s). Fu he mo e, when
measu ing disabili y he e a e always conce ns a ound jus i ica ion bias; ha is
when indi iduals a e mo e inclined o epo as disabled o jus i y o he beha iou
such as no pa icipa ing in he labou ma ke (Oguzoglu, 2012). Howe e , in saying
ha , he inc eases in disabili y a e la ge and alongside he inc eases in poo sel -
epo ed heal h i would sugges ha he disabili y a e changes a e in pa due o
he change in he possible esponses in he Census, bu also pa ly due o ac ual
changes in disabili y p e alence wi hin he I ish popula ion be ween 2016 and
2022.
TABLE 4.7 PREVALENCE OF BARRIERS TO SOCIAL INCLUSION BY LEVEL OF URBANISATION:
HEALTH BARRIERS, 2016 AND 2022
2016 2022
Change
PP
% di e ence
Pe sons wi h a disabili y
Ci ies 14.1 22.2 8.1 57%
Sa elli e u ban owns 12.4 20.9 8.5 69%
Independen u ban owns 15.8 24.3 8.5 54%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence 11.7 19.7 8.0 68%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence 12.8 20.9 8.1 63%
Ru al/ emo e 14.8 22.9 8.1 55%
Ve y bad heal h
Ci ies 0.3 0.4 0.1 18%
Sa elli e u ban owns 0.3 0.3 0.0 8%
Independen u ban owns 0.4 0.5 0.1 22%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence 0.2 0.3 0.1 27%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence 0.2 0.3 0.1 25%
Ru al/ emo e 0.3 0.4 0.1 23%
Bad/Ve y bad heal h
Ci ies 1.8 2.1 0.3 17%
Sa elli e u ban owns 1.4 1.6 0.2 14%
Independen u ban owns 2.2 2.5 0.3 14%
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence 1.2 1.4 0.2 17%
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence 1.4 1.5 0.1 7%
Ru al/ emo e 1.8 2.0 0.2 11%
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
Resul s | 27
4.2 ECONOMETRIC MODELLING
We go on o o mally model he de e minan s o he po en ial ba ie s o social
inclusion a he a ea le el. This is ully discussed in he Me hodology sec ion, bu
o b e i y we u ilise a se ies o OLS models whe eby he main a iables o in e es
a e dep i a ion ca ego y and u ban- u al a ea ype. These a e hen supplemen ed
wi h p opensi y sco e ma ching models o accoun o any obse able di e ences
be ween he a ious g oups. We con ol o age s uc u e and sex p o ile in all
models and hen o he con ols dependen on he ba ie being examined. Fo
example, we con ol o e hnici y in mos models bu no hose whe e he ou come
a iable is he sha e o esiden s in an a ea who epo as e hnic mino i ies, as his
would gene a e biased esul s due o mul icollinea i y. We con ol o he sha e o
a small a ea who epo as being in bad o wo se heal h in all models excep hose
o which heal h is he ou come a iable. This app oach is simila o wha is
unde aken in Whelan e al. (2024).
Table 4.8 displays he esul s o OLS models o he economic ba ie s. The
dependen a iables a e he p e alence a e o each ba ie a he small a ea le el.
No su p isingly, o all economic- ela ed ba ie s, he p e alence is highes in
a eas which a e mo e dep i ed, albei he magni udes di e conside ably. Fo
example, in 2016 in he mos dep i ed SAs, he unemploymen (economic
inac i i y) a e was app oxima ely 24 (7) pe cen age poin s highe han was he
case o he mos a luen SAs. The di e ence in e ms o unemploymen a e
be ween he mos dep i ed and mos a luen a eas a enua ed be ween 2016 and
2022, wi h he di e ence alling om 24 pe cen age poin s o 14 pe cen age
poin s. The same con e gence was no seen o he o he economic ba ie s. We
also see highe a es o unemploymen and economic inac i i y amongs ce ain
le els o u banisa ion, bu he magni udes o hese coe icien s a e o a much
smalle o de han is he case o dep i a ion.
In e es ingly, while unemploymen and inac i i y a e highes in independen u ban
owns, low le els o educa ion a e lowes in his g oup wi h highe le els being
ound in he mos u al a eas. A eas wi h highe sha es o e hnic mino i ies ha e
highe le els o unemploymen , lowe economic inac i i y and highe educa ional
a ainmen . A eas wi h highe sha es o people in poo heal h ha e highe le els o
all economic ba ie s, al hough he e a e di e ences in he changes o e ime. The
ela ionship be ween poo heal h and unemploymen ell be ween 2016 and 2022
(0.69 o 0.38), while i s eng hened be ween poo heal h and economic inac i i y
(0.30 o 0.54). This may sugges mo emen s om unemploymen o inac i i y o
hose wi h heal h condi ions. We es he signi ican o hese changes and discuss
hem u he in a la e sec ion.
28 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
In e ms o he social ba ie s (Table 4.9), consis en wi h he desc ip i es he
sha es o he popula ion who a e e hnic mino i ies (no Whi e I ish) a e highes in
he mos a luen SAs, al hough he e a e changes be ween 2016 and 2022 in e ms
o he ela ionship be ween dep i a ion and e hnic mino i y sha es. The
ela ionship be ween he mos dep i ed SAs and e hnic mino i y sha es alls
sligh ly be ween 2016 and 2022 (-4.8 o -4.4); we es his o s a is ical signi icance
la e . Rela i e o he mos u al a eas, all u ban a eas had highe sha es o e hnic
mino i y pe sons, while u al a eas wi h high u ban in luence and u al a eas wi h
mode a e u ban in luence had lowe sha es. A eas wi h highe p opo ions o
young people (unde 18) and olde people (mo e han 65 yea s), and a eas wi h
highe sha es o emales, had lowe p opo ions o e hnic mino i ies.
Lone pa en households a e mo e likely in mo e dep i ed a eas ela i e o he mos
a luen SAs by a subs an ial amoun . Mo e p ecisely, lone pa en a es we e
13 pe cen age poin s highe in he mos dep i ed SAs ela i e o he mos a luen
in 2016. This ela ionship was linea ac oss he dep i a ion ca ego ies wi h he
ma ginally below (abo e) a e age g oup o SAs ha ing lone pa en a es 7 (4)
pe cen age poin s highe han he mos a luen in 2016. The e was li le change
be ween 2016 and 2022. Lone pa en a es we e also highe in mo e u ban a eas
(as was he case in Whelan e al., 2024). A eas wi h highe sha es o emales and
highe sha es o young people also had highe a es o lone pa en households.
The e is also a posi i e ela ionship be ween poo heal h and he p e alence o
lone pa en hood. The esul s o 2016 and 2022 a e consis en o his ba ie .
The sha e o ca e s in 2016 was highes in he ma ginal g oups (0.35 o ma ginally
abo e a e age and 0.31 o ma ginally below a e age) ela i e o he mos a luen
SAs. The ela ionship be ween dep i a ion le els and he p e alence o ca ing oles
in 2022 di e ed om 2016 bu again s a is ical es ing o hese changes is key.
Desc ip i ely hough he mos dep i ed SAs in 2022 had he lowes le els o ca e s
wi hin hei a eas, while he ma ginally abo e a e age had he highes , albei we
should no e he magni udes a e small. The sha e o ca e s in an a ea based on le el
o u banisa ion is highes in he mos u al a eas ela i e o all o he a eas. No
su p isingly, a eas wi h mo e olde people and wi h mo e people in poo heal h
ha e highe sha es o ca e s. A eas wi h highe sha es o e hnic mino i ies ha e
lowe sha es o ca e s.
Table 4.10 p esen s he esul s o OLS models o he heal h ba ie s examined.
Poo heal h and disabili y a e all mo e likely in mo e dep i ed a eas al hough he
magni ude o he ela ionship a ies bu so does he p e alence. Disabili y
p e alence is 6 pe cen age poin s highe in bo h 2016 and 2022 in he mos
dep i ed SAs ela i e o he mos a luen SAs. The e is a linea ela ionship
be ween dep i a ion and disabili y p e alence. The same can be said o sel -
epo ed heal h. Disabili y and poo heal h a e also co ela ed wi h u banness.

Resul s | 29
A eas wi h highe sha es o emales and olde people (65+) had highe a es o
disabili y. No su p isingly, poo heal h is also posi i ely co ela ed wi h disabili y
p e alence. A eas wi h highe sha es o e hnic mino i y g oups had lowe
p e alence o disabili y. In e ms o poo heal h, he esul s a e somewha simila .
A eas wi h mo e olde people ha e highe a es o poo heal h, bu in e ms o sex
he e is no s a is ically signi ican ela ionship be ween sha e o emales and sha e
o indi iduals in poo heal h ( ega dless o which measu e is used). Again, he
ela ionships be ween he a iables and he ou come o poo heal h/disabili y
change be ween 2016 and 2022, and his is examined in g ea e de ail in he nex
sec ion.
30 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
TABLE 4.8 RESULTS OF OLS MODELS, SA LEVEL, 2016 AND 2022: ECONOMIC BARRIERS
Unemploymen
Inac i i y
Low Educa ion
2016
2022
2016
2022
2016
2022
Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index
Mos Dep i ed
23.77
***
13.63
***
6.98
***
6.93
***
15.31
***
11.98
***
Ma ginally below a e age 11.11 *** 6.54 *** 4.21 *** 3.89 *** 7.6 *** 5.71 ***
Ma ginally abo e a e age
4.86
***
3.02
***
2.56
***
2.46
***
3.06
***
2.12
***
Mos a luen
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
A ea Type
Ci ies
0.65
***
0.01
1.09
***
0.11
-2.05
***
-1.96
***
Sa elli e u ban owns
0.25
-0.02
0.03
-0.37
**
-2.91
***
-2.57
***
Independen u ban owns 2.49 *** 0.99 *** 0.55 *** 0.63 *** -2.99 *** -2.45 ***
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
-0.29
*
-0.3
***
-0.01
-0.37
**
-1.42
***
-1.34
***
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence
-0.58
***
-0.53
***
-0.3
-0.49
***
-0.65
***
-0.59
***
Ru al a eas/Remo e a eas
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
A ea-le el con ols
Sha e o …
Females
-0.04
***
0.03
***
0.13
***
0.24
***
-0.15
***
-0.12
***
Young people (<18) -0.07 *** -0.06 *** 0
0.09 *** -0.03 *** -0.03 ***
Olde people (65 plus)
-0.23
***
-0.13
***
0.68
***
0.67
***
0.15
***
0.09
***
E hnic mino i ies
0.08
***
0.07
***
-0.16
***
-0.09
***
-0.06
-0.05
***
Bad, e y bad heal h
0.69
***
0.38
***
0.3
***
0.54
***
0.76
***
0.67
***
Cons an
8.18
***
3.41
***
20.66
***
11.68
***
12.58
***
10.56
***
N
18,641
18,919
18,641
18,919
18,641
18,919
Pseudo R
2
0.71
0.65
0.63
0.66
0.7
0.68
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
No e: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Resul s | 31
TABLE 4.9 RESULTS OF OLS MODELS, SA LEVEL, 2016 AND 2022: SOCIAL BARRIERS
E hnic Mino i ies
Lone Pa en s
Ca e s
2016
2022
2016
2022
2016
2022
Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index
Mos Dep i ed
-4.79
***
-4.42
***
13.28
***
12.43
***
0.11
**
-0.4
***
Ma ginally below a e age -0.59 ** -0.41
7.15 *** 6.86 *** 0.31 *** 0.05
Ma ginally abo e a e age
0.13
-0.82
***
3.84
***
3.64
***
0.35
***
0.28
***
Mos a luen
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
A ea Type
Ci ies
5.07
***
7.23
***
3.79
***
2.97
***
-0.43
***
-0.55
***
Sa elli e u ban owns
4.08
***
5.14
***
2.4
***
2.33
***
-0.61
***
-0.72
***
Independen u ban owns 8.4 *** 9.6 *** 1.93 *** 1.72 *** -0.48 *** -0.44 ***
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence
-7.24
***
-6.5
***
-0.11
0.02
-0.35
***
-0.37
***
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence
-5.47
***
-5.23
***
-0.2
0.05
-0.28
***
-0.32
***
Ru al a eas/Remo e a eas
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
Re e ence
A ea-le el con ols
Sha e o …
Females
-0.31
***
-0.34
***
0.34
***
0.37
***
0.00
0.00
Young people (<18) -0.37 *** -0.43 *** 0.2 *** 0.21 *** 0.00
0.01 ***
Olde people (65 plus)
-0.92
***
-1.02
***
-0.2
***
-0.22
***
0.03
***
0.04
***
E hnic mino i ies
-0.03
***
-0.03
***
-0.03
***
-0.05
***
Bad, e y bad heal h
0.84
***
0.71
***
0.42
***
0.57
***
0.1
***
0.07
***
Cons an
50.63
***
58.08
***
-15.76
***
-16.48
***
4.4
***
6.08
***
N
18,641
18,919
18,641
18,919
18,641
18,919
Pseudo R
2
0.43
0.49
0.52
0.50
0.18
0.26
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
No e: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
32 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
TABLE 4.10 RESULTS OF OLS MODELS, SA LEVEL, 2016 AND 2022: HEALTH BARRIERS
People wi h disabili ies Ve y bad heal h Bad o wo se heal h
2016
2022
2016
2022
2016
2022
Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index
Mos Dep i ed 6.37 *** 5.78 *** 0.39 *** 0.5 *** 2.18 *** 2.58 ***
Ma ginally below a e age 3.55 *** 3.37 *** 0.2 *** 0.22 *** 1.11 *** 1.26 ***
Ma ginally abo e a e age 1.77 *** 1.65 *** 0.1 *** 0.1 *** 0.56 *** 0.62 ***
Mos a luen Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence
A ea Type
Ci ies 2.31 *** 1.84 *** 0.16 *** 0.11 *** 0.65 *** 0.61 ***
Sa elli e u ban owns 2.27 *** 2.44 *** 0.14 *** 0.07 *** 0.53 *** 0.52 ***
Independen u ban owns 2.05 *** 2.34 *** 0.11 *** 0.09 *** 0.52 *** 0.59 ***
Ru al a eas wi h high u ban in luence 1.18 *** 0.55 *** 0.1 *** 0.08 *** 0.36 *** 0.34 ***
Ru al a eas wi h mode a e u ban in luence 0.54 *** 0.33 *** 0.04 *** 0.03 ** 0.13 *** 0.13 ***
Ru al a eas/Remo e a eas Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence Re e ence
A ea-le el con ols
Sha e o …
Females 0.07 *** 0.18 *** 0
0
0
0
Young people (<18) -0.06 *** -0.15 *** 0 *** 0 *** -0.02 *** -0.03 ***
Olde people (65 plus) 0.21 *** 0.17 *** 0.01 *** 0.01 *** 0.04 *** 0.03 ***
E hnic mino i ies -0.02 *** -0.05 *** 0 *** 0 *** 0.01 *** 0.01 ***
Bad, e y bad heal h 1.46 *** 1.29 ***
Cons an 2.54 *** 7.87 *** -0.12 ** -0.02 0.07 0.56 ***
N
18,641
18,919
18,641
18,919
18,641
18,919
Pseudo R
2
0.66
0.59
0.09
0.13
0.3
0.35
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
No e: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Resul s | 39
TABLE 4.14 RESULTS OF OLS SPECIFICATION VARYING THE REFERENCE CASE FOR DEPRIVATION, 2016 AND 2022, SA LEVEL.
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
No e: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
2016
2022
Di e ence
2016
2022
Di e ence
2016
2022
Di e ence
Unemploymen
Inac i i y
Low Educa ion
Pobal HP Rela i e Dep i a ion Index
Mos dep i ed ela i e o Ma ginally below
a e age
12.58
*** 7.06
*** -5.52
*** 2.89
*** 3.19
*** 0.3
7.23
*** 5.82
*** -1.41
***
Mos dep i ed ela i e Ma ginally abo e
a e age
18.91
*** 10.50
*** -8.41
*** 4.78
*** 4.67
*** -0.11
12.05
*** 9.69
*** -2.36
***
Mos dep i ed ela i e o Mos a luen 23.77
*** 13.63
*** -10.14
*** 6.98
*** 6.93
*** -0.05
15.31
*** 11.98
*** -3.33
***
E hnic Mino i ies Lone Pa en s Ca e s
Mos dep i ed ela i e o Ma ginally below
a e age
-4.11
*** -3.79
*** 0.32
5.58
*** 5.27
*** -0.31
-0.14
*** -0.36
*** -0.22
***
Mos dep i ed ela i e Ma ginally abo e
a e age
-5.48
*** -3.75
*** 1.73
*** 9.70
*** 8.9 *** -0.80
*** -0.21
*** -0.63
*** -0.42
***
Mos dep i ed ela i e o Mos a luen -4.79
*** -4.42
*** 0.37
13.28
*** 12.43
*** -0.85
** 0.11
** -0.4 *** -0.51
***
People wi h disabili ies
Ve y bad heal h
Bad o wo se heal h
Mos dep i ed ela i e o Ma ginally below
a e age
2.74
*** 2.34
*** -0.40
** 0.17
*** 0.26
*** 0.09
*** 0.99
*** 1.21
*** 0.22
***
Mos dep i ed ela i e Ma ginally abo e
a e age
4.59
*** 4.24
*** -0.35
* 0.30
*** 0.40
*** 0.10
*** 1.66
*** 1.98
*** 0.32
***
Mos dep i ed ela i e o Mos a luen
6.37
***
5.78
***
-0.59
0.39
***
0.50
***
0.11
***
2.18
***
2.58
***
0.40
***

40 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
4.3 ROBUSTNESS CHECKS
Gi en ha OLS eg essions can be biased by collinea i y be ween a iables, we also
use p opensi y sco e ma ching (PSM) echniques on he 2022 Census da a o sol e
o his and o ac as a obus ness check. In ou OLS models abo e, he e e ence
ca ego y is he mos a luen g oup o SAs and he h ee o he ca ego ies a e
compa ed o his. Howe e , in ou PSM models he da a a e no su icien o ma ch
a eas in he mos dep i ed g oup wi h a eas in he leas dep i ed g oup, gi en ha
hey a e ma kedly di e en by na u e. To deal wi h his we eadjus ou esul s o
allow us o compa e o a di e en e e ence case. We sub ac he OLS coe icien
o he ma ginally below a e age g oup om he mos dep i ed coe icien in each
eg ession, and hen compa e his o he a e age ea men e ec on he ea ed
(ATT) om ou PSMs o he mos dep i ed g oup ela i e o he ma ginally below
a e age dep i ed g oup. This allows o su icien ma ching be ween he ea ed
and un ea ed as pe bes p ac ice. As can be seen in Table 4.15 ou indings a e
obus ega dless o which econome ic echnique is unde aken. Tha esul s a e
obus sugges s ha ou p e ious OLS es ima es a e obus o selec ion bias.
The esul s o ou OLS di e encing inds ha he mos dep i ed SAs ha e
unemploymen a es 7.1 pe cen age poin s highe han he ma ginally below
a e age g oup; he compa able ATT is 6.9. Bo h o hese a e s a is ically signi ican
a he 1 pe cen le el. Gi en he simila i y be ween he OLS es ima es and he PSM
es ima es we ake ha he OLS esul s ac oss he boa d a e no subs an ially
impac ed by biases.
Resul s | 41
TABLE 4.15 RESULTS OF PROPENSITY SCORE MATCHING MODELS, SA LEVEL, 2022, ALL BARRIERS
Unemploymen Inac i i y
Low
Educa ion
E hnic
Mino i ies
Lone Pa en s Ca e s
People wi h
disabili ies
Ve y bad
heal h
Bad o wo se
heal h
OLS Di e ence
7.09
***
3.04
***
6.27
***
-4.01
***
5.57
***
-0.45
***
2.41
***
0.28
***
1.32
***
ATT 6.87 *** 3.19 *** 5.77 *** -3.70 *** 5.27 *** -0.46 *** 2.34 *** 0.27 *** 1.29 ***
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
No es: OLS Di e ence is he di e ence in coe icien s be ween he mos dep i ed SAs and he ma ginally below a e age SAs. The ATT is he a e age ea men on he ea ed o he mos dep i ed ela i e o he
ma ginally below a e age SAs. Full esul s o he PSM models a e displayed in he Appendix. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
42 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
In ou analysis we use a modelling amewo k o measu e di e ences in he co ela ion
be ween a ea-le el dep i a ion and a ea-le el ba ie s o social inclusion o e ime. We
a e no a emp ing o measu e causali y wi hin ou app oach and, indeed, we ecognise
ha ou a ea-le el measu es o dep i a ion a e de i ed om an a ea-le el dep i a ion
index ha includes some o ou dependen a iables as componen s. We a e simply
a emp ing o assess i , o example, a ea-le el unemploymen is mo e o less co ela ed
wi h gene al a ea-le el dep i a ion o e he pe iod 2016 o 2022.
Al hough we do no se ou o measu e causal ela ionships, we do no belie e ha ou
model coe icien s a e likely o be subs an ially biased by endogenei y. In pa icula , i he
in luence o a gi en componen o he dep i a ion index – o example lone pa en hood
o unemploymen – is cons an o e ime, hen any endogenous in luences a ising om
he inclusion o his a iable can e ec i ely be ea ed as an a ea-le el ixed e ec wi hin
a modelling amewo k. I we e-es ima e ou models using a di e ence-in-di e ences
app oach, which explici ly e adica es any in luences o a ea-le el ixed e ec s, and
compa e he esul s wi h hose gene a ed by ou p e ious models, we can ge a sense o
which ou o iginal es ima es ha e been a ec ed by such ac o s. The esul s o his a e
p esen ed in Table 4.16. The di e ence-in-di e ences in e ac ion e m is compa able
wi h he change in he OLS coe icien be ween 2016 and 2022 and show ha ou OLS
es ima es and hose gene a ed unde he di e ence-in-di e ences model a e in line wi h
one ano he , sugges ing ha ou o iginal es ima es a e obus o he in luences o ime
in a ian unobse ed ac o s and a e no being pa icula ly a ec ed by endogenei y.
TABLE 4.16 DIFFERENCE-IN-DIFFERENCES INTERACTION AND OLS COEFFICIENT CHANGE COMPARATORS
2016
2022
Change
DiD In e ac ion
Unemploymen
15.7 *** 8.7 *** -7.00 *** -7.97 ***
Inac i e 3.7 *** 3.75 *** 0.05 *** 0.23
Low educa ion
9.9 *** 7.88 *** -2.02 *** -2.59 ***
E hnic Mino i ies
-4.5 *** -3.89 *** 0.61
0.19
Lone Pa en s 7.09 *** 7.87 *** 0.78 *** -0.64 ***
Ca e s
-0.54 *** -0.18 *** 0.36 *** -0.32 ***
Disabili y
3.73 *** 3.2 *** -0.53 *** -0.53 ***
Ve y bad heal h 0.25 *** 0.36 *** 0.11 *** 0.10 ***
Bad/Ve y bad heal h
1.43 *** 1.75 *** 0.32 *** 0.30 ***
Sou ce: Au ho s’ analysis based on 2016 and 2022 Census.
Conclusions and implica ions o policy | 43
CHAPTER 5
Conclusions and implica ions o policy
Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland ha e e ol ed be ween 2016 and 2022, wi h
some imp o ing while o he s ha e wo sened. Ou indings indica e an o e all
decline in unemploymen , lone pa en hood, and low educa ional a ainmen a he
a ea le el, sugges ing a deg ee o con e gence be ween mo e and less
disad an aged a eas. Howe e , his p og ess is coun e balanced by inc eases in
poo heal h and disabili y which highligh s eme ging isks. Economic inac i i y has
emained unchanged. The p e alence o e hnic mino i ies has also inc eased and
while mino i y s a us can be a po en ial ba ie o social inclusion i is wo h no ing
ha he e is conside able he e ogenei y amongs e hnic mino i ies in I eland.
Recen esea ch has ound he employmen a e and educa ion le els o be highe
amongs o eign-bo n indi iduals in I eland han he I ish bo n popula ion
(McGinni y e al., 2025). Howe e , he e emain issues in e ms o language
p o ision and housing access o mig an s and conce ns a ound he inc easing
salience o mig a ion o I eland (McGinni y e al., 2025). These ends mus be
unde s ood in he b oade con ex o signi ican mac oeconomic shi s, including
he COVID-19 pandemic and wide policy de elopmen s, which ha e in luenced
bo h indi idual and communi y-le el ou comes.
The decline in unemploymen e lec s he igh labou ma ke ha eme ged p io
o and ollowing he pandemic. Howe e , while lowe unemploymen a es a e
posi i e, hey do no necessa ily ansla e in o be e li ing s anda ds, pa icula ly
gi en ising cos s o li ing and po en ial job quali y conce ns. Simila ly, while
educa ional a ainmen has imp o ed o e all his is pa o a long- e m end in
I eland. The longe - e m e ec s o pandemic- ela ed dis up ions howe e emain
unce ain, especially o disad an aged you h and hose wi h special educa ional
needs.
A pa icula ly conce ning inding is he wo sening heal h ou comes a he a ea
le el, pa icula ly in al eady disad an aged communi ies. P e ious esea ch
sugges s ha ulne able and mino i y g oups (e.g. pa icula e hnic g oups)
expe ienced disp opo iona e heal h impac s du ing he pandemic (De lin e al.,
2024), which may ha e long- e m consequences. This aises impo an policy
conside a ions o heal hca e planning and esou ce alloca ion, as pe sis en
heal h inequali ies could unde mine social inclusion e o s. Fu u e esea ch in his
a ea could po en ially explo e how heal h- ela ed ba ie s in e ac wi h o he
social and economic ac o s o e ime.
44 | Ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland: Change o e ime and space, 2016-2022
We no e ha he sha e o lone pa en households is ela i ely cons an o e ime
bu he e a e s a k di e ences dependen on a ea. The sha e o lone pa en
households is subs an ially la ge in mo e dep i ed a eas and also in mo e u ban
a eas, al hough he dep i a ion impac is he mos signi ican . Again, his poin s o
a need o place-based conside a ion o policy o educe po en ial ba ie s o
inclusion; in his ins ance childca e, ea ly yea s educa ion and employabili y
suppo o lone pa en s, mos likely o be women.
The s abili y o economic inac i i y a es wa an s u he in es iga ion. Headline
igu es may mask unde lying dynamics, pa icula ly among hose unable o
pa icipa e in he labou ma ke due o illness o disabili y. Changes in how
disabili y was eco ded in he 2022 Census u he complica e analysis in his a ea,
sugges ing ha mo e de ailed subg oup assessmen s a e needed o ully
unde s and he e ol ing na u e o labou ma ke exclusion.
While ecen policies and mac oeconomic condi ions may ha e suppo ed
imp o emen s in some social inclusion ba ie s, hei esilience in he ace o u u e
challenges is unce ain. I eland’s s a us as an open economy means ha global
economic luc ua ions, ade shocks, and domes ic policy changes will play a c ucial
ole in de e mining whe he hese gains a e sus ained. Con inued moni o ing o
social inclusion ba ie s, especially in disad an aged a eas and o ulne able
indi iduals, will be essen ial o ensu e ha p og ess is no e e sed and ha policy
in e en ions emain e ec i e. While he e is e idence o some con e gence
ac oss a eas, he indings again highligh signi ican a ea-based di e ences in
e ms o ba ie s o social inclusion in I eland. The indings he e o e suppo he
con inued use o place-based app oaches o policy aimed a ackling social
inclusion. This is in line wi h indings by Whelan e al. (2024).
Fu u e esea ch may explo e in e sec ions and compounding e ec s o mul iple
ba ie s, he eby e ealing how laye ed disad an ages uniquely shape indi idual
ou comes. E alua ing quali a i e aspec s such as job quali y and long- e m
educa ional impac s, alongside inco po a ing li ed expe iences, can o e a mo e
nuanced unde s anding o social inclusion beyond he b oad pa e ns iden i ied in
his s udy. De ailed compa a i e analyses wi h in e na ional ends and ocused
s udies o speci ic sub-popula ions will help cap u e addi ional complexi ies ha
quan i a i e da a alone canno e eal. Gi en he ongoing economic and poli ical
ola ili y, main aining social inclusion as a policy p io i y emains essen ial o
os e ing esilience and equi y in I ish socie y.

Re e ences | 45
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