S e n, Elsbe h
Lea ning and pe o mance do no ha e o come a he expense o
socio-emo ional de elopmen
Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any,
Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ;
New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 35-49. - (Do munde Symposium de Empi ischen Bildungs o schung; 9)
Quellenangabe/ Re e ence:
S e n, Elsbe h: Lea ning and pe o mance do no ha e o come a he expense o socio-emo ional
de elopmen - In: Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.];
Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any, Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning.
Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ; New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 35-49 - URN:
u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345054 - DOI: 10.25656/01:34505
h ps://nbn- esol ing.o g/u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345054
h ps://doi.o g/10.25656/01:34505
in Koope a ion mi / in coope a ion wi h:
h p://www.waxmann.com
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Elsbe h S e n
Lea ning and pe o mance do no ha e o come a he
expense o socio-emo ional de elopmen
1. In oduc ion
All subjec s augh in school aim o os e meaning ul lea ning and concep ual
unde s anding. The knowledge acqui ed in he class oom is supposed o enable
s uden s o be e unde s and he wo ld a ound hem, as well as o de elop
and achie e sho - e m and long- e m goals. The eali y, howe e o en looks
di e en : S uden s acqui e knowledge ha is bound o he na ow con ex o
he class oom, which means hey do no achie e a deepe unde s anding o he
con en deal wi h. I a all, s uden s can e ie e he knowledge in he nex
exam, bu i s isola ed ep esen a ion in long- e m memo y makes i unlikely
o be ac i a ed in new con ex s inside and ou side o school (Mähle & S e n,
2006). This is de imen al o s uden s, eache s, pa en s and socie y as a whole.
I is pa icula ly us a ing o s uden s o expe ience day a e day ha hey
ha e o lea n hings ha hey do no unde s and and whose in ellec ual o
p ac ical bene i s hey canno comp ehend. These expe iences will mos likely
c ea e eelings o helplessness and belonging unce ain y (Cohen, 2022), which
has a long- e m impac on s uden s’ socio-emo ional de elopmen and impai s
hei u he academic de elopmen (Baume e al., 2023).
P o iding an educa ion sys em ha mee s he needs o socie y and a he
same ime bene i s he b oad a ie y o lea ne s, is one o he g ea es challenges
in he mode n wo ld. Scien i ic p og ess made in a ious a eas ela ed o lea n‐
ing and educa ion can help o be e unde s and he challenges o p o iding
lea ning en i onmen s ha suppo child en in de eloping posi i e a i udes
o pe o mance and equipping hem wi h sel -e icacy. Th ee lines o esea ch,
which will be discussed in de ail in his a icle, can con ibu e o his goal:
a) P epa a ion o u u e lea ning ins ead o sho - e m e ec s: P omo ing
he acquisi ion o usable and ans e able knowledge. Schools we e ounded be‐
cause skills such as eading, w i ing and a i hme ic ha e e ol ed o e he cou se
o cul u al de elopmen and need p o essional ins uc ion o be passed o he
nex gene a ion. The e o e, lea ning a school is by de ini ion mo e demanding
han he acquisi ion o skills o which e olu ion has p epa ed us. A he same
36 Elsbe h S e n
ime, we ha e no ye exhaus ed he oppo uni ies o acili a ing lea ning ha
he lea ning sciences o e us. By p o iding lea ning en i onmen s ha mee he
a o dances and cons ain s o human in o ma ion p ocessing (Schumache &
S e n, 2022), lea ne s a e mo e likely o ha e success ul expe ience and he eby
gain sel -con idence and sel -e icacy (Yu & Schunn, 2024).
b) C ea ing mo i a ion by p omo ing mas e y ins ead o pe o mance o i‐
en a ion: In con as o e e yday concep s held also by many eache s, o Psy‐
chologis s mo i a ion is a he a s a e han a ai . This means ha lea ne s’
mo i a ion can be in luenced by eache s, and his does no ha e o be done
by lowe ing s anda ds. The sel -de e mina ion heo y (Deci & Ryan, 2012) p o‐
ides he amewo k o his.
c) Managing di e si y in cogni i e abili ies, p io knowledge, in e es and
social backg ound. When en e ing a class, s uden s do no s a a he same
le el, and hey o en end up e en mo e di e se. In pa icula , cogni i e abili ies
as measu ed wi h in elligence es s a e a s able pe sonali y ai wi h a s ong
impac on lea ning ou comes (S e n, 2017; 2024). Managing di e si y o he
bene i o all is a majo challenge o eache s, which needs mo e a en ion.
2. P epa a ion o u u e lea ning ins ead o sho - e m e ec s:
P omo ing he acquisi ion o usable and ans e able knowledge
E ec i e lea ning en i onmen s ha e o conside a o dances and cons ain s
o he human minds. Thanks o scien i ic p og ess in cogni i e science, we now
ha e a solid unde s anding o how he human mind wo ks and how lea ning
can be p omo ed. To a oid us a ion among s uden s and eache s, lea ning
ma e ial and ins uc ional in e en ions mus conside how incoming in o ‐
ma ion is encoded, s o ed and e ie ed. In he in e es s o e icien lea ning
en i onmen s, he mul i-s o e model o human in o ma ion p ocessing ag eed
on by psychologis s should be aken in o accoun in all educa ional ac i i ies.
Senso y memo y is he ea lies s age o p ocessing he la ge amoun o con in‐
uously incoming in o ma ion om sigh , hea ing and o he senses. In o de o
allow goal di ec ed beha io and selec i e a en ion, only a ac ional amoun
o incoming in o ma ion passes in o he wo king memo y, which is esponsible
o empo a ily main aining and manipula ing in o ma ion du ing cogni i e
ac i i y. The special a chi ec u e o wo king memo y is one o he unique ea‐
u es o humans. Wha he cell is o Biology and he molecule is o Chem‐
is y is wo king memo y o Psychology, as his cons uc can b oadly explain
wha con ols human beha io (S e n, 2024). The limi ed capaci y o wo king
memo y allows con ol o a en ion and he eby enabling goal di ec ed and
Lea ning and pe o mance 37
conscious in o ma ion p ocessing. Wo king memo y is he ga ekeepe o he
long- e m memo y, which is assumed o ha e an unlimi ed capaci y. He e, in‐
o ma ion acqui ed h ough expe ience and easoning can be s o ed in di e en
modali ies as well as in symbol sys ems (e.g., language, sc ip , ma hema ical no‐
a ion sys ems, pic o ials, music p in s). Wo king memo y enables in en ional
in o ma ion p ocessing by ocused a en ion, bu i can also p ocess inciden al
in o ma ion. The mul i-s o e model o human in o ma ion p ocessing is no a
all a one-way s ee , and long- e m memo y is no o be seen as a s o e oom o
a ha d-disk whe e in o ma ion emains unal e ed once i has been deposi ed.
A mo e app op ia e model o long- e m memo y is a sel -o ganizing ne wo k,
in which e bal concep s, images, o p ocedu es a e ep esen ed as in e linked
nodes wi h a ying associa i e s eng h (S e n, 2017).
Wo king memo y egula es he in e ac ion be ween incoming in o ma ion
om senso y memo y and knowledge ac i a ed om long- e m memo y. In
case o e y s ong incoming s imuli (e.g., a loud noise o a ha sh ligh ),
wo king memo y ac i i ies will be in e up ed. Fo he mos pa , howe e ,
wo king memo y is gua ding agains incoming in o ma ion o make su e ha
goals ha ha e been se will be achie ed app op ia ely. This means, wo king
memo y is con inuously busy wi h selec ing incoming in o ma ion, aligning
i o knowledge e ie ed om long- e m memo y, and p epa ing esponses
o accomplishing equi emen s demanded by he en i onmen . Inapp op ia e
and unsui able in o ma ion in uding om senso y as well as om long- e m
memo y has o be inhibi ed, while app op ia e and sui able in o ma ion om
bo h sou ces has o be upda ed. These wo king memo y ac i i ies pe manen ly
change knowledge ep esen ed in long- e m memo y by adding new nodes and
by al e ing he associa i e s eng h be ween hem. Wo king memo y ac i i ies
a e in e wined wi h he con ex as well as wi h he knowledge s o ed in he
long- e m memo y. One o he mos impo an insigh s om he lea ning sci‐
ences is ha p io knowledge is he mos impo an p edic o o u u e lea ning.
Success ul eaching means o p o ide lea ning oppo uni ies ha mee wi h
p io knowledge.
Psychologis s ha e ag eed on dis inguishing be ween decla a i e (knowing
ha ) and p ocedu al (knowing how) knowledge. Decla a i e knowledge can be
communica ed because i is ep esen ed on he basis o symbol sys ems (lan‐
guage, sc ip , ma hema ical o isual-spa ial ep esen a ions). I is he basis o
cons uc ing meaning ul concep ual knowledge h ough p ocesses o in e ence
and elabo a ion. In con as o decla a i e knowledge, p ocedu al knowledge
can be di ec ly applied o pe o m a ask, and i includes mo o ic ac ions like
d i ing ca s as well as men al ac ions like algeb aic ans o ma ions. P oce‐
du al knowledge eme ges as a consequence o epe i ion, by which single ac‐
38 Elsbe h S e n
ions become inc easingly in eg a ed in o a coo dina ed se ies o ac ions. I
he associa ion be ween hese ac ions is s ong enough, hey can ac i a e each
o he and he e o e only need a minimum o wo king memo y unc ions. Be‐
cause au oma ed knowledge is a mos pa ly open o conscious inspec ion, i
can ha dly be e balized, and is esis an o modi ica ion. Mas e y o any aca‐
demic con en a ea equi es p ocedu al and concep ual knowledge. Bo h kinds
o knowledge a e s ongly in e wined (Schneide & S e n, 2010), bu hey a e
acqui ed h ough di e en mechanisms. P ocedu al knowledge is acqui ed by
condensing single pieces o knowledge in o b oade uni s. The epea ed exe‐
cu ion o ac ions composed o single s eps esul s in au oma ed p ocedu es.
The epea ed p esen a ion o se s o small single s imuli may esul in pu ing
hem oge he o a meaning ul whole, which is called a chunk. Once chunks and
p ocedu es a e c ea ed, hey can be p ocessed wi h low memo y equi emen s.
T ans o ming single le e s in o wo ds is an example o chunking.
Concep ual knowledge, on he o he hand, ep esen s meaning, wha can
show up in classi ica ions, p inciples, gene aliza ions, heo ies o models in a
con en a ea. I can be communica ed ia symbol sys ems and i is cons uc ed
h ough easoning ha has been s imula ed in in e ac ions wi h o he indi id‐
uals, w i en ma e ial o o he media. Engaging wi h con en in his way is a
challenge o wo king memo y – in pa icula o a eas ha a e mainly based on
abs ac concep s, as i is he case o many STEM a eas.
How o p omo e usable knowledge
The goal o academic lea ning is he acquisi ion o usable knowledge ha is lex‐
ible enough o ans e and p oblem sol ing. Usable knowledge is composed o
p ocedu es and chunks o elie e wo king memo y unc ions which can hen be
used o g asping he gis o a p oblem. Con en a eas and academic disciplines
di e in he composi ion o bo h kinds o knowledge, and his may a ec he
impo ance o in elligence o achie ing expe ise. Typical a eas o expe ise
which a e p ima ily cha ac e ized by he o ma ion o chunks a e eading and
chess. Lea ning om ex s is e ec i e i wo king memo y esou ces a e a ail‐
able o p ocessing he con en ins ead o decoding le e s. Expe ienced eade s
ha e chunked le e s in o wo ds and pa e ns o wo ds and he e o e can con‐
cen a e on he con en . Expe ise in chess is gained by chunking single chess
posi ions in o b oade uni s which can be ecognized and s o ed wi h minimum
wo king memo y esou ces. Also, in b oade disciplines, chunking is essen ial
and e lec s expe ise. The audience o my lec u e on “Human Lea ning” a e
mas e ’s s uden s om di e en STEM a eas. To demons a e he impac o
p io knowledge on memo y, I show my s uden s pic u es p esen ed in Figu e 1

Lea ning and pe o mance 39
Figu e 1: The pic u es p esen ed in he le column p esen impo an concep s om Chemis y (choles‐
e ol molecule), Biology (animal cell) and Ma hema ics ( i s and second de i a i e o a polynomial
unc ion). The pic u es we e p esen ed o a ew seconds o STEM s uden s wi h di e en disciplina y
backg ounds, who we e asked o d aw hem a e wa ds. Examples o he d awings om he s uden s
a e p esen ed in he cells o demons a e he impo ance o p io knowledge o memo izing complex
in o ma ion.
o a ew seconds and hen ask my s uden s o d aw hem. The pic u es ep e‐
sen concep s ha make sense o expe s in he ield, while being mo e o less
andom o o he s. This becomes ob ious in hei d awings. Depending on hei
disciplina y backg ound, hey ei he ep oduce he image exac ly o p o ide a
ough ske ch ha lacks key concep ual ea u es.
Au oma ed p ocedu es and chunks a e necessa y bu no su icien o mas‐
e ing b oade academic a eas. STEM disciplines as well as humani ies a e cul‐
u al achie emen s and mas e ing hem means unde s anding s a emen s ex‐
p essed in symbolic sys ems such as language, w i ing, o mal no a ions, pic‐
o ial and g aphical ep esen a ions. Compe ence is e iden in hese a eas by
building a ne wo k o in e connec ed bu dis inc concep s, which p o ide he
basis o deduc i e, induc i e, and analogical easoning. Such cogni i e p o‐
cesses enable ans e o knowledge o new si ua ions and p oblems, which is
a challenge o all lea ne s, no ma e how in elligen hey a e. The di icul ies
ha e been bes explo ed in ma hema ics and he na u al sciences, especially in
physics. He e s uden s no only ha e o lea n new concep s, as i is he case
o all academic ields, bu hey mus also es uc u e he meaning o many
exp essions used in daily li e, among hem concep s like o ce o ene gy. Ma h‐
40 Elsbe h S e n
ema ics is based on heo ems and ela ions be ween numbe s and igu es ha
a e de i ed by deduc i e easoning.
Lea ning en i onmen s a e e ec i e i hey mee wi h s uden s’ p io knowl‐
edge and add ess lea ne s’ de ici s ei he in e ms o concep ual misunde s and‐
ings o in e ms o a lack o chunking and au oma ion. In he pas decades,
lea ning sciences ha e de eloped and sys ema ically e alua ed so called means
o cogni i e ac i a ion ha can be implemen ed in ins uc ional uni s. These
means ha e in common ha hey in end o ace lea ne s wi h de ici s and mis‐
unde s andings ega ding hei p io knowledge (Schumache & S e n, 2022).
P esen ing lea ning ma e ial ha equi es sys ema ic compa ison be ween su‐
pe icially simila bu concep ually di e en si ua ions can help o ex ac ab‐
s ac concep s. P omp ing sel -explana ions o asking me acogni i e ques ions
aises lea ne s’ awa eness o hei p io knowledge, including de ici s and mis‐
concep ions. Thanks o p og ess in digi iza ion, eache s now ha e me hods
like o ma i e assessmen a hei disposal which allow hem o diagnose hei
s uden s’ de ici s and p o ide hem wi h app op ia e lea ning oppo uni ies. A
second g ade may answe “7” when asked: “Wha is a qua e o 32”. A eache
may conclude ha he s uden does no mas e mul iplica ion ables p ope ly
and he e o e asks he s uden o jus p ac ice. Howe e , by asking he s uden
o explain why he ended up wi h se en may shed ligh on se e e concep ual
de ici s: “A qua e is always 25, and 32-25 esul s in 7”. In his case, he concep
o “qua e ” has o be add essed. “Knowing wha s uden s know” is he key o
be e adap lea ning oppo uni ies o s uden s needs and sa es a lo o us a‐
ion o s uden s and eache s. This kind o cogni i e empa hy on he pa o he
eache s can be expec ed o p omo e s uden s’ social-emo ional de elopmen .
3. Mo i a ion: P omo ing mas e y ins ead o pe o mance
o ien a ion
Many eache s complain abou hei s uden s’ lack o mo i a ion, as hey ha e
he eeling ha no ma e wha e o s hey make, s uden s a e no willing o
ge in ol ed. A bes , hey de elop ex insic mo i a ion, i.e. hey wo k owa ds
passing he exam o ge ing he bes g ade wi h minimal e o . Such expe i‐
ence sugges s ha mo i a ion is a ixed indi idual cha ac e is ic a he han a
malleable s a e. Such a i udes a e suppo ed by messages deli e ed by some
psychologis s, e.g. by Duckwo h e al. (2019), who emphasizes ha a s uden ’s
g i – hei passion and pe se e ance o long- e m goals – is decisi e o he
lea ning ou comes. P econdi ion o de eloping g i is o de elop passion and
in e es s and o cul i a e delibe a e p ac ice. The emphasis on passion and in‐
Lea ning and pe o mance 41
e es is also in line wi h an a i ude held by many eache s (Laza ides e al.,
2023). Wha all hese belie s ha e in common is ha hey see he causes o
a lack o mo i a ion p ima ily in he lea ne s, which is o cou se a elie o
eache s. Howe e , mo i a ion esea ch has a much mo e di e en ia ed iew,
which conside s he con ex in which lea ning akes place. While in insic mo‐
i a ion is a desi able goal, i would be un ealis ic o expec i in e e y subjec
a any ime. S uden s ha e de eloped hei own pa e n o in e es s and ime
alloca ion, which is a leas pa ly desi able because hey ha e o pa e he way
o hei ca ee pa hs. Ra he han expec ing s uden s o en e he class wi h
in insic mo i a ion, eache s ha e o be p epa ed o less en husias ic lea ne s.
Lea ning oppo uni ies can be designed in such a way ha s uden s engage wi h
he con en , e en i hey a e no oo en husias ic abou i .
The Sel -De e mina ion Theo y (SDT) om Deci and Ryan (2012), which
emphasizes he impo ance o condi ions suppo ing he indi iduals’ expe‐
ience o au onomy, compe ence, and ela edness, p o ides a amewo k o
designing such lea ning en i onmen s. Lea ne s’ au onomy is iola ed i hey
ha e no idea o he bene i s om pa icipa ing in he cu iculum, ei he in
p ac ical e ms o in e ms o in ellec ual insigh s. By s a ing a lea ning uni
wi h a ques ion ha canno be answe ed ini ially bu will be so a he end can
con ibu e o he eeling o au onomy. Also, gi ing lea ne s some eedom o
choose among he elemen s o he lea ning uni (e.g., p oblems o wo k on, ex s
o ead, expe imen s o do) can inc ease he sense o au onomy. Lea ning is
ha d wo k and can be exhaus ing. Expe iencing p og ess is key o main aining
he mo i a ion o ocus on u he p og ess. Cons an ly expe iencing ailu e is
us a ing and will likely make s uden s gi e up. Tailo ing p ac ice p oblems
o s uden s’ achie emen le el allows hem o make p og ess wi h some e o .
Applying means o o ma i e assessmen can help o suppo mas e y ins ead
o achie emen o ien a ion in wo ways. Fi s , i allows eache s o iden i y s u‐
den s’ di icul ies and o p esen ailo ed p oblems, and secondly expe iencing
ha eache s a e in e es ed in s uden s’ s a e o knowledge wi hou judging i
gi es eeling o ela edness (Lich enbe ge e al., 2024).
4. Managing di e si y
In he ea ly 20 h cen u y, a p agma ic need o p edic ing he lea ning po en ial
o indi iduals ini ia ed he de elopmen o s anda dized es s. When compul‐
so y schooling had become common mo e han a cen u y ea lie , he emen‐
dous di e ences in lea ning po en ial became ob ious. The need o a quali ied
wo k o ce led o an ex ension o highe educa ion and equi ed alid and e‐
liable o ecas s o pe o mance po en ial in as ye unknown a eas. Reasoning
42 Elsbe h S e n
abili ies, as hey we e es ed in in elligence es s, e ealed s able indi idual di ‐
e ences. In elligence is now unde s ood as a polygenically inhe i ed uni o m
pe sonali y ai wi h a high eac ion no m, which ollows he no mal dis ibu‐
ion, and which has a s ong impac on he use o lea ning oppo uni ies, and
which explains indi idual di e ences in nume ous ou come measu es (S e n,
2017). In he pas decades, nume ous in elligence es s ha e been de eloped
and s anda dized, app op ia e o di e en diagnos ic pu poses, among hem in
educa ional con ex s. Mo eo e , emendous p og ess has been made in explain
he neu o-cogni i e ounda ions o di e ences in in elligence, which also ha e
implica ions o educa ional decisions. The p og ess made in basic as well as in
applied psychology calls o he educa ion sys em o be analyzed in he ligh o
in elligence esea ch.
4.1 In elligence and educa ional choices
Di e en om he Anglo-Ame ican wo ld, in Cen al Eu ope s anda dized ea‐
soning es s a e a ely e e used o educa ional decisions beyond admission
o special educa ion p og ams. In he US and he UK, s anda dized uni e si y
admission es s ha show high co ela ions wi h in elligence es s. The same
was o me ly ue o he admission o he g amma school in he UK, which
was egula ed by he 11+ examina ion. In cen al Eu ope, admission o he
uni e si y is s ill mos ly egula ed a e elemen a y school by assignmen o aca‐
demic ack schools (Gymnasium), and he decision is mainly based on g ades
and pa en s’ eques . Those who do no go o he Gymnasium (depending on
coun ies and egions [50–80 % ]) go o egula schools supposed o p epa e
o oca ional educa ion. While in elligence-based es s a e a ely e e di ec ly
used o educa ional ack choices, he subs an ial co ela ions be ween school
g ades and es sco es o = .50 (Ro h e al., 2015) aise he ques ion, o wha
ex en in elligence indi ec ly p e ails. In ecen decades, nume ous s udies ha e
e ealed a conside able impac o he amily backg ound on educa ional a‐
jec o ies, which is o en mo e impo an han cogni i e compe encies, as many
s udies show (Bloss eld e al., 2016). Such ends a e nei he compa ible wi h he
alues o a me i oc a ic socie y, no do hey aise hopes o economic s abili y
and inno a ion. Conside ing he s able di e ences in cogni i e abili ies in he
o e all school sys em as well as in conc e e class oom p ac ice is a pe manen
challenge in educa ion ha has no ye me wi h much success.
Mee ing he di e en needs o a he e ogeneous g oup o lea ne s is ine i ably
accompanied by unde - and o e load o many lea ne s. Abili y-g ouping on
he o he hand goes along wi h misalloca ion, as e en he bes es s a e a om
pe ec in e ms o alidi y and eliabili y. Gi ing e e yone he oppo uni y o
Lea ning and pe o mance 49
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