Zu b iggen, Ca men
Well-being and lea ning. Taking inclusi e educa ion as a p ominen example
Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any,
Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ;
New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 81-92. - (Do munde Symposium de Empi ischen Bildungs o schung; 9)
Quellenangabe/ Re e ence:
Zu b iggen, Ca men: Well-being and lea ning. Taking inclusi e educa ion as a p ominen example - In:
Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.];
McEl any, Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in
compe i ion?! Müns e ; New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 81-92 - URN: u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345087 -
DOI: 10.25656/01:34508
h ps://nbn- esol ing.o g/u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345087
h ps://doi.o g/10.25656/01:34508
in Koope a ion mi / in coope a ion wi h:
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Ca men Zu b iggen
Well-being and lea ning
Taking inclusi e educa ion as a p ominen example
1. In oduc ion
O e he las wo decades, s uden well-being has inc easingly mo ed in o he
spo ligh o educa ional esea ch. An examina ion o he apidly g owing body
o li e a u e e eals ha s uden well-being is conside ed bo h pa icula ly el‐
e an o academic unc ioning and as a a ou able educa ional ou come in
i sel (S einmay e al., 2018; Suldo e al., 2011). I is widely assumed ha well-
being and lea ning a e in ica ely linked. On he one hand, s uden s’ school-
ela ed well-being se es as an indica o o he quali y o a lea ning en i on‐
men , which acili a es posi i e lea ning p ocesses. On he o he hand, i is gen‐
e ally expec ed ha success ul lea ning os e s s uden s’ well-being (Hasche ,
2012). Simila assump ions apply o he con ex o inclusi e educa ion, whe e
s uden s’ well-being is ecognised no only as a key indica o o he quali y o
inclusion bu also as an aim o inclusi e educa ion (Powell & Hadja , 2018;
Vene z, 2015; Wäch e e al., 2024).
None heless, a ecen sys ema ic e iew ega ding he associa ion be ween
well-being and academic achie emen o school-aged child en has unco e ed
inconsis encies in indings, anging om posi i e associa ions o no associ‐
a ion o con adic o y esul s (Amhol e al., 2020). Con lic ing esul s a e
also epo ed ega ding s uden s’ well-being in ela ion o inclusi e educa ion
(Dalgaa d e al., 2022; Goldan e al., 2022). Fu he mo e, se e al s udies ha e
demons a ed a gene al decline in subjec i e well-being om childhood o ado‐
lescence (Bücke e al., 2023; Casas & González-Ca asco, 2019), and om p i‐
ma y o lowe seconda y educa ion (Knickenbe g & Zu b iggen, 2021; Obe ‐
meie e al., 2022). These appa en con adic ions aise he ques ion o a pos‐
sible ade-o be ween os e ing s uden s’ well-being and p omo ing academic
lea ning and achie emen (Cla ke, 2020).
Agains his backd op, his chap e aims i s o b ie ly elucida e he concep
o s uden well-being and i s measu emen , and second, o p o ide concise in‐
sigh s in o he s a e o esea ch conce ning he associa ions be ween s uden s’
82 Ca men Zu b iggen
subjec i e well-being and academic achie emen , as well as on ele an ac o s
o he lea ning en i onmen wi hin a class oom. Addi ionally, exempla y ind‐
ings on s uden s’ subjec i e well-being in ela ion o inclusi e educa ion a e
p esen ed, ollowed by a (p elimina y) conclusion and sugges ions o u u e
di ec ions.
2. Focus on s uden s’ subjec i e well-being
2.1 Concep ualising well-being
Since well-being is a b oad, mul i ace ed cons uc (To , 2018), i may explain
inconsis encies in indings ega ding he associa ion o s uden s’ well-being and
academic achie emen . Co esponding o an umb ella e m, which is equen ly
used in e changeably wi h o he e ms (e.g., happiness, men al heal h, li e sa ‐
is ac ion) and applied in many di e en con ex s, well-being is o en iewed as
an ambiguous concep (Joos e al., 2018).
The a ie y o e ms o de ini ions desc ibing well-being can be b oadly
g ouped in o objec i e and subjec i e aspec s o dimensions o well-being
(Voukela ou e al., 2021). While objec i e well-being e lec s people’s ma e ial
li ing condi ions and hei obse able quali y o li e – including aspec s such as
physical heal h, sa e y, en i onmen , and academic achie emen – subjec i e
well-being cap u es people’s own pe cep ions o e alua ions o hei o e all
quali y o li e o o speci ic domains o si ua ions.
Empi ical educa ional esea ch has mainly ocused on s uden s’ subjec i e
well-being. The mos widely acknowledged concep ion o subjec i e well-being
is he one by Ed Diene (Schimmack, 2008). Acco ding o Diene (1984), sub‐
jec i e well-being consis s o he e lec i e cogni i e judgemen s people make
abou hei li e in gene al o in speci ic domains (e.g., wo k, school, amily), as
well as posi i e and nega i e emo ional esponses o ongoing li e expe iences o
speci ic si ua ions (Diene e al., 2018).
2.2 Measu ing s uden s’ subjec i e well-being in school
When concep ualising subjec i e well-being, i is essen ial o no only di e en‐
ia e be ween componen s (i.e., cogni i e, a ec i e) and li e domains (i.e., gen‐
e al, domain-speci ic), bu also be ween ime ames as in he gene al s a e- ai
model (Eid, 2008). Acco dingly, he amewo k model o he measu emen o
subjec i e well-being by Lische zke and Eid (2006) dis inguishes be ween ha‐
bi ual and momen a y o si ua ion-speci ic subjec i e well-being.
Well-being and lea ning 83
This dis inc ion is also impo an when measu ing s uden s’ subjec i e well-
being in school. One p ominen example o subjec i e well-being as a ai is he
concep ion by Hasche (2010). She de ined s uden s’ subjec i e well-being in
school as a mul icomponen cons uc ha includes posi i e a i udes owa ds
school, enjoymen in school, he absence o wo ies abou school, a posi i e
academic sel -concep , and he absence o social p oblems as well as physical
complain s in school. Measu ing s uden s’ subjec i e well-being as a s a e p i‐
ma ily conce ns i s a ec i e componen , o mo e speci ically, posi i e and neg‐
a i e a ec i e expe ience in speci ic (lea ning) si ua ions. A ec i e expe ience
o s a e-like emo ions can be assessed ia momen a y da a echniques such as
he expe ience sampling me hod (ESM; Hek ne e al., 2007), which allows o
cap u e s a e cha ac e is ics in si u and in eal- ime.
In educa ional s udies, esea che s ha e ypically elied on e ospec i e sel -
epo s when measu ing s uden s’ subjec i e well-being. Howe e , such mem‐
o y-based epo s o emo ional aspec s a e o en o e - o unde es ima ed (Con‐
ne & Ba e , 2012). To in es iga e e ospec ion e ec s o s uden s’ emo ional
expe ience in he class oom and possible changes du ing ea ly adolescence, we
compa ed e ospec i ely assessed a ec i e expe ience (i.e., posi i e and nega‐
i e ac i a ion) wi h in si u ia ESM epo ed a ec i e expe ience (Zu b iggen
e al., 2021). Ou indings indica ed o a posi i e ecall bias (i.e., ‘ osy iew’) o
s uden s’ a ec i e expe ience a he end o p ima y educa ion and o a nega i e
shi in ecall bias (i.e., ‘blue iew’) by he end o lowe seconda y educa ion.
3. Subjec i e well-being, academic achie emen , and he lea ning
en i onmen
While abou wen y yea s ago esea che s had o make a plea o he ele ance
o well-being in school (Fend & Sandmeie , 2004), i is nowadays gene ally as‐
sumed ha s uden s’ subjec i e well-being e lec s a school en i onmen ha
acili a es lea ning p ocesses and p omo es s uden s’ academic achie emen .
Success ul lea ning, in u n, is hough o be essen ial o expe iencing sa is ac‐
ion and posi i e emo ions in school (Hasche & Hagenaue , 2011). Thus, sub‐
jec i e well-being is iewed as a p edic o o s uden s’ engagemen and mo i a‐
ion o lea n (Hasche , 2012). Since school and he class oom a e also sou ces o
nega i e expe iences (e.g., academic ailu e, ejec ion by pee s), subjec i e well-
being can also se e a p e en i e unc ion.
84 Ca men Zu b iggen
3.1 Associa ions o subjec i e well-being wi h academic achie emen
and engagemen
Based on such heo e ical conside a ions, se e al s udies ha e examined he e‐
la ionship be ween s uden s’ subjec i e well-being and academic achie emen .
The i s me a-analysis on his opic showed a posi i e, bu only small co ‐
ela ion ( = 0.164) be ween academic achie emen and subjec i e well-being
(Bücke e al., 2018). The co ela ion was s able ac oss a ious le els o de‐
mog aphic a iables, di e en componen s, and domains o subjec i e well-
being, as well as ac oss di e en con en s and al e na i e measu es o academic
achie emen . The au ho s concluded ha high-achie ing s uden s do no nec‐
essa ily epo high subjec i e well-being, and low-achie ing s uden s do no
au oma ically epo low subjec i e well-being.
As s uden s’ engagemen has been desc ibed as an impo an s eng h lead‐
ing o well-being and posi i e lea ning ou comes, Wong and colleagues (2024)
in es iga ed in hei ecen me a-analysis he associa ions o s uden s’ academic
engagemen wi h subjec i e well-being and academic achie emen . Thei me a-
analysis e ealed medium co ela ions be ween s uden s’ engagemen and sub‐
jec i e well-being, being mos closely ela ed o a ec i e engagemen ( = .40),
ollowed by cogni i e ( = .35) and beha iou al ( = .31) engagemen . The a e ‐
age co ela ion o engagemen wi h subjec i e well-being ( = .35) was simila
o he one wi h academic achie emen ( = .33).
3.2 Fac o s o he lea ning en i onmen a ec ing subjec i e well-being
Al hough he class oom is conside ed he mos in luen ial school con ex bo h
on s uden s’ subjec i e well-being and hei lea ning (Hasche , 2012), empi i‐
cal e idence suppo ing hese heo e ical assump ions is s ill sca ce. Howe e ,
se e al s udies ha e explo ed he impac o ce ain aspec s o he lea ning en i‐
onmen wi hin a class oom on s uden s’ subjec i e well-being. A la ge pa o
hese aspec s co esponds o social cha ac e is ics o he lea ning en i onmen ,
bu also a eache ’s ins uc ional p ac ice plays a decisi e ole in de eloping and
os e ing s uden s’ well-being.
Social ac o s wi hin a class oom ha posi i ely a ec s uden s’ subjec‐
i e well-being include posi i e ela ionships wi h pee s and pee suppo
(Goswami, 2012; Ho e ich e e al., 2021), a posi i e s uden - eache ela ion‐
ship (Zheng, 2022), and a suppo i e class oom clima e (Obe le, 2018; Zu ‐
b iggen, Ho mann, e al., 2023). Fac o s ha nega i ely a ec s uden s’ sub‐
jec i e well-being include pee bullying, (s ong) compe i ion among pee s
(A slan e al., 2021; Ho e ich e & Rau elde , 2017), con lic s wi h eache s,

Well-being and lea ning 85
and p essu e om eache s o achie e (Kiu u e al., 2020; S ang-Rab ig e al.,
2023).
Rega ding eache s’ ins uc ional p ac ices, ecen s udies ha e shown ha
di e en ia ed ins uc ion is posi i ely ela ed o s uden s’ subjec i e well-being
(Pozas e al., 2021) and ha good ins uc ional quali y has a posi i e impac on
s uden s’ subjec i e well-being (Obe meie e al., 2022).
4. Inclusi e educa ion and s uden s’ subjec i e well-being
Mos o he a o emen ioned ac o s posi i ely a ec ing s uden s’ subjec i e
well-being and lea ning co espond o c ucial cha ac e is ics o he success ul
implemen a ion o inclusi e educa ion. Inclusi e educa ion no only means ac‐
cess o gene al educa ion bu also p o iding high-quali y eaching and lea ning
en i onmen s ha maximise he academic and social-emo ional de elopmen
o all s uden s (Uni ed Na ions [UN], 2006, A . 26). Di e en ia ed ins uc‐
ion is seen as a ehicle o achie e inclusi e educa ion (Pozas e al., 2021) by
implemen ing, o ins ance, adequa ely adap ed eaching p ac ices ailo ed o
s uden s’ needs (Gheyssens e al., 2023).
As al eady men ioned, s uden s’ subjec i e well-being is conside ed an im‐
po an indica ion o he quali y o inclusi e educa ion. Simul aneously, i also
se es as a use ul indica o o adap i e eaching, as i a ec s a eache ’s deci‐
sions on how o design class oom in e en ions and ins uc ions (P ae o ius e
al., 2015). Thus, accu a e eache judgemen o s uden s’ subjec i e well-being
is an impo an condi ion o adap i e eaching, which in u n p omo es each
s uden ’s lea ning and academic de elopmen .
In he ollowing, exempla y indings o ou own s udies on he opic o in‐
clusi e educa ion and subjec i e well-being a e b ie ly p esen ed.
4.1 S uden s’ emo ional expe ience and adap i e eaching
The i s esea ch ques ion ela es o he a ec i e componen o subjec i e
well-being as a s a e: How do s uden s expe ience di e en class oom si ua‐
ions o adap i e eaching in inclusi e educa ion? To add ess his ques ion,
we conduc ed an expe ience sampling s udy in 40 class ooms o G ades 5 and
6 in Swi ze land (p ima y educa ion) wi h abou 720 s uden s and a o al o
o e 8000 occasions (Zu b iggen & Vene z, 2018). The esul s o ou mul i‐
le el mul ig oup analyses showed ha he included cha ac e is ics o adap i e
eaching had a simila posi i e e ec on s uden s’ emo ional expe ience. When
s uden s had he op ion o choose be ween asks, hey we e gene ally mo e
posi i ely ac i a ed (e.g., mo e ene ge ic) and less nega i ely ac i a ed (e.g.,
86 Ca men Zu b iggen
less s essed) han when hey could no choose be ween asks. Simila ly, he
s uden s we e mo e posi i ely ac i a ed and less nega i ely ac i a ed when hey
we e able o wo k wi h hei pee s and did no ha e o wo k alone. Fu he mo e,
s uden s’ emo ional expe ience was bes when he pe cei ed di icul y le el o a
ask was sligh ly highe han a e age. Howe e , one di e en ial e ec be ween
s uden g oups was obse ed: The g oup o s uden s wi h abo e-a e age aca‐
demic achie emen and well-adjus ed social beha iou only eached maximum
posi i e ac i a ion o asks ha hey expe ienced as signi ican ly mo e di icul
han a e age.
4.2 Teache judgemen accu acy o s uden s’ subjec i e well-being in
inclusi e educa ion
Second, we in es iga ed eache s’ judgemen accu acy o s uden s’ subjec i e
well-being as a ai and whe he he (in-)accu acy in eache epo s (i.e., speci‐
ici y) could be explained by s uden and eache cha ac e is ics. To add ess
hese ques ions, we d ew om he sel - epo s o abou 2600 s uden s in G ade
6 and he co esponding a ings o abou 430 home oom eache s and applied
a mul iple-indica o co ela ed ai -co ela ed me hod minus one model wi h
explana o y a iables (Zu b iggen, Nusse , e al., 2023). Following he concep‐
ion by Hasche (2010), we ocused on h ee componen s: emo ional well-being
in school, social inclusion in class, and academic sel -concep . To in es iga e
ac o s explaining he speci ici y in eache epo s o s uden s’ subjec i e well-
being, we accoun ed o selec ed cha ac e is ics ele an in he con ex o inclu‐
si e educa ion and adap i e eaching.
Ou indings showed ha eache s’ judgemen accu acy o s uden s’ subjec‐
i e well-being was only low o mode a e. 12 % o he a iance in eache epo s
o s uden s’ emo ional well-being was sha ed wi h he s uden s’ sel - epo s and
18 % wi h ega d o social inclusion, while o he academic sel -concep he
consis ency was a li le highe a 33 % .
In e ms o s uden cha ac e is ics, he s a us o special educa ional needs
(SEN), gende , and academic achie emen we e signi ican ly ela ed o he
speci ici y in eache epo s o all h ee aspec s o s uden s’ subjec i e well-
being. The e ec s we e mos p onounced o academic achie emen , pa ic‐
ula ly on he academic sel -concep . Ge man as a p ima y s. seconda y lan‐
guage could only explain he speci ici y in eache epo s o he academic sel -
concep . The eache cha ac e is ics included could explain he speci ici y in
eache epo s only o a small ex en . While eaching expe ience was nega‐
i ely, bu only e y weakly, associa ed wi h he speci ici y in eache epo s
o he s uden s’ academic sel -concep , eache s’ sel -e icacy, hei a i udes
Well-being and lea ning 87
owa ds inclusion, and hei esponsibili y o e e y s uden we e posi i ely
associa ed wi h he speci ici y in eache epo s o s uden s’ emo ional well-
being and hei social inclusion in class.
4.3 De elopmen o s uden s’ subjec i e well-being in lowe seconda y
educa ion
The hi d and las esea ch ques ion ela es o he de elopmen o s uden s’
subjec i e well-being in inclusi e class ooms du ing lowe seconda y educa‐
ion and whe he s uden s’ academic achie emen can p edic changes in hei
subjec i e well-being.
To his end, we d aw on da a om he longi udinal p ojec Inclusi e Educa‐
ion in Lowe Seconda y Schools in Ge many (INSIDE). The sample consis ed o
abou 4600 s uden s om lowe seconda y educa ion who pa icipa ed in G ades
6, 7, and 9. We speci ied a la en neighbou change model wi h p edic o s o
change in subjec i e well-being. As expec ed, he indings showed ha s uden s’
emo ional well-being and hei social inclusion sligh ly dec eased om G ade 6
o G ade 9. The academic sel -concep emained ela i ely s able. Fu he mo e,
pee - ela ed class oom clima e and s uden - eache ela ionship could p edic
change in s uden s’ subjec i e well-being.
5. Conclusion and u u e di ec ions
This leads back o he ini ial ques ion o his chap e : whe he he e is a ade-
o be ween well-being and lea ning. Ra he han being incompa ible goals, e‐
sea ch sugges s ha hei ela ionship is no s aigh o wa d and ha se e al
gaps need o be add essed (Cla ke, 2020). To each a mo e solid conclusion
abou he assumed ecip ocal ela ionship be ween s uden s’ subjec i e well-
being and academic achie emen o o he lea ning ou comes, mo e longi udi‐
nal s udies a e equi ed (Bücke e al., 2018).
Fu u e s udies would bene i om including po en ial mode a ing o media ‐
ing a iables a he indi idual, class oom, and school le els, such as pe sonali y,
ins uc ional s a egies, o school clima e (S einmay e al., 2018). Fo ins ance,
i could be wo hwhile o in es iga e he ole o s uden s’ engagemen in his
ega d, as s uden s’ subjec i e well-being seems o be mo e s ongly associa ed
wi h academic engagemen han wi h academic achie emen .
Ou indings indica e ha adap i e eaching has a posi i e impac on s u‐
den s’ emo ional expe ience (Zu b iggen & Vene z, 2018). The ques ion e‐
mains whe he adap i e eaching has medium- and long- e m e ec s on s u‐
den s’ subjec i e well-being as well as on success ul lea ning. Addi ional e‐
88 Ca men Zu b iggen
sea ch di e en ia ing be ween componen s and ime ames o subjec i e well-
being could p o ide impo an insigh s in o speci ic e ec s and unde lying p o‐
cesses.
In ligh o he ela i ely low accu acy o eache judgemen ega ding s u‐
den s’ subjec i e well-being (Zu b iggen, Nusse e al., 2023), he e is a isk
o unjus ly accusing eache s o placing addi ional p essu e on hese al eady
hea ily bu dened p o essionals. Gi en he complexi y and di icul y o es i‐
ma ing subjec i e o in e nal cons uc s, he disc epancies be ween he sel -
epo s and eache a ings o s uden s’ subjec i e well-being could be jus used
as diagnos ic in o ma ion. Being awa e o s uden ’s own iew and possible bias
may educe he expec ancy e ec s o unde - o o e es ima ion, o ins ance,
o s uden s wi h SEN o low achie emen . In e en ions ega ding inclusion
ha e he po en ial o change eache s’ belie s, pa icula ly i hey p o ide he
oppo uni y o gain expe ience wi h inclusi e p ac ices (Digna h e al., 2022).
As o u he p ac ical implica ions, c ea ing a suppo i e social class oom
clima e can enhance s uden s’ subjec i e well-being, bu also posi i ely a ec
lea ning p ocesses and achie emen . This could be unde aken by inco po a ‐
ing elemen s and s a egies o ‘posi i e educa ion’ (Seligman e al., 2009), o by
implemen ing e idence-based, sys emic social and emo ional lea ning (Rimm-
Kau man e al., 2023). In his ein, eache s should be suppo ed in hei en‐
dea ou s in os e ing a ich lea ning en i onmen whe e all s uden s can h i e
academically and enhance hei subjec i e well-being.
Re e ences
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