sus ainabili y
A icle
Anomia and Displacemen o Responsibili y as
De e minan s o Tou is Company Manage s’
Non-In ol emen in Alle ia ing Po e y
Agus ín J. Sánchez-Medina *, Juan Manuel Bení ez-del-Rosa io and Félix Blázquez-San ana
Ins i u o Uni e si a io de Ciencias y Tecnologías Cibe né icas, Uni e si y o Las Palmas de G an Cana ia,
35017 Las Palmas de G an Cana ia, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (J.M.B.-d.-R.); [email p o ec ed] (F.B.-S.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-928-458-133
Academic Edi o : Fabio Ca lucci
Recei ed: 28 Janua y 2017; Accep ed: 8 May 2017; Published: 11 May 2017
Abs ac :
The economic ans o ma ion p oduced by ou ism some imes has a posi i e in luence on
educing po e y, bu o he imes i does no . Disco e ing he easons o his di e ence is highly
ele an . In sea ching o hese easons, his s udy will ocus on an impo an ac o in ou ism
managemen , he manage . Speci ically, he s udy will analyze how a ce ain nega i e mood s a e,
anomia, in luences he ac ha manage s do no conside i ad isable o hei companies o become
in ol ed in educing po e y. The e m u u e manage s has been used as a p oxy a iable o
manage s. In addi ion, he s udy will also examine whe he a mo al disengagemen mechanism,
displacemen o esponsibili y, is a media o a iable in his ela ionship. Co a iance-based s uc u al
equa ion modeling was applied o a sample o 422 s uden s in hei las yea o he Tou ism deg ee a
wo uni e si ies, Las Palmas de G an Cana ia (Spain) and Ibn-Zoh -Agadi (Mo occo). The esul s
show ha all he p oposed hypo heses a e suppo ed.
Keywo ds: Anomia; displacemen o esponsibili y; ou ism; po e y
1. In oduc ion
Po e y is undoub edly a scou ge in oday’s socie y. Mo eo e , i is no limi ed o ce ain
unde -de eloped coun ies because, acco ding o [
1
], e en in he Eu opean Union, 124.2 million people
a e a isk o po e y o social exclusion.
The impo ance o ou ism in he economy is cu en ly undeniable [
2
,
3
]. Many e i o ies see
ou ism as he solu ion o hei economic p oblems, conside ing i a ca alyze o hei g ow h [
4
] and
a way o alle ia e po e y [
5
,
6
]. Tou ism’s po en ial o educing po e y is shown in a ious s udies
(e.g., [
7
–
10
]). Howe e , Thomas [
3
] s a es ha , al hough his indus y clea ly con ibu es o economic
de elopmen , he idea ha i is an e ec i e ool o alle ia ing po e y does no ecei e consis en
suppo . Thus, he e is a deba e abou he ue bene i s his sec o p o ides o local communi ies [
2
,
5
,
6
]
because he e is e idence ha , in some cases, he de elopmen o ou ism mos ly en iches local eli es
and in e na ional i ms, p oducing low quali y and poo ly paid jobs. Fu he mo e, he poo planning
o ou ism some imes leads o he des uc ion o ecological sys ems, inc eases he cos o li ing o
he local popula ion, and damages he cul u e and li es yle o he esiden s [
5
,
10
–
12
]. The e o e,
as Williams [13] poin s ou , ou ism is a o ce ha has o be moni o ed, i no con olled.
Acco ding o Sánchez Cañiza es e al. [
14
], he adequa e managemen o he de elopmen o
ou ism equi es esponsible planning ha seeks sus ainable de elopmen while aking he communi y
in o accoun . In addi ion, Flages ad and Hope [
15
], emphasize ha sus ainabili y should be a high
p io i y in ou ism de elopmen , and Pulido-Fe nández e al. [
16
] s a e ha , al hough he e migh
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802; doi:10.3390/su9050802 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 2 o 15
be an imp ession, a leas in he sho e m, ha sus ainabili y can slow down economic p og ess, a
des ina ion canno be compe i i e wi hou being sus ainable [17].
The impo ance o aking he pe spec i es o he di e en ac o s in ou ism de elopmen in o
accoun has been men ioned in a ious s udies (e.g., [
14
,
18
,
19
]). Fo Dodds e al. [
20
], p ac i ione s
conside ha communi y pa icipa ion con ibu es o sus ainable de elopmen . In his ega d,
he ou ism li e a u e highligh s he needs and capabili ies o local communi ies.
Acco ding o [
21
], ou ism can be o ganized in di e en ways and, al hough i will always depend
on he demand (exogenous ac o ), i is impo an o ake in o accoun he pe spec i e o he o e by
omen ing a local p o agonis ole (endogenous ac o ). Kon ogeo gopoulos e al. [
22
] s a e ha he
s udy by Mu phy [
23
] ma ks he beginning o he g owing in e es in Communi y-Based Tou ism.
This au ho indica es he impo ance he communi y can ha e as a key agen in ou ism managemen .
Mo eo e , Mu phy a gues ha ou ism mus be managed as an indus y o enewable esou ces and
in ol e communi y decision-making. Thus, local communi ies a ec o a e a ec ed by achie emen s in
he ou ism indus y [
24
]. This in luence is ele an because esiden s’ pe cep ion ha cos s and bene i s
a e gene a ed by ou ism de elopmen condi ions hei suppo o opposi ion [
25
]. The e o e, he
economic impac s a e usually pe cei ed as posi i e, whe eas he sociocul u al, legal, and en i onmen al
impac s a e pe cei ed as nega i e [
24
]. This ques ion is impo an because i he esiden s ea
ou ism, hei esis ance and hos ili y can des oy he po en ial o he local indus y [
23
]. Acco ding o
Kon ogeo gopoulos e al. [
22
], al hough he e is no consensus abou he de ini ion o Communi y-Based
Tou ism, mos o he s udies include he cha ac e is ics o en i onmen al sus ainabili y, communi y
pa icipa ion, ai dis ibu ion o inancial bene i s, empowe men o he communi y, imp o emen s in
he quali y o li e and managemen o he communi y, con ol, and owne ship o he ou ism p ojec .
The communi y can become in ol ed in and in luence ou ism managemen wi hin i s own
s uc u e. Thus, local people who wo k in he sec o ha e a dual pe spec i e, ha o he company
and ha o he communi y. The e o e, i is impo an ha he people who a e going o manage he
sec o ha e a a o able a i ude owa d sus ainable ou ism de elopmen in gene al, and a educ ion
in po e y in pa icula , omen ing he con ibu ion o ou ism o ganiza ions o an endogenous
de elopmen o he e i o y. Acco ding o Ca lisle e al. [
26
], collabo a ion among he di e en
s akeholde s is c ucial o suppo he en ep eneu ial spi i and sales inno a ion o small and
medium-sized companies in o de o help o educe po e y. Hence, ha ing an ally as impo an as
he ou ism sec o would be qui e posi i e. Ob iously, his may no be he solu ion o comple ely
sus ainable ou ism, bu i can con ibu e o i s imp o emen . A onsson [
27
] a gues ha he idea o
sus ainabili y in i sel is a pipe d eam, and he bes case scena io would be o make he de elopmen
o ou ism mo e sus ainable han i was be o e.
Conside ing his si ua ion whe e ou ism is a use ul ool o educing po e y in some e i o ies
bu no in o he s, he pu pose o he p esen s udy is o shed some ligh on he eason o his di e ence.
To do so, i will ocus on he ole played by manage s o ou ism i ms. Mo e speci ically, i will analyze
he e ec o a manage s’ nega i e mood s a e, anomia, on hei willingness o become in ol ed in
measu es o alle ia e po e y. In addi ion, i will s udy whe he displacemen o esponsibili y
unc ions as a media o a iable be ween hese wo a iables. Manage s we e chosen because,
acco ding o Pa k e al. [
28
], hey ep esen one o he main g oups o in e es in i ms. Fo hese
au ho s, hei ole is undamen al, on he one hand, because hey a e esponsible o designing
and implemen ing human esou ces p ac ices, ha is, he sala y policy, he wo king condi ions, he
elimina ion o child labo , e c. [
29
], and on he o he , because hey a e also in cha ge o choosing and
pu ing in o p ac ice he es o he co po a i e social esponsibili y ac i i ies ela ed o s akeholde s
ou side he i m [30]. This s udy has used u u e manage s as a p oxy a iable o manage s.
This s udy is impo an because i can help ou ism i ms o imp o e hei ela ionship wi h hei
en i onmen . Knowledge o he analyzed a iables will allow human esou ces manage s o be e
selec pe sonnel and gene al manage s, and mo e e icien ly con ol he CSR ac i i ies ca ied ou by
hei high-le el employees.
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 3 o 15
1.1. Anomia
Anomia, a human social and indi idual cha ac e is ic, has been used o unde s and people’s
beha io and, mo e ecen ly, o explo e and unde s and mo al beha io a wo k [
31
]. Emile
Du kheim [
32
,
33
] de eloped he concep o anomia o desc ibe a social si ua ion in ol ing a lack
o no ms, a lack o solida i y, and a dys egula ion o he social s uc u e, as well as a gene alized
lack o in eg a ion be ween people and g oups (see also [
34
]). Fo Du kheim, anomia ep esen s he
w ongs he socie y as a whole has su e ed due o he lack o mo al and legal no ms p oduced by he
weakening o media o ins i u ions such as he amily o he chu ch. This si ua ion leads o a decline
in he alue sys em o he socie y as a whole. La e , howe e , he explained anomia no only a he le el
o he o ganiza ion o socie y, bu also as he esul o socie y’s ailu e o humanize people. Me on [
35
]
explained his phenomenon as he p oduc o a s uc u al mis i among he social ac o s, be ween he
objec i es hey seek and he means socie y p o ides o each hem.
Unlike S ole [
36
], who pe cei es anomia as he dependen a iable and he social condi ions as
he independen a iable [
37
], Tsahu idu [
31
] iews anomia as he consequence o he pe son’s social
condi ions, pe sonali y, o he in e ac ion be ween he wo. Thus, his au ho pe cei es anomia as he
indi idual’s p oblema ic socializa ion, a he han as an elemen induced by socie y.
Acco ding o Zoghbi-Man ique-de-La a and Sánchez-Medina [
38
], anomia did no ha e much
p esence in he empi ical esea ch un il S ole [
36
] o mula ed an indi idual-le el cons uc o anomia. This
cons uc e e s o indi iduals’ deg ee o social de achmen , lack o alues, and cynicism (o li le ai h
in human ela ions). Hence, he au ho s de eloped a measu emen scale o e alua e he impac o his
ype o eeling a he indi idual le el. S udies on anomia in he o ganiza ional li e a u e a e sca ce [
38
]
Howe e , some excep ions a e he s udies by Hodson [
39
], who ound ha anomia in manage s
has nega i e e ec s on hei o ganiza ional ci ic beha io s and hei employees’ collabo a ion,
Ca uana e al. [
40
], who ound e ec s on he dys unc ional beha io o he clien s, and Fa el e al. [
41
],
who poin ed ou ha he s uc u e o in o mal oles in a wo k eam is ela ed o an anomic cul u e.
Speci ically, ega ding he employees’ beha io , Henle [
42
] and Henle e al. [
43
] in es iga ed opics
simila o anomic eelings in employees, such as low mo ale, damaged sel -es eem, and g owing
ea and insecu i y a wo k. Finally, Zoghbi-Man ique-de-La a [
44
,
45
], Zoghbi-Man ique-de-La a
and Melián-González [46], and Zoghbi-Man ique-de-La a and Sánchez-Medina [38] ecen ly s udied
anomia among employees, ocusing on i s capaci y o in e ac wi h he links be ween o ganiza ional
jus ice, job sa is ac ion, ci ic beha io s, In e ne abuse, and wo k absence.
Howe e , he e has been some deba e abou he alidi y o he S ole anomia scale o measu e his
cons uc . Thus, some oices s a e ha wha i eally measu es is some mix u e o powe lessness and
o he o ms o job aliena ion, ins ead o anomia (e.g., [
47
,
48
]). By con as , o he esea che s suppo
i s alidi y, claiming, o example, ha he scale sa is ies he c i e ion o one-dimensionali y in a la en
s uc u e analysis [
31
,
49
,
50
]. In spi e o his deba e, esea ch on he concep , a bo h he psychological
and sociological le els, has inc eased in ecen yea s.
Focusing he a en ion mo e on he psychological le el, i is in e es ing ha in his s udy, S ole [
36
]
uses he de ini ions o he concep o e ed by MacI e [
51
] and Laswell [
52
]. Thus, he o me de ines
i as “ he up u e o he indi idual eeling o social a achmen ” [
52
] (p.86), and he la e as “ he
lack o iden i ica ion by he indi idual’s p imo dial ego wi h a ‘sel ’ ha includes o he s” [
52
] (p.123).
Acco ding o Hays e al. [
53
], S ole [
36
] concep ualizes anomia as a eeling o dis ancing and aliena ion.
Thus, i is di e en ia ed om he no ion o a “anomie” by Me on [
35
], who uses he concep o e e
o a s a e o lack o no ms in socie y, claiming ha i is a s uc u al, social phenomenon ha e lec s
he b eakdown o he ules ha guide social beha io . The e o e, he absence o no ms o aliena ion
occu s a he le el o he social sys em, a he han a he le el o indi iduals [
53
,
54
]. Wi h all his in
mind, he ollowing hypo hesis is o mula ed.
Hypo hesis 1.
Anomia has a posi i e in luence on esis ing he i m’s in ol emen in ac i i ies ela ed o
mi iga ing po e y.
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 4 o 15
1.2. Displacemen o Responsibili y
Based on he a gumen s made by Zoghbi-Man ique-De-La a & Sánchez-Medina [
38
], i is mo e
likely ha manage s who su e om anomia will “neu alize” ( ha is, use a ionaliza ions o excuse
hei bad conduc [
55
]) hei inclina ion o no in ol e he i m hey manage in ac ions designed
o alle ia e local po e y, and hey will iew hei beha io as an accep able op ion. This concep
o neu aliza ion and i s mechanisms a e qui e simila o he heo y o mo al disengagemen by
Bandu a [
56
], who e e s o a p ocess o con incing he sel ha he e hical no ms do no apply in a
pa icula case. The e o e, i seems logical o hink ha manage s who ha e a high deg ee anomic
eelings will be mo e likely o eel “legi imized” in no doing any hing in hei company o igh
po e y o spend money on i .
Acco ding o Samnani e al. [
57
], mo al disengagemen is a cons uc ha has only ecen ly been
applied in he o ganiza ional esea ch. Along he same lines [
58
] (p. 374) s a e ha he s udy o
mo al disengagemen is in i s ea ly s ages. Fo Moo e [
59
], he Theo y o Mo al Disengagemen was
de eloped o explain why some people a e capable o pa icipa ing in an inhumane beha io wi hou
inding hemsel es in a si ua ion o appa en dange [
60
–
62
]. Acco ding o his heo y, indi iduals
wi h high le els o mo al disengagemen commonly use cogni i e mechanisms ha allow hem o
e hink hei ac ions in a way ha minimizes hei e hical impo ance. Thus, mo al disengagemen
e e s o an indi idual’s capaci y o deac i a e mo al sel - egula ion and sel -censo ship, and adop a
beha io ha is inconsis en wi h he mo al no ms, wi hou sel -sanc ions o associa ed guil [
58
,
63
].
Bandu a [
64
] s a es ha mos people ha e de eloped in e nal pe sonal s anda ds o wha is pe cei ed
as good beha io , a oiding wha is iewed as w ong. The majo i y will ollow hese no ms because
doing wha one conside s nega i e will lead o undesi able sel -censo ship, whe eas ac ing in he way
one belie es o be posi i e will lead o a posi i e sel -assessmen . Acco ding o Hys ad e al. [
65
], he
ci ed heo y o e s an agen ial iew o human beha io by conside ing ha indi iduals ha e con ol
o e hei own eelings and beha io s h ough sel - egula ion p ocesses. Thus, Ash o d & Anand [
66
]
app oach mo al disengagemen in e ms o neu alizing he s eng h o wha is mo al and e hical.
Howe e , his sel - egula ion only unc ions when i is ac i a ed. Mo eo e , Bandu a [
60
] sugges s
ha i can be ac i a ed selec i ely, and he ci es mo al disengagemen as he main mechanism o his
pu pose. I should be men ioned ha he idea ha i is possible o neu alize one’s belie s o a i udes
abou a ce ain une hical beha io be o e ca ying i ou is ecei ing enewed a en ion [67,68].
Bandu a [
62
] poin s ou di e en maneu e s h ough which people can each his mo al
disengagemen : mo al jus i ica ion, he use o euphemis ic language, ad an ageous compa ison, minimizing
o igno ing he consequences, he di usion o displacemen o esponsibili y, dehumaniza ion, and he
a ibu ion o guil . Acco ding o Ch is ian and Ellis [
69
], hese eigh ca ego ies could be encompassed
in o h ee: displacemen o esponsibili y, di usion o esponsibili y, and dis o ion o he consequences.
The p esen s udy will ocus speci ically on one o hem, displacemen o esponsibili y.
Fo Bandu a [
60
], people a e mo e likely o beha e e hically when hey ecognize ha hey ha e a
ole in he e hical beha io in which hey a e in ol ed. They can elease hei mo al con ols i hey
deny esponsibili y o hei ac ions, which a e ou o hei con ol, due, o example, o g oup p essu e,
ha ing a complica ed inancial si ua ion, he exis ence o p eceden s, he a gumen ha e e yone
does i , e c. [
70
]. Fu he mo e, Ba sky [
70
] s a es ha empi ical s udies ha e shown ha displacemen
o esponsibili y can in e e e wi h he indi idual in en ion o beha e e hically. This concep ion o
displacemen o esponsibili y will be employed in he p esen s udy.
Displacemen o esponsibili y could be applied no only o mo al disengagemen when doing
some hing une hical bu also o jus i ying no doing some hing ha is e hical. Thus, empi ical
s udies ha e shown ha displacemen o esponsibili y can in e e e wi h indi idual in en ions o
beha e e hically [
71
]. Based on he abo e, one could suspec ha displacemen o esponsibili y
would media e he ela ionship be ween anomia and ha ing a nega i e a i ude abou conside ing
i app op ia e o companies o be in ol ed in pe o ming ac i i ies ela ed o mi iga ing po e y.
The e o e, he ollowing hypo hesis is o mula ed.
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 5 o 15
Hypo hesis 2.
Displacemen o esponsibili y ac s as a media o a iable be ween anomia and non-in ol emen
in ac i i ies ela ed o mi iga ing po e y.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy Con ex
On he one hand, acco ding o ISTAC [
72
], he Cana y Islands, wi h mo e han 14 million ou is s
in 2016, is one o he egions wi h he g ea es in lux o ou is s in Spain and one o he des ina ions
p e e ed by ou is s om he Eu opean Union. The Cana y Islands measu es 7.447 km
2
and has a
clima e ha is conside ed one o he bes in he wo ld, wi h an a e age empe a u e o 18
◦
in he
win e mon hs and an a e age o no mo e han 25
◦
in he summe mon hs. The islands ecei e
li le p ecipi a ion pe yea , making he lack o seasons a de e minan in he en ance o ou is s.
In spi e o hese da a, in June 2016, he Cana y Islands, wi h a popula ion o 2,114,648, p esen a
24.9% unemploymen a e, which shows he insu icien abili y o he ou ism ac i i y o s imula e
he economy. Acco ding o He nández-Ma ín [
73
], his weakness is ela ed o he way he ou ism
expendi u e is a icula ed wi h he p oduc ion and gene a ion o p o i s. Only 28.6% o ou is s’
spending is gene a ed in he Cana ies, whe eas 71.4% emains in he o igin. This imbalance in he
dis ibu ion is wha impedes g ea e economic impac on he islands.
On he o he hand, he ci y o Agadi is loca ed in he me idional pa o Mo occo. I was
ounded by he Po uguese in 1500, wi h Mo occo gaining so e eign y in 1956. Agadi is cu en ly a
mode n ci y wi h a popula ion o 100,000. Like he Cana ies, Agadi is an impo an sun-and-beach
ou is des ina ion wi h mo e han 10 km o wide beaches wi h ine sand and an a e age empe a u e
qui e simila o ha o he Cana y Islands, bu mo e ex eme in win e and summe . Acco ding o
he o ganism in cha ge o elabo a ing na ional s a is ics in Mo occo, he Hau Commissa ia au Plan
(HCP), he unemploymen a e in Mo occo was 9.4% o he ac i e popula ion in 2016 [
74
]. Al hough
unemploymen declined by 0.2 pe cen in ha yea , he HCP wa ns ha he na ional economy has
egis e ed a ne job loss o 37,000 people. I also poin s ou he inc ease in uns able unemploymen ,
which a ec s 11.3% o Mo occan wo ke s.
2.2. Sample
The sample used in his s udy was chosen om s uden s in he las yea s o he ou ism deg ee
a wo uni e si ies: a. Uni e si y o Las Palmas de G an Cana ia (Spain) and b. Ibn-Zoh -Agadi
Uni e si y (Mo occo). In all, 422 su eys we e adminis e ed, dis ibu ed in he ollowing way: 181 a
he Uni e si y o Las Palmas de G an Cana ia and 241 a Ibn-Zoh -Agadi Uni e si y.
The use o s uden s abou o inish hei uni e si y s udies in ou ism is basically due o he ac
ha in he nea u u e, many companies in he ou ism sec o will be un by people wi h his ype o
aining, as his is one o he p o essional a enues o he deg ee. Acco ding o Liñán & Chen [
75
], he
use o s uden s is equen in s udies in he business o ganiza ion li e a u e (e.g., [
76
,
77
]). Fo example,
and acco ding o [
78
], o he a icles published in he Jou nal o Consume Resea ch (jou nal si ua ed
in he i s qua ile o he Jou nal Ci a ion Repo om 1997 o 2015, wi h he only excep ion o he yea
2008 when i was in Q2) du ing he las qua e o he 20 h cen u y, he use o s uden s inc eased om
23% o 89%. Howe e , i should be no ed ha samples o s uden s a e some imes c i icized, a guing
ha hey a e no gene alizable o he es o he popula ion [
79
,
80
]. Acco ding o D ’innocenzo e al. [
81
],
o ganiza ional esea ch is no immune o his, poin ing ou ha his c i icism is ocused on he ac ha
class oom and labo a o y samples a e no ep esen a i e o o ganiza ional se ings (e.g., [
78
]). Howe e ,
o he au ho s ha e he opposi e opinion. Thus, Lucas [
82
] a gues ha s uden s a e app op ia e esea ch
subjec s when he emphasis o he s udy is on basic psychological p ocesses o heo y es ed wi h
human beha io s, ega dless o he sample’s cha ac e is ics. Ma hieu e al. [
83
] indica e ha labo a o y
esea ch wi h samples o s uden s can be gene alized o wo k eams when ocusing on he unde lying
p inciples o on he cons uc i e ela ionships in ques ion. In addi ion, Ahmed e al. [
84
], Phau and

Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 6 o 15
Kea [
85
], Bageac e al. [
86
], P eble and Reichel [
87
] insis ha he use o uni e si y s uden s in business
adminis a ion is alid because hey a e omo ow’s business execu i es. Coldwell [
88
] es ablishes
ha uni e si y s uden s o e a deg ee o impa iali y because hey do no belong o p o essions, hey
a e no embedded in speci ic o ganiza ional cul u es, and hey make up he g oup o u u e leade s.
Fu he mo e, i should be men ioned ha he wo k alues es ablished in you h a e p edic i e o hose
ob ained in ma u i y [
89
]. Thus, he e is a ela ionship be ween one’s e hical s anda ds when s udying
and hose held la e in p o essional p ac ice [90–92].
2.3. Measu es and Da a Analysis
In he p esen s udy, he me hod used o ob ain he necessa y in o ma ion o mee he p oposed
objec i es was he su ey, using he ques ionnai e as he basic obse a ion ins umen . Wi h he p io
pe mission o he p o esso s, hese ques ionnai es we e adminis e ed in he class oom by a su eyo ,
who b ie ly explained he pu pose o he s udy o he in e iewees. Excep o sex and coun y, all he
i ems in his s udy a e sco ed on a 7-poin Like scale anging om (1) “Comple ely disag ee” o (7)
“Comple ely ag ee”. The ques ions on he su ey we e ini ially w i en in Spanish and hen ansla ed
in o F ench, ollowing he back- ansla ion p ocess [
93
], by p o essional ansla o s o bo h languages.
In o de o measu e displacemen o esponsibili y, he 5-i em scale p oposed by Ba sky [
70
] was
used. The i ems we e adap ed o ead: ‘a ho el manage is no o blame o no doing any hing o igh
po e y in his/he egion i his/he bosses a e p essu ing o make su e ha all he esou ces a e used
o ea n g ea e p o i s’; ‘a ho el manage canno be guil y o inac ion agains po e y in he egion
i his/he bosses do no o de him/he o do some hing in his ega d’; ‘a ho el manage canno be
guil y o inac ion agains po e y in he egion i he/pe cei es ha in his/he company his issue is
no conside ed impo an ’; ‘a ho el manage canno be guil y o inac ion agains po e y in he egion
when he es o he manage s do no ake ac ion ei he ’; ‘i is un ai o blame a ho el manage o
inac ion agains po e y because he/she only has a small ole in sol ing his p oblem’.
To measu e anomic eelings, he o iginal i e-i em scale by S ole [
36
] was used. The i ems a e: ‘in
spi e o wha some say, he (si ua ion/s a e) o he majo i y o a e age ci izens ge s wo se e e y day,
no be e ’; ‘nowadays, one does no know whom o us ’; ‘nowadays, a pe son has o li e o oday
and le omo ow ake ca e o i sel ’; he majo i y o he ci il se an s (people who hold public o ices)
a e no eally in e es ed in he p oblems o o dina y people’; and ‘i is no ai o b ing a child in o he
wo ld he way hings look o he u u e’.
To measu e he deg ee o which i is no conside ed app op ia e o be in ol ed in ac ions designed
o educe po e y, we used ou own scale. The ques ions we e he ollowing: ‘ho els al eady pa icipa e
enough in sol ing he po e y a ound hem by gi ing employmen and p oducing weal h’; ‘mo e
impo an han ques ions like epu a ion, imp o ing he si ua ion o po e y in he a ea, o ha ing
good ela ions wi h he local communi y, I hink p o i abili y is he main objec i e a manage has o
pu sue’; collabo a ing wi h local socie y o educe po e y would in ol e mo e cos s han bene i s o
my company’.
The analysis o he p oposed model was pe o med wi h he La aan R-package [
94
], which
applies a s uc u al equa ions modeling echnique based on co a iance.
3. Resul s
In o de o examine he causal ela ionship be ween he cons uc s, a wo-s ep p ocedu e was
ollowed, as ecommended Hai e al. [
95
], Wang e al. [
96
] and Leong e al. [
97
]. The i s s age consis s
o an explo a o y ac o ial analysis, which is use ul o e ining and de e mining he dimensional
cha ac e o he scale [
98
]. The second is a con i ma o y ac o analysis o e alua e he alidi y o he
cons uc s [99,100].
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 7 o 15
3.1. Measu emen Model
To assess he con e gen alidi y, we examined he es ima ed load o each indica o in i s
cons uc . Fo such alidi y o exis , he load mus be high and he alues o ha e o be s a is ically
signi ican [
101
]. In he p oposed model, hese equisi es a e con i med wi h accep able con e gen
alidi y. Thus, he AFC esul s indica e ha he ela ionship be ween each i em and i s espec i e
cons uc is s a is ically signi ican wi h loadings ha exceed 0.724 (all p- alue = 0.000) in all
cases, con i ming he exis ence o con e gen alidi y (see Table 1). In addi ion, i is necessa y
o de e mine he con e gen alidi y o he cons uc s. Acco ding o Hai e al. [
102
] and Roldán
and Sánchez-F anco [
103
], his alidi y mus be e alua ed by analyzing he C onbach’s alpha, he
composi e eliabili y index by Fo nell and La cke [
104
], and he a e age ex ac ed a iance (AVE).
Fo he i s wo cases, 0.7 is he e e ence poin , and o he hi d, i is 0.5 [
102
,
103
]. In he model
s udied, and as Table 2shows, all hese c i e ia a e me . Thus, he minimum C onbach’s alpha alue
ob ained is 0.776, he composi e eliabili y is 0.851, and he AVE is 0.534. The e o e, i can be concluded
ha he e lec i e cons uc s a e eliable. To measu e disc iminan alidi y, he squa e oo o he
AVE (loca ed on he diagonal o he ma ix in Table 2) was compa ed o he co ela ions be ween he
cons uc s ( he elemen s loca ed ou side he diagonal) [
103
,
105
]. I can be obse ed ha , on a e age,
each cons uc is mo e s ongly ela ed o i s own means han o he o he cons uc s. Fu he mo e, he
chi-squa e di e ence es [
106
] was also pe o med, and he esul s showed ha all he cons uc s we e
signi ican ly di e en . The e o e, he e a e no disc iminan alidi y p oblems.
Table 1. Con i ma o y analyses.
Cons uc /Indica o S anda dized Loading z-Value p-Value
Displacemen o esponsibili y
A ho el manage is no o blame o no doing any hing o igh po e y in
his/he egion i his/he bosses a e p essu ing o make su e ha all he
esou ces a e used o ea n g ea e p o i s
0.725
A ho el manage canno be guil y o inac ion agains po e y in he egion i
his/he bosses do no o de him/he o do some hing in his ega d 0.850 16.660 0.000
A ho el manage canno be guil y o inac ion agains po e y in he egion i
he/pe cei es ha in his/he company his issue is no conside ed impo an
0.822 16.160 0.000
A ho el manage canno be guil y o inac ion agains po e y in he egion
when he es o he manage s do no do so ei he 0.770 15.147 0.000
I is un ai o blame a ho el manage o inac ion agains po e y as he/she
only has a small ole in sol ing his p oblem 0.760 14.954 0.000
Anomic eelings
In spi e o wha some say, he (si ua ion/s a e) o he majo i y o a e age
ci izens ge s wo se e e y day, no be e 0.792
Nowadays, one does no know whom o us 0.856 19.308 0.000
Nowadays, a pe son has o li e o oday and le omo ow ake ca e o i sel
0.801 17.779 0.000
The majo i y o he ci il se an s (people who hold public o ices) a e no
eally in e es ed in he p oblems o o dina y people 0.754 16.497 0.000
I is no ai o b ing a child in o he wo ld he way hings look o he u u e
0.772 16.989 0.000
In ol ed in ac ions designed o educe po e y
Ho els al eady pa icipa e enough in sol ing he po e y a ound hem by
gi ing employmen and p oducing weal h 0.798
Mo e impo an han ques ions like epu a ion, imp o ing he si ua ion o
po e y in he a ea, o ha ing good ela ions wi h he local communi y, I
hink p o i abili y is he main objec i e a manage has o pu sue’
0.747 14.309 0.000
Collabo a ing wi h local socie y o educe po e y would in ol e mo e cos s
han bene i s o my company 0.724 13.949 0.000
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 8 o 15
Table 2. Reliabili y, con e gen alidi y and disc iminan alidi y: co ela ion coe icien s and Chi-squa e
di e ence es .
C onbach’s
Alpha
Composi e
Reliabili y AVE Cons uc Anomia Displacemen No In ol emen
0.887 0.888 0.614 anomie 0.784
0.895 0.896 0.633
displacemen
0.494 ***
(92.124 ***) 0.796
0.798 0.800 0.572 no
in ol emen
0.443 ***
(62.522 ***)
0.697 ***
(181.130 ***) 0.756
No e: n= 246; *** p< 0.001; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05; squa e oo o AVE (in bold) is shown on he diagonal; O -diagonal
elemen s a e he co ela ion coe icien s, and alues in he b acke s show he chi-squa e di e ence s a is ics wi h
d = 1
3.2. Tes o Hypo heses
Some goodness-o - i measu es we e used o gauge he goodness-o - i o he s uc u al model.
Robus maximum likelihood es ima o s we e used o adjus he measu emen model [
107
,
108
].
As epo ed in Table 3, all o hem exceeded he ecommended h esholds (CFI = 0.955; TLI = 0.943;
RMSEA = 0.066; SRMR = 0.039). Hence, he s uc u al model showed a good i o he collec ed da a.
We used s uc u al equa ion modeling o es he hypo heses; i ing a s uc u al model ha
simul aneously included di ec and indi ec pa hs [
109
]. Table 4and Figu e 1show ha he
ela ionships be ween anomia and displacemen o esponsibili y (a = 0.494 ***) and displacemen o
esponsibili y and non-in ol emen (b = 0.633 ***) a e signi ican . The hypo hesis ha ela es anomia o
non-in ol emen (H1: c = 0.225 *) is no suppo ed because i s 95% con idence in e al includes ze o.
To es he media ion hypo hesis, a boo s apping p ocedu e (using 5000 e-samples) was used
o de e mine he 95% bias-co ec ed con idence in e als a ound hese e ec s. In e als ha do no
include ze o indica e a s a is ically signi ican e ec [
110
]. As Figu e 1and Table 5show, anomia
has a signi ican o al e ec on non-in ol emen ( o al = 0.443 ***). When adding he media o
a iable, al hough i educes i s in luence, i s e ec is no signi ican (c = 0.130). As e lec ed in Table 5,
displacemen o esponsibili y ully media es he ela ionship be ween anomia and non-in ol emen (H2).
Table 3. Measu es o he model i .
Numbe o Obse a ions 422
Es ima o Maximum likelihood Robus
Minimum Func ion Tes S a is ic 219.823 174.358
Deg ees o eedom 62 62
P- alue (Chi-squa e) 0.000 0.000
Scaling co ec ion ac o o he Sa o a-Ben le co ec ion
1.261
Model es baseline model
Minimum Func ion Tes S a is ic 3191.720 2559.645
Deg ees o eedom 78 78
p- alue 0.000 0.000
Maximum likelihood Robus
Use model e sus baseline model
Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI) a0.949 0.955
Tucke -Lewis Index (TLI) b0.936 0.943
RMSEA c0.078 0.066
SRMR d0.039 0.039
a
Recommended alue
≥
0.90 [
95
,
110
];
b
Recommended alue
≥
0.90 [
95
];
c
Recommended alue
≤
0.08 [
111
];
dRecommended alue ≤0.1 [112].
Sus ainabili y 2017,9, 802 9 o 15
Sus ainabili y 2017, 9, 802 9 o 14
Figu e 1. Resul s o pa h analysis. Signi icance le el: *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.
Table 4. Resul s o pa h analysis.
E ec Es ima e
S d.
E o z-Value p-Value Pe cen ile Boo s ap 95%
Con idence In e al Rema ks
anomie -> displacemen 0.494 *** 0.058 0.000 0.000 [0.363; 0.593] Sig Suppo ed
anomie -> no
in ol emen 0.130 * 0.064 2.007 0.045 [−0.003; 1.825] NoSig No Suppo ed
displacemen -> no
in ol emen 0.633 *** 0.066 9.866 0.000 [0.525; 0.783] Sig Suppo ed
Signi icance le el: *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05; ns no signi ican ; Sig: Signi ican ; NoSig: no signi ican .
Table 5. Media ion analysis.
E ec Es ima e S d. E o z-Value p-Value Pe cen ile Boo s ap 95%
Con idence In e al
c 0.130 * 0.064 2.007 0.045 [−0.003; 1.825] NoSig
ab 0.313 *** 0.053 5.777 0.000 [0.213; 0.424] Sig
o al 0.443 *** 0.061 7.087 0.000 [0.317; 0.562] Sig
Signi icance le el: *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05; ns no signi ican ; Sig: Signi ican ; NoSig: no signi ican .
4. Discussion
The main pu pose o his s udy was o con ibu e o he knowledge abou he ac o s ha can
make ou is companies’ u u e manage s conside i inapp op ia e o hese ypes o i ms o be
in ol ed in ac ions o mi iga e po e y in hei a ea. Thus, we in es iga ed he in luence o a speci ic
nega i e mood s a e, anomia, on his in ol emen . In addi ion, we analyzed he media o ole o a
o m o mo al disengagemen , displacemen o esponsibili y, be ween anomie and
non-in ol emen in ac ions o mi iga e po e y. The esul s ob ained show ha , whe eas he e was
suppo o hypo hesis 2, which a gued ha displacemen o esponsibili y ac ed as a media o
a iable be ween anomia and no conside ing in ol emen impo an , suppo was no ound o
hypo hesis 1, which said ha he e was a posi i e ela ionship be ween anomia and no conside ing
i app op ia e o companies o become in ol ed in educing po e y. I should be no ed ha he
di ec e ec was no signi ican ; howe e , he o al was signi ican . All o hese can be conside ed
impo an heo e ical con ibu ions o he s udy, ad ancing he knowledge in a ela i ely
unexplo ed line o esea ch.
Fu he mo e, he p ac ical implica ions o he s udy a e clea . Thus, he mos impo an one
di ec ly in ol es he companies in he sec o , as hei human esou ces depa men s will ha e a
se ies o use ul a iables i hey wan hei o ganiza ions o be mo e socially esponsible. They will
ha e e idence ha indi iduals who a e in a s a e o anomia a e going o be less willing o ha e hei
i ms pe o m ac ions ela ed o sol ing he impo an p oblem o po e y. Mo eo e , i is also
aluable o companies o be awa e o he media o ole ha displacemen o esponsibili y can play
as a mo al disengagemen mechanism ha can be used by manage s o a oid pe o ming a beha io
ha is e hically co ec , bu may no p oduce sho - e m economic bene i s o he company.
Ob iously, all o his can con ibu e o imp o ing he ela ionship be ween ou ism companies and
Figu e 1. Resul s o pa h analysis. Signi icance le el: *** p< 0.001; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05.
Table 4. Resul s o pa h analysis.
E ec Es ima e S d. E o z-Value p-Value Pe cen ile Boo s ap 95%
Con idence In e al Rema ks
anomie ->
displacemen 0.494 *** 0.058 0.000 0.000 [0.363; 0.593] Sig Suppo ed
anomie -> no
in ol emen 0.130 * 0.064 2.007 0.045 [−0.003; 1.825] NoSig No Suppo ed
displacemen ->
no in ol emen 0.633 *** 0.066 9.866 0.000 [0.525; 0.783] Sig Suppo ed
Signi icance le el: *** p< 0.001; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05; ns no signi ican ; Sig: Signi ican ; NoSig: no signi ican .
Table 5. Media ion analysis.
E ec Es ima e S d. E o z-Value p-Value Pe cen ile Boo s ap 95% Con idence In e al
c 0.130 * 0.064 2.007 0.045 [−0.003; 1.825] NoSig
ab 0.313 *** 0.053 5.777 0.000 [0.213; 0.424] Sig
o al 0.443 *** 0.061 7.087 0.000 [0.317; 0.562] Sig
Signi icance le el: *** p< 0.001; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05; ns no signi ican ; Sig: Signi ican ; NoSig: no signi ican .
4. Discussion
The main pu pose o his s udy was o con ibu e o he knowledge abou he ac o s ha can
make ou is companies’ u u e manage s conside i inapp op ia e o hese ypes o i ms o be
in ol ed in ac ions o mi iga e po e y in hei a ea. Thus, we in es iga ed he in luence o a speci ic
nega i e mood s a e, anomia, on his in ol emen . In addi ion, we analyzed he media o ole o a
o m o mo al disengagemen , displacemen o esponsibili y, be ween anomie and non-in ol emen in
ac ions o mi iga e po e y. The esul s ob ained show ha , whe eas he e was suppo o hypo hesis
2, which a gued ha displacemen o esponsibili y ac ed as a media o a iable be ween anomia
and no conside ing in ol emen impo an , suppo was no ound o hypo hesis 1, which said ha
he e was a posi i e ela ionship be ween anomia and no conside ing i app op ia e o companies
o become in ol ed in educing po e y. I should be no ed ha he di ec e ec was no signi ican ;
howe e , he o al was signi ican . All o hese can be conside ed impo an heo e ical con ibu ions
o he s udy, ad ancing he knowledge in a ela i ely unexplo ed line o esea ch.
Fu he mo e, he p ac ical implica ions o he s udy a e clea . Thus, he mos impo an one
di ec ly in ol es he companies in he sec o , as hei human esou ces depa men s will ha e a se ies
o use ul a iables i hey wan hei o ganiza ions o be mo e socially esponsible. They will ha e
e idence ha indi iduals who a e in a s a e o anomia a e going o be less willing o ha e hei i ms
pe o m ac ions ela ed o sol ing he impo an p oblem o po e y. Mo eo e , i is also aluable o