ma e ials
A icle
The Use o Glass om Pho o ol aic Panels a he End o Thei
Li e Cycle in Cemen Composi es
Ka eˇ ina Máˇcalo á1,* , Voj ˇech Václa ík1,* , Tomáš D o ský1, Róbe Figmig 2, Jakub Cha á 1
and Milosla Lup ák3


Ci a ion: Máˇcalo á, K.; Václa ík, V.;
D o ský, T.; Figmig, R.; Cha á , J.;
Lup ák, M. The Use o Glass om
Pho o ol aic Panels a he End o
Thei Li e Cycle in Cemen
Composi es. Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma14216655
Academic Edi o : F ancisco Ag ela
Recei ed: 7 Oc obe 2021
Accep ed: 2 No embe 2021
Published: 4 No embe 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Depa men o En i onmen al Enginee ing, Facul y o Mining and Geology, VSB—Technical Uni e si y o
Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 15/2172, 708 00 Os a a, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed] (T.D.);
[email p o ec ed] (J.C.)
2Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, Ins i u e o En i onmen al Enginee ing, Technical Uni e si y o Kosice,
Vysokoskolska 4, 04200 Kosice, Slo akia; [email p o ec ed]
3Facul y o Ma e ials, Me allu gy and Recycling, Ins i u e o Ma e ials and Quali y Enginee ing, Technical
Uni e si y o Kosice, 04200 Kosice, Slo akia; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (K.M.); [email p o ec ed] (V.V.);
Tel.: +420-596-995-264 (K.M.)
Abs ac :
This a icle deals wi h he use o pho o ol aic panels a he end o hei li e cycle in cemen
composi es. A en ion is ocused on he p ope ies o cemen composi e a e 100% eplacemen
o na u al agg ega e wi h ecycled glass om pho o ol aic panels. This goal o eplacing na u al
ille sou ces wi h ecycled glass is based on he upda ed policy o he Czech Republic conce ning
seconda y aw ma e ials o he pe iod o 2019–2022, which aims o inc ease he sel -su iciency o
he Czech Republic in aw ma e ials by eplacing p ima y sou ces wi h seconda y aw ma e ials.
The policy also p omo es he use o seconda y aw ma e ials as a ool o educe he ma e ial and
ene gy demands o indus ial p oduc ion and suppo s he inno a ions and de elopmen o a ci cula
economy wi hin business. The esea ch has shown ha i is possible o p epa e cemen composi e
based on ecycled glass om sola panels, wi h comp essi e and lexu al s eng h a e 28 days
exceeding 40 MPa and 4 MPa. Fu he mo e, a possible modi ica ion o he cemen composi e wi h
di e en pigmen s has been con i med, wi hou dis up ing he con ac zone.
Keywo ds: pho o ol aic glass; ecycling; cemen ; aw ma e ial policy; cemen composi e
1. In oduc ion
Pho o ol aic echnology is one o he enewable ene gy sou ces wi h a ela i ely long
li espan, which is es ima ed a 30 yea s a leas . As a g ea boom in his a ea ook place
a he end o he 20 h cen u y, we a e en e ing he pe iod o ime when he expec ed end
o li e o he i s pho o ol aic panels is app oaching and i is necessa y o ind a me hod
o dispose o hem a e he end o hei li e cycle. Along wi h he apid inc ease in he
use o pho o ol aic panels, he e will be a p opo ionally inc easing p oduc ion o was e
om sola ene gy. Only panels ha we e mechanically damaged due o imp ope handling
du ing ins alla ion and anspo ha e been disposed o so a [1,2].
Di ec i e 2012/19/EU o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council on was e om
elec ical and elec onic equipmen s ipula es om 15 Augus 2018 ha a leas 85% o
pho o ol aic panel ma e ials mus be eco e ed and 80% o ma e ials mus be p epa ed o
e-use and ecycled [
3
]. The e a e 2 basic ypes o pho o ol aic panels–silicon-based panels
(monoc ys alline, and polyc ys alline om amo phous silicon) [
4
–
7
] and hin laye s ( hin
laye ypes) [
5
,
8
]. A panel consis s o a on laye –impac - esis an glass, an EVA laye
(e hylene inyl ace a e), a sola cell placed below he EVA laye and a poly inyl luo ide
(PVF) back side o a combina ion o poly inyl luo ide wi h polye hylene e eph hala e
(PTE). The e is also a junc ion box on he back side, which se es as an ou pu connec ion.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma14216655 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ma e ials
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 2 o 19
A panel p epa ed in his way is also amed in aluminium p o iles [
9
]. The ecycling o sola
panels a he end o hei li e cycle p oduces se e al componen s, namely 67% ecycled
glass, ollowed by aluminium 18%, plas ics 11%, silicon 3% and me als 1%. [
10
]. Due o he
high pe cen age o ecycled glass as one o he componen s o ecycled pho o ol aic panels,
ou esea ch is ocused on he use o his glass.
The use o was e om pho o ol aic panels as seconda y aw ma e ials and hus hei
ecycling is conside ed due o he g ea bene i s, which would include cos educ ion o
hei disposal, en i onmen al p o ec ion, and conse a ion o p ima y aw ma e ials. A
ho ough unde s anding and eliable p edic ion o hei e ec s is essen ial o hei p ac ical
use as new cons uc ion ma e ials.
The inco po a ion o pho o ol aic was e (speci ically glass om pho o ol aic panels)
in o he cemen ma ix could be one o he new di ec ions o possible ecycling o was e ma-
e ials om pho o ol aic panels. New cemen composi es would be c ea ed and seconda y
aw ma e ials would be used.
Was e glass can be used as a pa ial eplacemen o Po land cemen in he amoun
o 10–30% o he weigh . In he case o pa ial eplacemen o cemen wi h was e glass
in he o m o glass powde , CO
2
emissions a e educed, which helps o imp o e he
en i onmen al condi ions and o educe he amoun o was e glass ha would o he wise
be land illed [
11
]. Ano he op ion is o eplace na u al agg ega e wi h pho o ol aic glass
in a ious ac ions. In he conc e e ecipe, agg ega e ep esen s abou 70%, leading o a
g ea e use o was e glass [
11
,
12
]. One al e na i e o he use o was e glass is he p oduc ion
o agg ega e om expanded glass (EGA), which is made om inely g ound was e glass
mixed wi h sui able expanding agen s. [
13
]. Expanded glass agg ega es could be used
as a subs i u e o ligh weigh agg ega es. These a e ligh he mal insula ion ma e ials
which can be used as he mal insula ion cemen composi e. Expanded glass agg ega es
educe he comp essi e s eng h o conc e e because hey ha e po ous s uc u e and lowe
mechanical s eng h. 100% eplacemen o agg ega e wi h expanded glass agg ega e can
esul in o al ca bona ion [
14
]. Since was e glass is conside ed a pozzolanic ma e ial, i
can be used as a pa ial eplacemen o cemen in he p oduc ion o ul a-high s eng h
conc e e (UHPC) [
12
]. Pa ial eplacemen o limes one ille wi h glass powde and blas
u nace g anula slag imp o es he mechanical s eng h o conc e e. Comp essi e s eng h
inc eased signi ican ly be ween 28 and 90 days. Lowe so p i i y alues we e measu ed
and he gas pe meabili y coe icien was lowe as well [
15
]. Mixed colo ed was e glass was
used as a pa ial eplacemen o ine na u al agg ega es in a ious a ios. Cu basal ib es
we e added o he was e glass. The binde consis ed o Po land cemen and me akaolin
(CC)—10% o cemen weigh [
16
]. The mechanical p ope ies o he conc e e ea ed wi h
was e glass a e a ec ed by he amoun and size o pa icles as well as he cu ing ime.
Conc e e con aining glass powde has lowe s eng h du ing ea ly aging. I s s eng h
inc eases du ing la e aging, compa ed o conc e e which does no con ain was e glass.
Fine ac ions o was e glass in a sui able a io ha e a posi i e e ec on he mechanical
p ope ies o conc e e due o high pozzolanic eac i i y and low alkali-silica eac ion
(ASR) [17].
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Recycla e om Pho o ol aic Panels
Pho o ol aic was e glass (GR) was supplied by Bambas Elek oodpady Inc. company
(Skalice n. S i a ou, Czech Republic) [
18
]. The glass was supplied in 4 di e en ac ions:
0.0/0.5 mm; 0.5/1 mm; 1/4 mm and 4/10 mm. The glass was only c ushed, no u he
ea men s we e applied. The pho o ol aic glass was used as a 100% eplacemen o
na u al agg ega e in he p oduc ion o cemen specimens. Figu es 1–4show he pho os
o he indi idual pho o ol aic glass ac ions aken by an USB came a Dino-Li e (AnMo
Elec onics Co po a ion, Hsinchu, Taiwan) and magni ied 103
×
( ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm and
ac ion 0.5/1 mm) o 51×( ac ion 1/4 mm and ac ion 4/10 mm).
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 3 o 19
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 20
di idual pho o ol aic glass ac ions aken by an USB came a Dino-Li e (AnMo Elec on-
ics Co po a ion, Hsinchu, Taiwan) and magni ied 103× ( ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm and ac ion
0.5/1 mm) o 51× ( ac ion 1/4 mm and ac ion 4/10 mm).
Recycled glass om pho o ol aic panels o R3 ecipe was subjec ed o chemical com-
posi ion es s using he XRFS me hod. Tes s o he ex ac o he cemen composi e p e-
pa ed acco ding o ecipe R3 we e pe o med a e wa ds. The esul s a e p esen ed in
Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composi ion o pho o ol aic was e glass and cemen composi e ex ac .
Analy e C ushed Ma . R3 Solid Cemen Composi e Ex ac R3
Resul s [mg/kg] Unce ain y [%] Resul s [mg
/
L] Unce ain y [%]
As 1.3 50 <0.001 -
Cd 186.0 30 <0.004 -
C 22.9 30 <0.010 -
Hg <0.1 <0.001 -
Ni 15.8 40 <0.010 -
Pb 2.6 50 <0.020 -
V 2.2 50 - -
Table 1 clea ly shows ha he solidi ica ion o was e ecycled glass om sola panels,
which con ains a high alue o cadmium Cd, in o he cemen ma ix is in he igh way.
Based on he esul s o ex ac s, i was ound ha he alues o concen a ions o he mon-
i o ed analy es lis ed in Table 1 we e educed below he limi o de ec ion by solidi ica ion.
Figu e 1. Glass ecycla e ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm; 103× magni ied.
Figu e 2. Glass ecycla e ac ion 0.5/1 mm; 103× magni ied.
Figu e 1. Glass ecycla e ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm; 103×magni ied.
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 20
di idual pho o ol aic glass ac ions aken by an USB came a Dino-Li e (AnMo Elec on-
ics Co po a ion, Hsinchu, Taiwan) and magni ied 103× ( ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm and ac ion
0.5/1 mm) o 51× ( ac ion 1/4 mm and ac ion 4/10 mm).
Recycled glass om pho o ol aic panels o R3 ecipe was subjec ed o chemical com-
posi ion es s using he XRFS me hod. Tes s o he ex ac o he cemen composi e p e-
pa ed acco ding o ecipe R3 we e pe o med a e wa ds. The esul s a e p esen ed in
Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composi ion o pho o ol aic was e glass and cemen composi e ex ac .
Analy e C ushed Ma . R3 Solid Cemen Composi e Ex ac R3
Resul s [mg/kg] Unce ain y [%] Resul s [mg
/
L] Unce ain y [%]
As 1.3 50 <0.001 -
Cd 186.0 30 <0.004 -
C 22.9 30 <0.010 -
Hg <0.1 <0.001 -
Ni 15.8 40 <0.010 -
Pb 2.6 50 <0.020 -
V 2.2 50 - -
Table 1 clea ly shows ha he solidi ica ion o was e ecycled glass om sola panels,
which con ains a high alue o cadmium Cd, in o he cemen ma ix is in he igh way.
Based on he esul s o ex ac s, i was ound ha he alues o concen a ions o he mon-
i o ed analy es lis ed in Table 1 we e educed below he limi o de ec ion by solidi ica ion.
Figu e 1. Glass ecycla e ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm; 103× magni ied.
Figu e 2. Glass ecycla e ac ion 0.5/1 mm; 103× magni ied.
Figu e 2. Glass ecycla e ac ion 0.5/1 mm; 103×magni ied.
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 20
Figu e 3. Glass ecycla e ac ion 1/4 mm; 51× magni ied.
Figu e 4. Glass ecycla e ac ion 4/10 mm; 51× magni ied.
2.2. Cemen
Po land cemen wi h he designa ion o EN 197-1-CEM I 52.5 R was used in he p o-
duc ion o he es mix u es. The manu ac u e is Cemen H anice (H anice, Czech Repub-
lic), a join -s ock company. The p oduc ion and equi emen s o cemen a e de e mined
by he Czech echnical s anda d EN 197-1:2012. The comme cial name o he cemen is
TOPCEMENT. The ollowing Table 2 shows he p ope ies o Po land cemen CEM I 52.5
R. One o he main p ope ies o CEM I 52.5 R cemen is i s apid inc ease in s eng h [19].
Table 2. Po land cemen p ope ies CEM I 52.5 R [19].
Technical Pa ame e Requi emen o EN 197-1 A e age Values Achie ed
Comp essi e s eng h
a e 2 days [MPa] ≥30 42.0
Comp essi e s eng h
a e 28 days [MPa] ≥52.5 67.5
Beginning o se ing [min.] ≥45 140
Volume s abili y [mm] ≤10 1.5
Sulpha e con . [% weigh ] ≤4.0 2.47
Insoluble esidue
[% weigh ] ≤5.0 0.29
Annealing loss [% weigh ] ≤5.0 2.55
2.3. Mixing Wa e
Figu e 3. Glass ecycla e ac ion 1/4 mm; 51×magni ied.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 4 o 19
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 20
Figu e 3. Glass ecycla e ac ion 1/4 mm; 51× magni ied.
Figu e 4. Glass ecycla e ac ion 4/10 mm; 51× magni ied.
2.2. Cemen
Po land cemen wi h he designa ion o EN 197-1-CEM I 52.5 R was used in he p o-
duc ion o he es mix u es. The manu ac u e is Cemen H anice (H anice, Czech Repub-
lic), a join -s ock company. The p oduc ion and equi emen s o cemen a e de e mined
by he Czech echnical s anda d EN 197-1:2012. The comme cial name o he cemen is
TOPCEMENT. The ollowing Table 2 shows he p ope ies o Po land cemen CEM I 52.5
R. One o he main p ope ies o CEM I 52.5 R cemen is i s apid inc ease in s eng h [19].
Table 2. Po land cemen p ope ies CEM I 52.5 R [19].
Technical Pa ame e Requi emen o EN 197-1 A e age Values Achie ed
Comp essi e s eng h
a e 2 days [MPa] ≥30 42.0
Comp essi e s eng h
a e 28 days [MPa] ≥52.5 67.5
Beginning o se ing [min.] ≥45 140
Volume s abili y [mm] ≤10 1.5
Sulpha e con . [% weigh ] ≤4.0 2.47
Insoluble esidue
[% weigh ] ≤5.0 0.29
Annealing loss [% weigh ] ≤5.0 2.55
2.3. Mixing Wa e
Figu e 4. Glass ecycla e ac ion 4/10 mm; 51×magni ied.
Recycled glass om pho o ol aic panels o R3 ecipe was subjec ed o chemical com-
posi ion es s using he XRFS me hod. Tes s o he ex ac o he cemen composi e p epa ed
acco ding o ecipe R3 we e pe o med a e wa ds. The esul s a e p esen ed in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composi ion o pho o ol aic was e glass and cemen composi e ex ac .
Analy e C ushed Ma . R3 Solid Cemen Composi e Ex ac R3
Resul s [mg/kg] Unce ain y [%] Resul s [mg/L] Unce ain y [%]
As 1.3 50 <0.001 -
Cd 186.0 30 <0.004 -
C 22.9 30 <0.010 -
Hg <0.1 <0.001 -
Ni 15.8 40 <0.010 -
Pb 2.6 50 <0.020 -
V 2.2 50 - -
Table 1clea ly shows ha he solidi ica ion o was e ecycled glass om sola panels,
which con ains a high alue o cadmium Cd, in o he cemen ma ix is in he igh way.
Based on he esul s o ex ac s, i was ound ha he alues o concen a ions o he moni-
o ed analy es lis ed in Table 1we e educed below he limi o de ec ion by solidi ica ion.
2.2. Cemen
Po land cemen wi h he designa ion o EN 197-1-CEM I 52.5 R was used in he
p oduc ion o he es mix u es. The manu ac u e is Cemen H anice (H anice, Czech
Republic), a join -s ock company. The p oduc ion and equi emen s o cemen a e de-
e mined by he Czech echnical s anda d EN 197-1:2012. The comme cial name o he
cemen is TOPCEMENT. The ollowing Table 2shows he p ope ies o Po land cemen
CEM I 52.5 R. One o he main p ope ies o CEM I 52.5 R cemen is i s apid inc ease in
s eng h [19].
2.3. Mixing Wa e
Wa e om he wa e supply sys em was used in he p oduc ion o he es mix u es.
The c i e ia o he quali y o mixing wa e a e se ou in he s anda d EN 1008–Mixing
wa e o conc e e–Speci ica ions o sampling, es ing and assessmen o he sui abili y o
wa e , including wa e ob ained du ing ecycling in a conc e e plan , as mixing wa e o
conc e e [20].
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 5 o 19
Table 2. Po land cemen p ope ies CEM I 52.5 R [19].
Technical Pa ame e Requi emen o EN 197-1 A e age Values Achie ed
Comp essi e s eng h
a e 2 days [MPa] ≥30 42.0
Comp essi e s eng h
a e 28 days [MPa] ≥52.5 67.5
Beginning o se ing [min.] ≥45 140
Volume s abili y [mm] ≤10 1.5
Sulpha e con . [% weigh ] ≤4.0 2.47
Insoluble esidue [% weigh ] ≤5.0 0.29
Annealing loss [% weigh ] ≤5.0 2.55
2.4. Recipe Design
Using he de e mined op imal cu es c ea ed in he 4C-Packing so wa e [
21
] (Ve sion
3.0, Danish Technological Ins i u e, Taas up, Denma k), a o al o 5 ecipes (R1 o R5)
o he p oduc ion o conc e e mix u e we e designed. In hese ecipes, 100% o na u al
agg ega e was eplaced wi h ecycled pho o ol aic glass. The R0 ecipe is a compa a i e
one, in which he s anda dized agg ega e was no eplaced by ecycled glass.
Recipe R0 was designed om Po land cemen wi h he designa ion o EN 197-1-
CEM I 52.5 R, mixing wa e om he wa e supply sys em and om s anda dized na u al
agg ega es PG1, PG2 and PG3 [
22
] in he cemen : wa e : agg ega e a io o 1:0.5:3. Recipes
R1 o R5 we e designed acco ding o he same a io as he R0 ecipe, wi h he di e ence ha
100% o na u al agg ega e was eplaced wi h ecycled glass om pho o ol aic panels. The
pe cen age ep esen a ion o he indi idual pho o ol aic glass ac ions o he indi idual
ecipes R1 o R5 is p esen ed in Table 3.
Table 3. Pe cen age o he indi idual ac ions o glass in ecipes R1 o R5.
Fo mula Recycled Glass F ac ion [mm]
0.0/0.5 0.5/1 1/4 4/10
R1 13% 14% 0% 73%
R2 15% 14% 0% 71%
R3 14% 14% 5% 67%
R4 9% 8% 0% 83%
R5 9% 8% 9% 74%
2.5. P epa a ion o Tes Specimens
The es specimens we e p epa ed acco ding o ecipes R1-R5 (see Table 3). The mixing
was based on he s anda d p ocedu e EN 196-1 [
23
] o he p oduc ion o es specimens o
es ing he s eng h p ope ies o cemen s. A labo a o y mixe om BETON SYSTEM, BS
MI-CM5AX, (Be on Sys em Inc., B no, Czech Republic) was used o he mixing. Mixing
wa e and Po land cemen CEM I 52.5 R we e added o he essel. The mixing s a ed a
low speed o 30 s. Du ing he nex 30 s, na u al agg ega e ( ecipe R0) o ecycled glass
was added in a ious a ios o indi idual ac ions ( ecipe R1–R5 see Table 3). This was
ollowed by apid mixing o 30 s. The mixe was hen s opped o 90 s so ha he mo a
could be wiped wi h a ubbe spa ula in o he cen e o he essel du ing he i s 30 s. This
p ocedu e was ollowed by apid mixing o 60 s [23].
In he case o manual mixing (RM), he labo a o y mixe was eplaced by a Powe Plus
mixe ype POWE80070 (Powe Plus Inc., Vse ín, Czech Republic). The mixing speed and
ime we e he same as he mixing speed and ime in he labo a o y mixe .

Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 6 o 19
2.6. Me hods Tes ing he Recycla e P ope ies
The ollowing labo a o y es s we e pe o med on he ecycled pho o ol aic glass:
de e mina ion o he geome ic p ope ies o he ecycled glass acco ding o EN 933-2 [
24
].
Densi y and wa e abso p ion es s we e pe o med acco ding o EN 1097-6 [25].
A sie e analysis o pho o ol aic glass and na u al s anda dized agg ega es PG1,
PG2 and PG3 was pe o med acco ding o EN 933-2 s anda d on Tes ing o geome ical
p ope ies o agg ega es—Pa 2: De e mina ion o g ain size—Tes sie es, nominal hole
sizes. The s anda d p o ides he e e ence me hods o de e mining he g ain size o
agg ega es [24].
Densi y and abso p i e capaci y o he indi idual pho o ol aic glass ac ions we e
de e mined, including pa icles <0.063 mm, acco ding o EN 1097-6—Tes ing o mechanical
and physical p ope ies o agg ega es—Pa 6: De e mina ion o densi y and abso p i e
capaci y o g ains [25].
2.7. Me ohods Tes ing he Cemen Composi es
The ollowing labo a o y es s we e pe o med on he p oduced cemen composi es
acco ding o he p oposed ecipes (see Table 3) wi h 100% eplacemen o na u al agg ega e
wi h ecycled glass om pho o ol aic panels.
The consis ency o esh mo a was de e mined using a jol able including a me al
cone acco ding o EN 1015-3 o each p oduced cemen mix u e based on na u al agg ega e
( ecipe R0) and ecycled glass ( ecipes R1 o R5) [26].
The s eng hs o he es cemen composi es we e de e mined acco ding o EN 196-1—
Me hods o es ing cemen —Pa 1: De e mina ion o s eng h [23].
2.8. Image Analysis
An image analysis o he samples o cemen composi es based on ecycled glass
om sola panels was pe o med using a DINO-LITE UNIVERSAL ins umen (AnMo
Elec onics Co po a ion, Hsinchu, Taiwan).
2.9. Pe meabili y
A apid chlo ide ion pene a ion es (RCPT) acco ding o ASTM C1202-19 S anda d—
Tes Me hod o Elec ical Indica ion o Conc e e’s Abili y o Resis Chlo ide Ion Pene a-
ion [
27
] was used o de e mine he pe meabili y o cu ed composi es. A he same ime,
he densi y was de e mined o each es specimen.
2.10. Tes Specimens
The es specimens we e beams measu ing 40
×
40
×
160 mm acco ding o [
23
] and
140
×
40
×
160 mm and a cylinde wi h a diame e and heigh o 40
×
40 mm. The moulds
used o he p oduc ion o he beams we e illed wi h he cemen mix u e acco ding o
expe imen al ecipes R1–R5 (see Table 4). The moulds we e illed in wo laye s. Each laye
was compac ed using a compac ing able (Siemens D-91056 E langen, B io H anice s. .o.,
H anice, Czech Republic). Subsequen ly, he excess laye o conc e e was emo ed and he
su ace was smoo hed ho izon ally wi h he su ace o he mould using a owel. A oil was
laid on he ea ed su ace o p e en wa e om e apo a ing om he conc e e mix u e
and also o p e en he dis up ion o he conc e e hyd a ion p ocess. The specimens we e
demoulded he nex day and placed in a wa e ba h a 20
±
1
◦
C o 2, 7, 28, 90, 180 and
360 days. Tes specimens wi h a diame e o 40 mm and a heigh o 40 mm a he age o
28 days we e p epa ed o de e mine he pe meabili y o he cemen composi e using he
RCP es . They we e p o ided wi h an impe meable coa ing along hei ci cum e ence.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 7 o 19
Table 4. Recipe composi ion (dose in kg).
Componen s R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
cemen CEM I 52.5 R 563 563 563 563 563
wa e 281 281 281 281 281
GR ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm 218 253 236 152 152
GR ac ion 0.5/1 mm 236 236 236 135 135
GR ac ion 1/4 mm 0 0 84 0 152
GR ac ion 4/10 mm 1232 1198 1131 1401 1249
Wa e -cemen a io 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Densi y and Abso p i e Capaci y o Recycled Glass
The esul s o he de e mina ion o densi y and abso p i e capaci y o ecycled glass
a e p esen ed in Table 5.
Table 5.
De e mina ion o abso p i e capaci y and densi y o g ains o indi idual ecycled glass ac ions.
GR F ac ion
0.0/0.5 mm
GR F ac ion
0.5/1 mm
GR F ac ion
1/4 mm
GR F ac ion
4/10 mm
ρa[Mg/m3]2.47 2.46 2.49 2.47
ρ d [Mg/m3]2.46 2.45 2.49 2.45
ρssd [Mg/m3]2.46 2.45 2.49 2.46
WA24 [%] 0.28 0.14 0.01 0.25
ρa
—appa en densi y o he g ains;
ρ d
—densi y o g ains d ied in a d ye ;.
ρssd
—densi y o soaked and su ace
d ied g ains;.WA24—abso p i e capaci y a e 24 h o imme sion in wa e .
Table 5shows ha he appa en densi y o he g ains
ρa
is wi hin he ange o 2.46 o
2.49 Mg/m
3
. The densi y o he g ains d ied in he d ye
ρ d
is wi hin he ange o 2.45 o
2.49 Mg/m
3
. The densi y o he g ains soaked and su ace d ied
ρssd
is wi hin he same
ange as he densi y o he g ains d ied in he d ye . The abso p i e capaci y a e 24 h
o imme sion in wa e WA
24
is wi hin he ange o 0.01 o 0.28%. The lowes abso p i e
capaci y was 1/4 mm, namely 0.01 Mg/m3.
3.2. G ain Size Composi ion o Recycled Glass
Figu es 5–8p esen he g ain size composi ion o ecycled glass. The g aph shows
ha he la ges sha e o g ains in he 0.0/0.5 mm ac ion was ep esen ed by g ains o
0.25 mm (app ox. 40%) and g ains o 0.125 mm (34%). In he 0.5/1.0 mm ecycled ac ion
(see Figu e 6), he la ges sha e o g ains was ep esen ed by 0.5 mm g ains (app ox. 84%).
Fo he ecycled ac ion o 1.0/4.0 mm (see Figu e 7) he sha e o g ain size was as ollows:
g ain size o 1 mm 44%, g ain size o 2.8 mm 36% and g ain size o 2 mm 15%. Fo he
ecycled ac ion o 4/10 mm (i is a wide ac ion) a signi ican sha e was o med by
g ains o 2.8 mm–abou 34%, 5 mm–22% and 6 mm–31%.
3.3. Consis ency o F esh Conc e e Mix u e
The esul s o esh cemen mo a consis ency es s a e p esen ed in Table 6.
Table 6. De e mina ion o esh mo a consis ency by spilling es .
Consis ency Ø [mm] R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
mixe mixing 185.0 187.5 183.0 199.5 185.0 198.0
manual mixing (RM) - 184.0 165.5 177.5 158.5 167.0
mixe mixing wi h pigmen - 163.0 156.0 158.0 156.0 158.0
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 8 o 19
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 20
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Densi y and Abso p i e Capaci y o Recycled Glass
The esul s o he de e mina ion o densi y and abso p i e capaci y o ecycled glass
a e p esen ed in Table 5.
Table 5. De e mina ion o abso p i e capaci y and densi y o g ains o indi idual ecycled glass
ac ions.
GR F ac ion
0.0/0.5 mm
GR F ac ion
0.5/1 mm
GR F ac ion
1/4 mm
GR F ac ion
4/10 mm
ρ
a
[Mg/m
3
] 2.47 2.46 2.49 2.47
ρ
d
[Mg/m
3
] 2.46 2.45 2.49 2.45
ρ
ssd
[Mg/m
3
] 2.46 2.45 2.49 2.46
WA
24
[%] 0.28 0.14 0.01 0.25
ρ
a
—appa en densi y o he g ains; ρ
d
—densi y o g ains d ied in a d ye ;.ρ
ssd
—densi y o soaked
and su ace d ied g ains;.WA
24
—abso p i e capaci y a e 24 h o imme sion in wa e .
Table 5 shows ha he appa en densi y o he g ains ρ
a
is wi hin he ange o 2.46 o
2.49 Mg/m
3
. The densi y o he g ains d ied in he d ye ρ
d
is wi hin he ange o 2.45 o
2.49 Mg/m
3
. The densi y o he g ains soaked and su ace d ied ρ
ssd
is wi hin he same
ange as he densi y o he g ains d ied in he d ye . The abso p i e capaci y a e 24 h o
imme sion in wa e WA
24
is wi hin he ange o 0.01 o 0.28%. The lowes abso p i e ca-
paci y was 1/4 mm, namely 0.01 Mg/m
3
.
3.2. G ain Size Composi ion o Recycled Glass
Figu es 5–8 p esen he g ain size composi ion o ecycled glass. The g aph shows
ha he la ges sha e o g ains in he 0.0/0.5 mm ac ion was ep esen ed by g ains o 0.25
mm (app ox. 40%) and g ains o 0.125 mm (34%). In he 0.5/1.0 mm ecycled ac ion (see
Figu e 6), he la ges sha e o g ains was ep esen ed by 0.5 mm g ains (app ox. 84%). Fo
he ecycled ac ion o 1.0/4.0 mm (see Figu e 7) he sha e o g ain size was as ollows:
g ain size o 1 mm 44%, g ain size o 2.8 mm 36% and g ain size o 2 mm 15%. Fo he
ecycled ac ion o 4/10 mm (i is a wide ac ion) a signi ican sha e was o med by
g ains o 2.8 mm–abou 34%, 5 mm–22% and 6 mm–31%.
Figu e 5. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm.
Figu e 5. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm.
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 20
Figu e 6. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 0.5/1 mm.
Figu e 7. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 1/4 mm.
Figu e 6. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 0.5/1 mm.
The a e age spilling o esh conc e e mixed in he mixe is 190 mm; o hand-mixed
conc e e, i is 171 mm; and o conc e e mixed in a mixe wi h pigmen , i is 158 mm. The
es s o he consis ency o esh cemen mo a based on ecycled glass ha e con i med ha
he di e en pe cen age amoun s o he indi idual ac ions o ecycled glass in he ecipes
do no a ec he consis ency o esh mo a . Pigmen s ha e an e ec on he consis ency o
esh mo a . When using a pigmen , i is necessa y o ake in o accoun a dec ease o he
spillage alue in compa ison wi h esh cemen mix u e wi hou pigmen by abou 17%.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 9 o 19
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 20
Figu e 6. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 0.5/1 mm.
Figu e 7. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 1/4 mm.
Figu e 7. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 1/4 mm.
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 20
Figu e 8. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 4/10 mm.
3.3. Consis ency o F esh Conc e e Mix u e
The esul s o esh cemen mo a consis ency es s a e p esen ed in Table 6.
Table 6. De e mina ion o esh mo a consis ency by spilling es .
Consis ency Ø [mm] R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
mixe mixing 185.0 187.5 183.0 199.5 185.0 198.0
manual mixing (RM) - 184.0 165.5 177.5 158.5 167.0
mixe mixing wi h
pigmen - 163.0 156.0 158.0 156.0 158.0
The a e age spilling o esh conc e e mixed in he mixe is 190 mm; o hand-mixed
conc e e, i is 171 mm; and o conc e e mixed in a mixe wi h pigmen , i is 158 mm. The
es s o he consis ency o esh cemen mo a based on ecycled glass ha e con i med
ha he di e en pe cen age amoun s o he indi idual ac ions o ecycled glass in he
ecipes do no a ec he consis ency o esh mo a . Pigmen s ha e an e ec on he con-
sis ency o esh mo a . When using a pigmen , i is necessa y o ake in o accoun a de-
c ease o he spillage alue in compa ison wi h esh cemen mix u e wi hou pigmen by
abou 17%.
3.4. Flexu al and Comp essi e S eng h
Figu e 9 shows he lexu al s eng hs o samples R1-RM o R5-RM. The RM designa-
ion o he sample means ha i was mixed by hand using a Powe plus mixe , ype:
POWE80070. The indi idual lexu al s eng hs a e gi en o samples ha we e s o ed in
a wa e ba h o 2, 7, 28, 90 and 180 days.
The alues o he s anda d de ia ions o he measu emen s o he lexu al s eng hs
a e p esen ed in Table 7. The alues o he s anda d de ia ions ange om ±0.02 MPa o
±0.47 MPa.
Figu e 8. G ain size ep esen a ion o ecycled glass ac ion 4/10 mm.
3.4. Flexu al and Comp essi e S eng h
Figu e 9shows he lexu al s eng hs o samples R1-RM o R5-RM. The RM designa ion
o he sample means ha i was mixed by hand using a Powe plus mixe , ype: POWE80070.
The indi idual lexu al s eng hs a e gi en o samples ha we e s o ed in a wa e ba h o
2, 7, 28, 90 and 180 days.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 16 o 19
The ollowing conclusions can be d awn om he image analysis esul s:
•
The indi idual ac ions o ecycled glass om pho o ol aic panels a e e enly ep-
esen ed in he ha dened cemen composi e. No e ec o seg ega ion o indi idual
g ains was ound.;
•
I can be seen ha ine g ains o ecycled glass a e e enly dis ibu ed in he cemen pas e;
•
None o he samples (R1–R5) show dis up ion o he con ac zone (ITZ) be ween he
g ains o ecycled glass and he cemen pas e;
•
I was con i med ha he cemen composi es based on ecycled glass om sola panels
can be polished and hus highligh he 3D e ec o ecycled glass g ains . 4/10 mm.
3.6. Pe meabili y
The pe meabili y o ha dened cemen composi es was de e mined on he basis o a
s anda d 6-h RCP es a 60 V. The empe a u e o he elec oly es was checked du ing each
measu emen , especially he empe a u e o he es specimens, which anged om 25
◦
C a
he beginning o he es o 31
◦
C a he end o he es . Wi h espec o his ange, he e ec
o empe a u e on he cha ge ans e alue can be neglec ed [
30
]. Table 9shows he esul s
o he measu emen s o densi y and o al cha ge ans e o he indi idual es specimens.
Table 9. Densi y D and o al cha ge ans e Q.
P ope y Uni Specimen R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Densi y kg/m31
2
3
2174
2182
2183
2212
2220
2186
2209
2209
2195
2218
2256
2251
2216
2225
2223
a g
s d
2180
5
2206
18
2204
8
2242
21
2221
5
O e all passed cha ge C
1
2
3
729
746
664
548
504
575
602
578
575
616
504
536
592
578
534
a g
s d
713
43
542
36
585
15
552
58
568
30
A e an analysis o he measu emen esul s, he esul s R2-3 and R4-1 we e disca ded
due o an appa en de ia ion, in which lowe densi ies compa ed o he emaining es
specimens esul ed in an inc ease in he o e all cha ge ans e . To exclude acciden al
e o , he RCP es was epea ed on hese samples, bu wi h he same esul . No change
was obse ed when epea ing he es wi h he polished con ac a ea on any o he es
specimens o samples R1 o R5. In p inciple, he e was no eason o ha , as he sin e ing
empe a u es we e no eached due o cooling and he polishing was ca ied ou wi hou
any polishing agen s. Figu e 17 g aphically shows he inal alues o he cha ge ans e
Q
eq,95mm
in he RCP es con e ed o he compa a i e diame e o he es body 95 mm,
a e aking in o accoun he de ia ion o he esul s.
The du abili y o cemen composi es is he mani es a ion o he quan i y and quali y o
he cemen ma ix. The quali y is mainly in luenced by he wa e -cemen a io [
31
], bu also
by he use o ac i e admix u es [
32
]. Due o he same wa e -cemen a io and composi ion,
he quali y o he cemen ma ix wi hin he indi idual samples R1 o R5 can be conside ed
simila . The highes alue o cha ge ans e is shown by he sample R1, 3884
±
236 C,
which co esponds o he lowes densi y o 2180
±
5 kg
·
m
−3
. This may be caused by poo e
compac ibili y and he o ma ion o ca i ies/open mic opo es, which would indica e lowe
densi y and highe pe meabili y [
33
]. Compa ed o he esul s o mechanical p ope ies,
he esul s a e simila , and he sample o R1 also shows he wo s p ope ies. The bes
a e age esul s a e achie ed by he sample R4, 2833
±
123 C wi h a co ec ed densi y o
2254
±
4 kg
·
m
−3
. These esul s could be ela ed o he highes con en o 4/10 mm ac ion.

Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 17 o 19
I would ep esen he smalles a ea o he in e acial zone, which is conside ed o be he
mos po ous and hus he mos pe meable pa o cemen composi es [34].
Ma e ials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o 20
Figu e 17. Resul s o he o al cha ge ans e o he equi alen diame e o he es specimen.
The du abili y o cemen composi es is he mani es a ion o he quan i y and quali y
o he cemen ma ix. The quali y is mainly in luenced by he wa e -cemen a io [31], bu
also by he use o ac i e admix u es [32]. Due o he same wa e -cemen a io and compo-
si ion, he quali y o he cemen ma ix wi hin he indi idual samples R1 o R5 can be
conside ed simila . The highes alue o cha ge ans e is shown by he sample R1, 3884
± 236 C, which co esponds o he lowes densi y o 2180 ± 5 kg·m
−3
. This may be caused
by poo e compac ibili y and he o ma ion o ca i ies/open mic opo es, which would in-
dica e lowe densi y and highe pe meabili y [33]. Compa ed o he esul s o mechanical
p ope ies, he esul s a e simila , and he sample o R1 also shows he wo s p ope ies.
The bes a e age esul s a e achie ed by he sample R4, 2833 ± 123 C wi h a co ec ed
densi y o 2254 ± 4 kg·m
−3
. These esul s could be ela ed o he highes con en o 4/10 mm
ac ion. I would ep esen he smalles a ea o he in e acial zone, which is conside ed
o be he mos po ous and hus he mos pe meable pa o cemen composi es [34].
In gene al, all composi es wi hin he composi ion o R1 o R5 show “mode a e chlo-
ide pe meabili y (2000–4000 C) ypical o con en ional Po land cemen conc e e wi h
w/c o 0.4–0.5 [27]”, which also co esponds o he designed wa e -cemen a io. The e-
sul s a e also compa able o a simila expe imen using glass as a subs i u e o na u al
ille in conc e e [35].
4. Resul s
Based on he cu en esul s o he esea ch, he aim o which is a 100% eplacemen
o na u al agg ega e in cemen composi es wi h ecycled glass om sola panels a he end
o hei li e cycle, he ollowing conclusions can be d awn:
● Replacemen o na u al agg ega e wi h ecycled glass ac ion 0/10 mm is possible;
● The densi ies o ecycled glass ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm, ac ion 0.5/1 mm, ac ion 1/4 mm
and ac ion 4/10 mm a e simila and each he alues o app oxima ely 2.5 mg/m
3
;
● The consis ency o esh cemen mix u e based on ecycled glass was wi hin he spill-
age ange o 183–200 mm. This means ha all he ecipes we e designed wi h a simi-
la consis ency o esh cemen mix u e wi h na u al agg ega e and ecycled glass
om pho o ol aic panels;
● The lexu al and comp essi e s eng hs a e almos iden ical o ecipes R1 o R5. In
case o lexu al s eng h, he alues a e wi hin he ange o 4.2–4.9 MPa, in case o
comp essi e s eng h, he alues a e wi hin he ange o 38.3–42.2 MPa;
Figu e 17. Resul s o he o al cha ge ans e o he equi alen diame e o he es specimen.
In gene al, all composi es wi hin he composi ion o R1 o R5 show “mode a e chlo ide
pe meabili y (2000–4000 C) ypical o con en ional Po land cemen conc e e wi h w/c
o 0.4–0.5 [
27
]”, which also co esponds o he designed wa e -cemen a io. The esul s
a e also compa able o a simila expe imen using glass as a subs i u e o na u al ille in
conc e e [35].
4. Resul s
Based on he cu en esul s o he esea ch, he aim o which is a 100% eplacemen o
na u al agg ega e in cemen composi es wi h ecycled glass om sola panels a he end o
hei li e cycle, he ollowing conclusions can be d awn:
•Replacemen o na u al agg ega e wi h ecycled glass ac ion 0/10 mm is possible;
•
The densi ies o ecycled glass ac ion 0.0/0.5 mm, ac ion 0.5/1 mm, ac ion
1/4 mm and ac ion 4/10 mm a e simila and each he alues o app oxima ely
2.5 mg/m3;
•
The consis ency o esh cemen mix u e based on ecycled glass was wi hin he
spillage ange o 183–200 mm. This means ha all he ecipes we e designed wi h a
simila consis ency o esh cemen mix u e wi h na u al agg ega e and ecycled glass
om pho o ol aic panels;
•
The lexu al and comp essi e s eng hs a e almos iden ical o ecipes R1 o R5. In
case o lexu al s eng h, he alues a e wi hin he ange o 4.2–4.9 MPa, in case o
comp essi e s eng h, he alues a e wi hin he ange o 38.3–42.2 MPa;
•
Wi h 100% eplacemen o na u al agg ega e wi h ecycled glass om pho o ol aic
panels in cemen composi es, i is necessa y o ake in o accoun a dec ease in lexu al
s eng h and comp essi e s eng h by app oxima ely 20–30%;
•
The esul s o he image analysis ha e con i med he non-dis up ion o he con ac
zone be ween he g ains o he ecycled glass and he cemen ing compound. They ha e
also con i med he possibili y o su ace ea men o cemen composi es by g inding
and polishing in o de o enhance he 3D e ec o glass g ains in cemen composi e;
Ma e ials 2021,14, 6655 18 o 19
•
Based on he RCP es , i has been ound ha he pe meabili y o cemen composi es
wi h ecycled glass om pho o ol aic panels shows alues simila o con en ional
cemen composi es o a wa e -cemen a io o 0.4–0.5;
•
The RCP es has also demons a ed he possibili y o p ecise measu ing and de e -
mina ion o pe meabili y, and i s u he use in e alua ing he in e nal s uc u e o
cemen composi es can be seen in he e alua ion o he compac ion, homogenei y o
he po en ial o exposed su ace o he cemen composi e o esis he pene a ion o
agg essi e subs ances;
•
Fu u e esea ch will be ocused on he modi ica ion o ecipes R1 o R5 in o de o
inc ease he lexu al s eng h o a minimum alue o 6 MPa;
•
The p ac ical use o cemen composi es wi h 100% eplacemen o na u al agg ega e
wi h ecycled glass om pho o ol aic panels can be: acing ma e ial o in e io walls;
cons uc ion o he uppe laye o he loo (simila o e aso ma e ial);
•
Fu u e esea ch will be ocused on es ing he alkali–silica eac ion o ecycled glass
g ains om sola panels. Fu he mo e, we will deal wi h he issue o su ace ea men
(g inding, polishing) o he designed cemen composi es o he pu pose o hei
po en ial use in he in e io as pa ing o iling ma e ial.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, K.M., V.V., R.F. and T.D.; me hodology, V.V., K.M., T.D.
and R.F.; alida ion, K.M., V.V. and T.D.; o mal analysis, K.M., V.V. and T.D.; in es iga ion, K.M.,
R.F., V.V., J.C. and M.L.; esou ces, K.M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, K.M., V.V., T.D. and
R.F.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, K.M., V.V. and T.D.; isualiza ion, K.M., V.V. and T.D.; supe ision,
V.V.; p ojec adminis a ion, K.M.; unding acquisi ion, K.M. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he
published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by VSB-TUO, Facul y o Mining and Geology—g an s numbe
SP2021/21 and Suppo o Science and Resea ch in he Mo a ian-Silesian Region—g an numbe
RRC/02/2020.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable upon eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
Recycling o Pho o ol aic Panels on he End o Li e. A ailable online: h ps://oze. zb-in o.cz/ o o ol aika/7868- ecyklace-
o o ol aickych-panelu-na-konci-zi o nos i (accessed on 19 Sep embe 2021).
2.
Weckend, S.; Wade, A.; Hea h, G.A. End o Li e Managemen : Sola Pho o ol aic Panels; Na ional Renewable Ene gy Lab. (NREL):
Golden, CO, USA, 2016.
3.
Eu opean Union. Di ec i e 2012/19/EU o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 4 July 2012 on Was e Elec ical and
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