Ci a ion: Rajesh, D.; Lenin, N.; Cep,
R.; Anand, P.; Elango an, M.
Expe imen al In es iga ion o
Bi-Di ec ional Flax wi h Ramie Fib e-
Rein o ced Phenol-Fo maldehyde
Hyb id Composi es. Polyme s 2022,
14, 4887. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
polym14224887
Academic Edi o : Se gio
Ne es Mon ei o
Recei ed: 12 Oc obe 2022
Accep ed: 10 No embe 2022
Published: 12 No embe 2022
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
polyme s
A icle
Expe imen al In es iga ion o Bi-Di ec ional Flax wi h Ramie
Fib e-Rein o ced Phenol-Fo maldehyde Hyb id Composi es
Du asulu Rajesh 1,*, Naga ajan Lenin 1, Robe Cep 2, Palani el Anand 1and Muniyandy Elango an 3
1Depa men o Mechanical Enginee ing, Vel Tech Ranga ajan D . Sagun hala R&D Ins i u e o Science and
Technology, A adi 600 062, India
2Depa men o Machining, Assembly and Enginee ing Me ology, Facul y o Mechanical Enginee ing,
VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 2172/15, 708 00 Os a a, Czech Republic
3Depa men o R&D, Bond Ma ine Consul ancy, London EC1V 2NX, UK
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Mode n esea ch ocuses on na u al, g een, and sus ainable ma e ials ha can be used o
eplace con en ional ma e ials. Because o hei bene icial quali ies, na u al ib e composi es a e
being ho oughly esea ched. This esea ch ocuses on he de elopmen o a lax ib e ein o ced
wi h phenol- o maldehyde esin hyb idiza ion wi h amie ib e h ough a acuum in usion p ocess.
Eigh di e en sequences we e ab ica ed using a co e–shea h s uc u e and we e mechanically
cha ac e ized as pe ASTM s anda ds. The ab ica ion echnique in luences he adhesion o he
ma ix wi h ein o cemen . The esul s also e eal ha composi e ha ing amie as a shea h laye
and lax as a co e deli e s good mechanical cha ac e is ics compa ed o ice e sa. The lamina e
H exhibi ed highes mechanical p ope ies among all he eigh lamina es p oduced o his s udy.
I exhibi ed a ensile s eng h o 54 MPa, ensile modulus o 0.98 Gpa, elonga ion o 7.1%, lexu al
s eng h o 143 Mpa, and comp essi e s eng h o 63.65 Mpa. The s ess s ain cu es e ealed
ha all he lamina es exhibi ed duc ile beha iou be o e ailing du ing he ensile es and lexu al
es , espec i ely. The s acking sequence o he lamina e H in luenced he mechanical p ope ies
exhibi ed by i and i s coun e pa s. A mo phological s udy was ca ied ou o analyse he ailu e
su aces. Mo phological analysis exhibi ed ew de ec s in he lamina e a e he es s. The composi es
de eloped deli e s be e mechanical p ope ies han comme cial composi es a ailable on he ma ke ,
which can be used in ligh weigh s uc u al applica ions.
Keywo ds:
lax; amie; phenol o maldehyde esin; acuum in usion p ocess; mechanical es ing;
scanning elec on mic oscope
1. In oduc ion
In pas ew yea s, he e has been an inc ease in he use o syn he ic ib es (e.g., ca bon
and glass) o s eng hening o ein o cing enginee ing s uc u es [
1
–
3
]. wi h ega d o his
applica ion, he i e esis ance pe o mance o syn he ic ib es is a signi ican challenge and
declines abno mally when exposed o ele a ed empe a u e [
4
–
6
]. A po en ial al e na i e
is he hyb idiza ion o a composi e made o polyme ic ma ices ein o ced wi h syn he ic
and na u al ib es, which gi es good mechanical enac men [
7
–
9
]. Na u al ib es ha e
lowe speci ic g a i y and a e biodeg adable when compa ed o syn he ic ib es [
10
].
Howe e , na u al ib es equen ly exhibi di icul y in compa ibili y among ib e and
polyme ma ixes. I is caused by he hyd ophobic na u e o ib e and ma ix incompa ibili y,
which can also be imp o ed by su ace modi ica ion [
11
–
13
]. Na u al ib es, pa icula ly
bas ib es, a e an excellen subs i u e o con en ional ib es due o hei ease o ex ac ion,
a ailabili y, ligh weigh , low densi y, biodeg adabili y, and high speci ic s eng h [
14
–
16
].
Na u al ib e quali ies a y depending on how hey a e g own and ex ac ed [
17
–
19
]. To
eplace he applica ion o syn he ic ib es in a ious ields such as ae ospace, au omo i e
g ow h o na u al ib e-based composi es is widely conside ed. Hyb idiza ion ep esen s
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/polym14224887 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/polyme s
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 2 o 18
an e olu ion o widening he unc ion o composi e ma e ials, especially in ad anced
applica ions, by maximizing oughness o impac esis ance [
20
]. Na een e al. s udied
he mechanical p ope ies o Ke la /Cocos nuci e a shea h- ein o ced composi e wi h
di e en weigh ac ion and epo ed ha Cocos nuci e a shea h has he po en ial o
eplace he Ke la ib e polyme composi e [
21
]. Gi idha an assessed he cha ac e is ics o
a glass/ amie ib e- ein o ced composi e a a ious weigh pe cen ages. The addi ion o a
small ac ion o glass o he ib e esul ed in inc eased p ope ies o amie, making i low-
cos and eco- iendly [
22
]. Yang e al. concen a ed on he e ec s o unmodi ied amie ib e-
ein o ced polyp opylene using mel ing hyb id echnology o acqui e good mechanical
p ope ies. Modi ied ib e he eby has mo e ib e ein o cemen han unmodi ied amie
ib e. The he mal deg ada ion empe a u e is educed because o he polyp opylene/ amie
ib e [
23
]. Composi e lamina e ab ica ion is shi ing away om adi ional hand layup
p ocesses and owa d new echniques such as esin in usion, acuum-assis ed esin ans e
moulding (VARTM), acuum bagging, e c. I esul s om lowe labou , ma e ial, and
equipmen cos s, which inc ease he quali y and a o dabili y o p oducing pa s. Na u al
ib e- ein o ced composi e lamina e made using bio-based epoxy esin o e s a high ib e
olume ac ion and low p ocessing cos s. The de eloped composi e is in ended o
indus ies ha equi e cheap cos , ligh weigh , and a minimal ca bon oo p in [
24
–
27
].
Sanjee i e al. used he hand layup me hod o in es iga e he e ec o a hyb id na u al
ib e phenol– o maldehyde composi e. Th ee di e en weigh pe cen ages we e conside ed
(25%, 35%, 45%). The 35% ib e ein o cemen composi e pe o med be e in ib e–ma ix
bonding han he o he wo ab ica ed composi es [
28
]. G a ing o nano-silica o su ace o
amie ib e imp o es he su ace oughness, which esul s in he enhancemen o mechanical
and he mal p ope ies [
29
]. A shea lag model was de eloped o s udy he load ans e
mechanism o composi es in nanohyb id shish-kebab s uc u es. I shows p onounced
e ec s in elas ic modulus and mo phology [
30
]. Swamy e al. in es iga ed he e ec o a eca
ib e on i s s eng h. A eca- ea ed phenol- o maldehyde abso bs a signi ican quan i y o
mois u e ea ly on, and biodeg ada ion occu s slowly, which is ad an ageous in s uc u al
applica ions and packaging sec o s [
31
]. The mois u e, chemical esis ance, and mechanical
p ope ies o pine needles a e ein o ced wi h phenol– o maldehyde, which is essen ial in
selec ing applica ions in a ious ields [
32
]. Joseph e al. obse ed ha banana ib e, when
soaked wi h phenol– o maldehyde, imp o es mechanical cha ac e is ics and in e acial
shea s eng h when compa ed o glass ib es [
33
]. Sa hyaseelan e al. s udied he in luence
o s acking sequence in he hyb id composi e, which is essen ial o inc easing he mechanical
p ope ies o composi e lamina e [
34
]. Because o ising en i onmen al awa eness and i s
g ea quali y o subs i u e ossil uel and non- enewable esou ces in ein o cing composi e
ma e ials, many esea che s ha e examined he sus ainabili y o na u al ib e in di e se
applica ions [
35
,
36
]. Hyb idiza ion is he p ocess o combining wo o mo e elemen s o
c ea e a composi e ha can be o ally na u al, comple ely syn he ic, o a blend o na u al
and syn he ic ma e ials. Weigh ac ion, s acking sequence, olume ac ion, chemical
ea men , and ambien a iables a e all impo an elemen s in composi es [37–40].
As pe he e iewed li e a u e, he e has been li le s udy on he mechanical e al-
ua ion o he mose -based hyb id composi e lamina es made using lax/ amie/phenol–
o maldehyde cons i uen ma e ials. The hyb idiza ion me hod was employed o gene a e
low-cos composi es. The main objec i e o his s udy is o in es iga e he in luence o
he s acking sequence o lax/ amie ib e-based hyb id composi es on hei mechanical
p ope ies, such as ensile, lexu al, comp essi e, impac , and ha dness. Mo phological
analysis was conduc ed using a scanning elec on mic oscope o s udy he ac u ed su ace
o he composi e.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Flax Fib e
Flax ib e is de i ed om lowe ing plan s in he Linum Usi a issimum species, as
illus a ed in Figu e 1a. Flax ib e, ex ac ed om he plan , is mode a ely s onge han
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 3 o 18
co on ib e. Because i is a obus and s u dy ib e, i is mos ly employed in he ex ile
indus y in Wes e n coun ies. The bene i s o lax ib e include i s densi y, enewable
na u e, educed haza d as compa ed o glass ib es, and he ac ha objec s made om lax
do no end o lose hei shape. Fib es we e pu chased om Go G een P oduc s P . L d.,
Chennai, India.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 19
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Flax Fib e
Flax ib e is de i ed om lowe ing plan s in he Linum Usi a issimum species, as il-
lus a ed in Figu e 1a. Flax ib e, ex ac ed om he plan , is mode a ely s onge han
co on ib e. Because i is a obus and s u dy ib e, i is mos ly employed in he ex ile
indus y in Wes e n coun ies. The bene i s o lax ib e include i s densi y, enewable
na u e, educed haza d as compa ed o glass ib es, and he ac ha objec s made om
lax do no end o lose hei shape. Fib es we e pu chased om Go G een P oduc s P .
L d., Chennai, India.
(a) (b)
Figu e 1. Bidi ec ional wo en shee o (a) lax ib e (b) amie ib e.
2.2. Ramie Fib e
Ramie ib e is gene a ed om a lowe ing plan o he U icaceae amily, as seen in
Figu e 1b. I is one o he s onges ib es and e ains i s s eng h when we . I is used in
he packaging indus y, ishing ne s, and o a lesse ex en in clo hing and ab ics. The
physical p ope ies o he ma e ial used o ab ica ion a e p esen ed in Table 1.
Table 1. Physical p ope ies o he ein o cemen ma e ials.
Physical P ope ies Flax Fib e Ramie Fib e
Densi y (g/cm
3
) 1.50 1.56
Tensile s eng h (MPa) 800 1000
Young’s modulus (GPa) 27.6 61.4–128
Elonga ion o b eak (%) 2.7–3.2 3.6–3.8
2.3. Phenol–Fo maldehyde
Because o i s supe io su ace smoo hness, s eng h, low cos , and high i e e-
sis ance, phenol– o maldehyde, o en known as phenolic esin, is gaining popula i y o e
o he esins. These esins a e syn he ic polyme s made by eac ing phenol wi h o malde-
hyde. Phenol– o maldehyde esin is p ima ily used in p oduc ion o ci cui boa ds. The
esin is mixed wi h a ha dene in a a io o 12.5:1. Resin and ha dene a e s i ed con inu-
ously o 5 min o apply he mixed ca alys o 30 min. Cu ing and pos cu ing o compo-
si es is commended o ob ain op imal mechanical p ope ies. The ab ica ed composi e
lamina e is cu ed a oom empe a u e. ABR O ganics Limi ed Telangana (Hyde abad,
India) supplies phenol– o maldehyde esins and he ha dene .
Figu e 1. Bidi ec ional wo en shee o (a) lax ib e (b) amie ib e.
2.2. Ramie Fib e
Ramie ib e is gene a ed om a lowe ing plan o he U icaceae amily, as seen in
Figu e 1b. I is one o he s onges ib es and e ains i s s eng h when we . I is used in he
packaging indus y, ishing ne s, and o a lesse ex en in clo hing and ab ics. The physical
p ope ies o he ma e ial used o ab ica ion a e p esen ed in Table 1.
Table 1. Physical p ope ies o he ein o cemen ma e ials.
Physical P ope ies Flax Fib e Ramie Fib e
Densi y (g/cm3)1.50 1.56
Tensile s eng h (MPa) 800 1000
Young’s modulus (GPa) 27.6 61.4–128
Elonga ion o b eak (%) 2.7–3.2 3.6–3.8
2.3. Phenol–Fo maldehyde
Because o i s supe io su ace smoo hness, s eng h, low cos , and high i e esis ance,
phenol– o maldehyde, o en known as phenolic esin, is gaining popula i y o e o he
esins. These esins a e syn he ic polyme s made by eac ing phenol wi h o maldehyde.
Phenol– o maldehyde esin is p ima ily used in p oduc ion o ci cui boa ds. The esin
is mixed wi h a ha dene in a a io o 12.5:1. Resin and ha dene a e s i ed con inuously
o 5 min o apply he mixed ca alys o 30 min. Cu ing and pos cu ing o composi es is
commended o ob ain op imal mechanical p ope ies. The ab ica ed composi e lamina e is
cu ed a oom empe a u e. ABR O ganics Limi ed Telangana (Hyde abad, India) supplies
phenol– o maldehyde esins and he ha dene .
2.4. Vacuum In usion P ocess
The cu en s udy employed he acuum in usion p ocess o ab ica e composi e
lamina e. Manu ac u ing high-s eng h composi e pa s compa able o composi e lamina es
c ea ed om p ep eg, he au ocla e p ocess, and so on is cos -e ec i e. In mos cases, he
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 4 o 18
acuum in usion p ocess is ca ied ou in a closed sys em. A pe o a ed ilm is placed in he
acuum bag du ing his p ocess; d y ib e and elease ilm a e placed on op o he mould
su ace and sealed inside he acuum bag [
41
]. Vacuum bag se up was cons uc ed in house.
Figu e 2illus a es how he acuum o ce mo es esin down a symme y line om he
esin con aine in o he acuum bag. The p esence o mo e ib e causes he imp egna ion
ime o be delayed.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 19
2.4. Vacuum In usion P ocess
The cu en s udy employed he acuum in usion p ocess o ab ica e composi e lam-
ina e. Manu ac u ing high-s eng h composi e pa s compa able o composi e lamina es
c ea ed om p ep eg, he au ocla e p ocess, and so on is cos -e ec i e. In mos cases, he
acuum in usion p ocess is ca ied ou in a closed sys em. A pe o a ed ilm is placed in
he acuum bag du ing his p ocess; d y ib e and elease ilm a e placed on op o he
mould su ace and sealed inside he acuum bag [41]. Vacuum bag se up was cons uc ed
in house. Figu e 2 illus a es how he acuum o ce mo es esin down a symme y line
om he esin con aine in o he acuum bag. The p esence o mo e ib e causes he im-
p egna ion ime o be delayed.
Figu e 2. Vacuum in usion p ocess.
2.5. Composi e Specimen P epa a ion
The ab ica ion o composi e specimens was p epa ed by acuum in usion p ocess.
I is one o he mos cos -e ec i e manu ac u ing echniques among moulding echniques.
Phenol– o maldehyde esin along he ha dene was mixed and used as a ma ix in a a io
o 12.5:1. The bo om o he mould was coa ed wi h eleasing agen o easy emo al o
he specimen, and he i s laye o ib e was kep o e he coa ed su ace a e d ying o
eleasing agen . Subsequen ly, he o he ou laye s o ib es we e kep one a e he o he
and he esin was d i en h ough he lamina e using acuum p essu e. Once a comple e
acuum was achie ed he esin was sucked in o lamina e ia he ca e ul placing o he
ube. Eigh di e en s acking sequences we e used in his expe imen al s udy as shown
in Figu e 3. The ab ica ed composi e lamina e was a size o 300 × 300 × mm3. I was
allowed o cu e o 24 h a oom empe a u e. Once he cu ing p ocess was comple ed, he
lamina e was emo ed om he acuum se up and cu acco ding o ASTM s anda ds. The
s acking sequence o ab ica ed hyb id lamina e and i s con igu a ion a e shown in Table
2.
Table 2. Sequence o p epa ed specimen.
Sample Specimen*
Weigh o
Lamina e
(g)
Thickness o
Flax Fibe
(mm)
Thickness o
Ramie Fibe
(mm)
Weigh o
Fibe
(g)
Weigh o
Ma ix
(g)
Weigh o Fi-
be (%)
Weigh o
Ma ix
(%)
A FFFFF 412 4.15 - 131 281 32 68
B RRRRR 374 - 4.60 124 250 33 67
C FFRFF 364 3.32 0.92 128 236 35 65
D RRFRR 396 0.83 3.68 127 269 32 68
Figu e 2. Vacuum in usion p ocess.
2.5. Composi e Specimen P epa a ion
The ab ica ion o composi e specimens was p epa ed by acuum in usion p ocess. I
is one o he mos cos -e ec i e manu ac u ing echniques among moulding echniques.
Phenol– o maldehyde esin along he ha dene was mixed and used as a ma ix in a a io
o 12.5:1. The bo om o he mould was coa ed wi h eleasing agen o easy emo al o
he specimen, and he i s laye o ib e was kep o e he coa ed su ace a e d ying o
eleasing agen . Subsequen ly, he o he ou laye s o ib es we e kep one a e he o he
and he esin was d i en h ough he lamina e using acuum p essu e. Once a comple e
acuum was achie ed he esin was sucked in o lamina e ia he ca e ul placing o he
ube. Eigh di e en s acking sequences we e used in his expe imen al s udy as shown
in Figu e 3. The ab ica ed composi e lamina e was a size o 300
×
300
×
mm
3
. I was
allowed o cu e o 24 h a oom empe a u e. Once he cu ing p ocess was comple ed, he
lamina e was emo ed om he acuum se up and cu acco ding o ASTM s anda ds. The
s acking sequence o ab ica ed hyb id lamina e and i s con igu a ion a e shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Sequence o p epa ed specimen.
Sample Specimen *
Weigh o
Lamina e
(g)
Thickness
o Flax
Fibe
(mm)
Thickness
o Ramie
Fibe
(mm)
Weigh o
Fibe
(g)
Weigh o
Ma ix
(g)
Weigh o
Fibe
(%)
Weigh o
Ma ix
(%)
A FFFFF 412 4.15 - 131 281 32 68
B RRRRR 374 - 4.60 124 250 33 67
C FFRFF 364 3.32 0.92 128 236 35 65
D RRFRR 396 0.83 3.68 127 269 32 68
E FRFRF 352 2.49 1.84 129 223 37 63
F RFRFR 374 1.66 2.76 129 245 35 65
G FRRRF 358 1.66 2.76 129 229 36 64
H RFFFR 372 2.49 1.84 130 242 35 65
* F—Flax: R—Ramie.
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 5 o 18
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 19
E FRFRF 352 2.49 1.84 129 223 37 63
F RFRFR 374 1.66 2.76 129 245 35 65
G FRRRF 358 1.66 2.76 129 229 36 64
H RFFFR 372 2.49 1.84 130 242 35 65
* F—Flax: R—Ramie.
Figu e 3. Fab ica ed lamina e.
2.6. Composi e Cha ac e iza ion
The ensile es was pe o med in he FMI Uni e sal Tes ing Machine (UTM) (Pe ec
En e p ises, New Delhi, India) ollowing he ASTM: D638 s anda d, wi h dimensions o
165 mm × 19 mm and a c osshead speed o 2.5 mm/min. Tensile s eng h is impo an in
de e mining a ma e ial’s abili y o bea a load when exposed o ension in a UTM. Because
bo h he ein o cemen and he ma ix ma e ial we e b i le, he inal composi e ma e ial
was also agile. The lexu al specimens we e made by ASTM D790 s anda ds, wi h 127
mm × 12.7 mm dimensions and a c osshead speed o 2.5 mm/min. The h ee-poin bending
es was used o composi e lexu al es ing, and he load was applied unde p ecise con-
di ions. The gauge a he bo om o he specimen was used o measu e he de lec ion. The
Izod impac es was ca ied ou using Impac es ing machine model XJJU 5 unde ASTM
s anda d D256, wi h dimensions o 65.5 mm × 12.7 mm. The machine is made up o a
loading s ike ha has ixed kine ic ene gy when eleased. The dial indica es he amoun
o ene gy abso bed. The comp ession es was ca ied ou in an ASTM: D695-complian
uni e sal es ing machine made by FMI, wi h dimensions o 70 mm × 19 mm. I go e ns
he ma e ial’s beha iou when he specimen is c ushed unde load. Finally, he Sho e D
gadge pe o med he ha dness es by ASTM s anda d D2240. I measu es he dep h o
an inden a ion in a ma e ial by applying he needed o ce in a cons an ma e wi hou
shock wi h a s anda d p esse oo . The mo phological analysis o de eloped composi es
was examined by scanning elec on mic oscopy. F E I Quan a FEG 200 machine was used
o cap u e he image. Gold spu e ing o samples was pe o med o imp o e conduc i i y
be o e he mic os uc u e s udy was ca ied ou in polyme ic-based specimens. To e alu-
a e he mechanical p ope ies o he composi e lamina e a minimum o h ee samples we e
p epa ed, and he a e age o he h ee alues was aken o discussion.
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Tensile S eng h
Figu e 4 depic s he ensile s eng h o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es. The spec-
imens ac u ed be ween he ensile g ips and a he gauge egion; such phenomena occu
du ing ensile es ing unde cons an s ess condi ions a ising a he gauge egion. Fu -
he mo e, he en i e specimen ailed in a b i le manne in all cases, and he same can be
Figu e 3. Fab ica ed lamina e.
2.6. Composi e Cha ac e iza ion
The ensile es was pe o med in he FMI Uni e sal Tes ing Machine (UTM) (Pe ec
En e p ises, New Delhi, India) ollowing he ASTM: D638 s anda d, wi h dimensions o
165 mm
×
19 mm and a c osshead speed o 2.5 mm/min. Tensile s eng h is impo an in
de e mining a ma e ial’s abili y o bea a load when exposed o ension in a UTM. Because
bo h he ein o cemen and he ma ix ma e ial we e b i le, he inal composi e ma e ial
was also agile. The lexu al specimens we e made by ASTM D790 s anda ds, wi h
127 mm ×12.7 mm
dimensions and a c osshead speed o 2.5 mm/min. The h ee-poin
bending es was used o composi e lexu al es ing, and he load was applied unde p ecise
condi ions. The gauge a he bo om o he specimen was used o measu e he de lec ion.
The Izod impac es was ca ied ou using Impac es ing machine model XJJU 5 unde
ASTM s anda d D256, wi h dimensions o 65.5 mm
×
12.7 mm. The machine is made up o
a loading s ike ha has ixed kine ic ene gy when eleased. The dial indica es he amoun
o ene gy abso bed. The comp ession es was ca ied ou in an ASTM: D695-complian
uni e sal es ing machine made by FMI, wi h dimensions o
70 mm ×19 mm
. I go e ns
he ma e ial’s beha iou when he specimen is c ushed unde load. Finally, he Sho e D
gadge pe o med he ha dness es by ASTM s anda d D2240. I measu es he dep h o an
inden a ion in a ma e ial by applying he needed o ce in a cons an ma e wi hou shock
wi h a s anda d p esse oo . The mo phological analysis o de eloped composi es was
examined by scanning elec on mic oscopy. F E I Quan a FEG 200 machine was used o
cap u e he image. Gold spu e ing o samples was pe o med o imp o e conduc i i y
be o e he mic os uc u e s udy was ca ied ou in polyme ic-based specimens. To e alua e
he mechanical p ope ies o he composi e lamina e a minimum o h ee samples we e
p epa ed, and he a e age o he h ee alues was aken o discussion.
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Tensile S eng h
Figu e 4depic s he ensile s eng h o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es. The
specimens ac u ed be ween he ensile g ips and a he gauge egion; such phenomena
occu du ing ensile es ing unde cons an s ess condi ions a ising a he gauge egion.
Fu he mo e, he en i e specimen ailed in a b i le manne in all cases, and he same can
be seen in s ess–s ain beha iou . Among all he eigh lamina es, he highes s eng h
o 54 MPa was exhibi ed by lamina e H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and
co e o lax ib e due o good bonding o he ma ix and ein o cemen o he acuum
in usion p ocess. On he o he hand, hyb id lamina es D and F, which had an ou e and
al e na e laye o amie ib e, exhibi ed a ensile s eng h o 48.16% and 20.39% lowe
ensile s eng h han lamina e H, espec i ely. lamina e E, which consis ed o an al e na ing
laye o lax and amie ib es, exhibi ed a lowe ensile s eng h o 21.99 MPa. On he

Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 6 o 18
o he hand, lamina es A and B showed 38.89% and 42.61% lowe ensile s eng h han
lamina e H, espec i ely. Fu he mo e, he maximum ensile s eng h o he banyan/ amie
ib e- ein o ced hyb id composi e deal by Raja e al. was 24.63% lowe compa ed o
lamina e H since hey ab ica ed he lamina es using he hand layup echnique [
42
]. This
shows he in luence o ab ica ion echnique also plays a pi o al ole in hyb id composi es.
Simila ly, he esul o Mohana el e al. o he ju e and amie ib e combina ion was 35.18%
lowe compa ed o he ensile s eng h o lamina e H [
43
]. Chemical composi ions such as
cellulose, wax con en , and ib e angle a e con olled by he ensile p ope ies o na u al
ib e [
44
]. Hence, upon seeing he ensile s eng h o hyb id lamina es, i was concluded
ha ein o cemen and hyb idiza ion ha e a posi i e impac on he ensile p ope ies.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 19
seen in s ess–s ain beha iou . Among all he eigh lamina es, he highes s eng h o 54
MPa was exhibi ed by lamina e H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax
ib e due o good bonding o he ma ix and ein o cemen o he acuum in usion p o-
cess. On he o he hand, hyb id lamina es D and F, which had an ou e and al e na e laye
o amie ib e, exhibi ed a ensile s eng h o 48.16% and 20.39% lowe ensile s eng h
han lamina e H, espec i ely. lamina e E, which consis ed o an al e na ing laye o lax
and amie ib es, exhibi ed a lowe ensile s eng h o 21.99 MPa. On he o he hand, lam-
ina es A and B showed 38.89% and 42.61% lowe ensile s eng h han lamina e H, espec-
i ely. Fu he mo e, he maximum ensile s eng h o he banyan/ amie ib e- ein o ced
hyb id composi e deal by Raja e al. was 24.63% lowe compa ed o lamina e H since hey
ab ica ed he lamina es using he hand layup echnique [42]. This shows he in luence o
ab ica ion echnique also plays a pi o al ole in hyb id composi es. Simila ly, he esul
o Mohana el e al. o he ju e and amie ib e combina ion was 35.18% lowe compa ed
o he ensile s eng h o lamina e H [43]. Chemical composi ions such as cellulose, wax
con en , and ib e angle a e con olled by he ensile p ope ies o na u al ib e [44]. Hence,
upon seeing he ensile s eng h o hyb id lamina es, i was concluded ha ein o cemen
and hyb idiza ion ha e a posi i e impac on he ensile p ope ies.
Figu e 4. Tensile s eng h o specimen.
Figu e 5 depic s he s ess s. s ain ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es.
The g aph was plo ed om he esul ob ained du ing he ensile es . I is shown ha all
he eigh lamina es ha e a sudden aise in he s ess alue when he s ain was a ound
0.013. Un il his poin , he s ess a ied a di e en a es espec i e o he composi ion and
s acking sequences o he lamina es. I is in e ed ha he s acked laye s o he ein o ce-
men ma e ials o e ed esis ance agains he ex e nal load. Lamina e B main ained an al-
mos cons an s ess o 20 MPa o he majo i y o he s ain. Howe e , his lamina e a -
ained a maximum s ess o 23 MPa a he 0.044 s ain. Compa ed among he eigh lami-
na es, his was he lowes . I is in e ed ha he i e laye s o amie ib es we e able o
abso b ela i ely less load causing i o exhibi minimal s ess. Howe e , he s ain alue
was conside ably g ea e han in lamina es such as A, C, D, and E.
Among all he eigh lamina es, he highes s ess o 54 MPa was exhibi ed by lamina e
H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good bonding o
he ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. This hyb id lamina e con in-
ued o abso b he load, g adually inc easing i s s ess un il i a ained he alue men ioned
Figu e 4. Tensile s eng h o specimen.
Figu e 5depic s he s ess s. s ain ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es.
The g aph was plo ed om he esul ob ained du ing he ensile es . I is shown ha
all he eigh lamina es ha e a sudden aise in he s ess alue when he s ain was a ound
0.013. Un il his poin , he s ess a ied a di e en a es espec i e o he composi ion
and s acking sequences o he lamina es. I is in e ed ha he s acked laye s o he
ein o cemen ma e ials o e ed esis ance agains he ex e nal load. Lamina e B main ained
an almos cons an s ess o 20 MPa o he majo i y o he s ain. Howe e , his lamina e
a ained a maximum s ess o 23 MPa a he 0.044 s ain. Compa ed among he eigh
lamina es, his was he lowes . I is in e ed ha he i e laye s o amie ib es we e able o
abso b ela i ely less load causing i o exhibi minimal s ess. Howe e , he s ain alue
was conside ably g ea e han in lamina es such as A, C, D, and E.
Among all he eigh lamina es, he highes s ess o 54 MPa was exhibi ed by lamina e
H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good bonding o he
ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. This hyb id lamina e con inued
o abso b he load, g adually inc easing i s s ess un il i a ained he alue men ioned
abo e. A e ha , he s ess dec eased slowly be o e i ailed a a s ain alue o 0.07. The
end in he s ess-s ain cu e shows ha his hyb id lamina e exhibi ed duc ile beha iou .
Fu he mo e, all he es specimens ailed in a duc ile manne in all cases.
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 7 o 18
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 19
abo e. A e ha , he s ess dec eased slowly be o e i ailed a a s ain alue o 0.07. The
end in he s ess-s ain cu e shows ha his hyb id lamina e exhibi ed duc ile beha -
iou . Fu he mo e, all he es specimens ailed in a duc ile manne in all cases.
Figu e 5. S ess s. s ain cu e du ing ensile es ing.
Figu e 6 depic s he ensile modulus ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es.
The e o ba is plo ed along in he ba cha plo ed o he ensile modulus. These e o
ba s we e ob ained by aking h ee es s con inuously o he same lamina e ma e ial.
Among all eigh lamina es, he highes ensile modulus o 0.98 GPa was exhibi ed by lam-
ina e H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good bonding
o ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. Lamina e G showed he second-
highes ensile modulus o 0.96 GPa, which had an ou e laye o lax ib e and amie ib e
as co e due o good bonding o ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess.
The end was simila o he esul ob ained o ensile s eng h. This e eals ha he s ack-
ing sequence o he ein o cemen s plays a i al ole in hei p ope ies [45]. I is in e ed
ha sandwiching h ee consecu i e laye s o he same ib es po en ially inc eases he en-
sile moduli o he lamina es.
Figu e 7 depic s he elonga ion ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es. All he
composi es had mo e han 5% elonga ion. This e eals he duc ile beha iou o he lami-
na es. Among all eigh lamina es, he highes elonga ion o 7.1% was exhibi ed by lami-
na e H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good bonding
o ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. The hyb id lamina es D and F,
which had an ou e and al e na e laye o amie ib e, exhibi ed elonga ion o 1.6% and
1.8% lowe han lamina e H, espec i ely. This shows ha he in luence o ab ica ion
echnique also plays a pi o al ole in hyb id composi es. I is concluded ha ein o cemen
and hyb idiza ion ha e a posi i e impac on elonga ion p ope ies.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
STRESS (MPa)
STRAIN
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Figu e 5. S ess s. s ain cu e du ing ensile es ing.
Figu e 6depic s he ensile modulus ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es.
The e o ba is plo ed along in he ba cha plo ed o he ensile modulus. These
e o ba s we e ob ained by aking h ee es s con inuously o he same lamina e ma e ial.
Among all eigh lamina es, he highes ensile modulus o 0.98 GPa was exhibi ed by
lamina e H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good
bonding o ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. Lamina e G showed
he second-highes ensile modulus o 0.96 GPa, which had an ou e laye o lax ib e and
amie ib e as co e due o good bonding o ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion
p ocess. The end was simila o he esul ob ained o ensile s eng h. This e eals ha
he s acking sequence o he ein o cemen s plays a i al ole in hei p ope ies [
45
]. I is
in e ed ha sandwiching h ee consecu i e laye s o he same ib es po en ially inc eases
he ensile moduli o he lamina es.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 19
Figu e 6. Young’s modulus o he composi e.
Figu e 7. Elonga ion o b eak (%) o composi e.
Figu e 6. Young’s modulus o he composi e.
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 8 o 18
Figu e 7depic s he elonga ion ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed lamina es. All
he composi es had mo e han 5% elonga ion. This e eals he duc ile beha iou o he
lamina es. Among all eigh lamina es, he highes elonga ion o 7.1% was exhibi ed by
lamina e H, which had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good
bonding o ma ix and ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. The hyb id lamina es D
and F, which had an ou e and al e na e laye o amie ib e, exhibi ed elonga ion o 1.6%
and 1.8% lowe han lamina e H, espec i ely. This shows ha he in luence o ab ica ion
echnique also plays a pi o al ole in hyb id composi es. I is concluded ha ein o cemen
and hyb idiza ion ha e a posi i e impac on elonga ion p ope ies.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 19
Figu e 6. Young’s modulus o he composi e.
Figu e 7. Elonga ion o b eak (%) o composi e.
Figu e 7. Elonga ion o b eak (%) o composi e.
3.2. Flexu al S eng h
The ma e ial lexibili y plays a c i ical ole in esis ing he loads when i ac s pe pendic-
ula o he lamina e plane. The lexu al beha iou o he ab ica ed lamina es is b i le, as is
he ensile beha iou . In he p esen s udy, a h ee-poin lexu al analysis was used o ind
he lexu al s eng h o lamina es and he esul s a e compa ed in Figu e 8. A maximum
lexu al s eng h o 143 MPa was ob ained o lamina e H and a minimum lexu al s eng h
o 97.15 MPa o lamina e E. The lexu al s eng h o lamina e B, which had all i e laye s
o amie ib e, was 125.3 MPa, which was 8.26% mo e han i s coun e pa lamina e A. The
esul s show ha he lexu al s eng h o he hyb id lamina es was maximum when he
lamina e had amie as he ou e laye a he han lax. Fu he mo e, i is in e ed ha he
hyb idiza ion o amie wi h lax ib e had signi ican ly enhanced he lexu al p ope ies
o he lamina es due o ib e hyb idiza ion. The sequence o ib es in luenced he lexu al
cha ac e is ics o he composi e. As amie has good lexu al s eng h, he same was e lec ed
in amie as shell and lax as he co e lamina e [
46
,
47
]. Simila ly, amie and lax placed as
al e na i e laye s esul ed in be e lexu al s eng h han o he lamina es. When lexu al
loads a e applied o a composi e specimen, he ib es a he ex e nal posi ion a e highly
s essed [
48
]. P ope pene a ion o esin in o ib e in lexu al s eng h is highly dependen
on adhesi e p ope ies o ib e and ma ix [
49
]. I has addi ionally been s a ed ha he
hyb idiza ion o na u al ib e p o ides be e lexu al s eng h han single ib es [50].
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 9 o 18
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19
3.2. Flexu al S eng h
The ma e ial lexibili y plays a c i ical ole in esis ing he loads when i ac s pe pen-
dicula o he lamina e plane. The lexu al beha iou o he ab ica ed lamina es is b i le,
as is he ensile beha iou . In he p esen s udy, a h ee-poin lexu al analysis was used
o ind he lexu al s eng h o lamina es and he esul s a e compa ed in Figu e 8. A max-
imum lexu al s eng h o 143 MPa was ob ained o lamina e H and a minimum lexu al
s eng h o 97.15 MPa o lamina e E. The lexu al s eng h o lamina e B, which had all
i e laye s o amie ib e, was 125.3 MPa, which was 8.26% mo e han i s coun e pa lam-
ina e A. The esul s show ha he lexu al s eng h o he hyb id lamina es was maximum
when he lamina e had amie as he ou e laye a he han lax. Fu he mo e, i is in e ed
ha he hyb idiza ion o amie wi h lax ib e had signi ican ly enhanced he lexu al
p ope ies o he lamina es due o ib e hyb idiza ion. The sequence o ib es in luenced
he lexu al cha ac e is ics o he composi e. As amie has good lexu al s eng h, he same
was e lec ed in amie as shell and lax as he co e lamina e [46,47]. Simila ly, amie and
lax placed as al e na i e laye s esul ed in be e lexu al s eng h han o he lamina es.
When lexu al loads a e applied o a composi e specimen, he ib es a he ex e nal posi-
ion a e highly s essed [48]. P ope pene a ion o esin in o ib e in lexu al s eng h is
highly dependen on adhesi e p ope ies o ib e and ma ix [49]. I has addi ionally been
s a ed ha he hyb idiza ion o na u al ib e p o ides be e lexu al s eng h han single
ib es [50].
Figu e 8. Flexu al s eng h o specimen.
Figu e 9 depic s he lexu al s ess s. s ain ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed lam-
ina es. The g aph was plo ed om he esul s ob ained du ing he lexu al es . All he
lamina es exhibi ed a simila end in he changes o s ess and s ain. Among he eigh
lamina es, he highes lexu al s ess o 143 MPa was exhibi ed by lamina e H, which had
an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good bonding o ma ix and
ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. This hyb id lamina e con inued o abso b he
load g adually inc easing i s lexu al s ess ill i a ained he alue men ioned abo e. A -
e ha , he lexu al s ess dec eased slowly be o e i ailed a a s ain alue o 7.4%. The
Figu e 8. Flexu al s eng h o specimen.
Figu e 9depic s he lexu al s ess s. s ain ela ion o eigh di e en ab ica ed
lamina es. The g aph was plo ed om he esul s ob ained du ing he lexu al es . All
he lamina es exhibi ed a simila end in he changes o s ess and s ain. Among he
eigh lamina es, he highes lexu al s ess o 143 MPa was exhibi ed by lamina e H, which
had an ou e laye o amie ib e and co e o lax ib e due o good bonding o ma ix and
ein o cemen by acuum in usion p ocess. This hyb id lamina e con inued o abso b he
load g adually inc easing i s lexu al s ess ill i a ained he alue men ioned abo e. A e
ha , he lexu al s ess dec eased slowly be o e i ailed a a s ain alue o 7.4%. The
end in he lexu al s ess-s ain cu e shows ha his hyb id lamina e exhibi ed duc ile
beha iou . Fu he mo e, all he es specimens ailed in a duc ile manne in all cases.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 19
end in he lexu al s ess-s ain cu e shows ha his hyb id lamina e exhibi ed duc ile
beha iou . Fu he mo e, all he es specimens ailed in a duc ile manne in all cases.
Figu e 9. Flexu al s ess s. s ain o composi e.
3.3. Comp essi e S eng h
The ma ix ma e ial has an impo an in luence on he comp essi e s eng h o lam-
ina es. The leng h o he comp essi e es specimen is designed o elimina e global buck-
ling and o de elop pu e comp essi e s ess a he gauge sec ion. In Figu e 10, he com-
p essi e s eng h o lamina e H wi h amie as he ou e laye and lax as he co e is 69.65
MPa, he highes among he ab ica ed lamina es. On he o he hand, he comp essi e
s eng h o lamina e E wi h al e na e laye s o lax and amie is 34.20 MPa, he lowes o
he eigh lamina es. A he ou se , he abili y o he hyb id lamina es o abso b he com-
p essi e o ce imp o ed. Lamina e B, ha ing all i e laye s o amie ib e, had 51.95 MPa,
which was a 9.86% highe comp essi e s eng h han i s coun e pa , which had all i e
laye s o lax ib es. A good ib e esis ance o b eakou is exhibi ed when amie is placed
as he ou e laye [51]. The comp essi e s eng h plo ed o he eigh lamina es showed a
end simila o ha o he ensile es . I is in e ed ha he comp essi e beha iou o he
lamina es ma ched wi h he ensile es .
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
024681012
STRESS (MPa)
STRAIN
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Figu e 9. Flexu al s ess s. s ain o composi e.
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 16 o 18
4.
Mou i z, A.P.; Feih, S.; Kanda e, E.; Ma hys, Z.; Gibson, A.G.; Ja din, P.E.D.; Case, S.W.; La ime , B.Y. Re iew o Fi e S uc u al
Modelling o Polyme Composi es. Compos. Pa A Appl. Sci. Manu . 2009,40, 1800–1814. [C ossRe ]
5.
Dong, K.; Hu, K.; Gao, W. Fi e Beha io o Full-Scale CFRP-S eng hened RC Beams P o ec ed wi h Di e en Insula ion Sys ems.
J. Asian A ch. Build. Eng. 2016,15, 581–588. [C ossRe ]
6.
Li, C.; Xian, G. Expe imen al and Modeling S udy o he E olu ion o Mechanical P ope ies o PAN-Based Ca bon Fibe s a
Ele a ed Tempe a u es. Ma e ials 2019,12, 724. [C ossRe ]
7.
Chen, Z.; He, X.; Ge, J.; Fan, G.; Zhang, L.; Pa ez, A.M.; Wang, G. Con ollable ab ica ion o nano ib illa ed cellulose suppo ed
HKUST-1 hie a chically po ous memb anes o highly e icien emo al o o maldehyde in ai . Ind. C ops P od.
2022
,186, 115269.
[C ossRe ]
8.
Wang, Z.; Zhao, X.L.; Xian, G.; Wu, G.; Raman, R.K.S.; Al-Saadi, S. E ec o Sus ained Load and Seawa e and Sea Sand Conc e e
En i onmen on Du abili y o Basal - and Glass-Fib e Rein o ced Polyme (B/GFRP) Ba s. Co os. Sci.
2018
,138, 200–218.
[C ossRe ]
9.
Fio e, V.; Calab ese, L. E ec o Glass Fibe Hyb idiza ion on he Du abili y in Sal -Fog En i onmen o Pinned Flax Composi es.
Polyme s 2021,13, 4201. [C ossRe ]
10.
Mochane, M.J.; Mokhena, T.C.; Mokho hu, T.H.; M ibe, A.; Sadiku, E.R.; Ray, S.S.; Ib ahim, I.D.; Da amola, O.O. Recen P og ess
on Na u al Fibe Hyb id Composi es o Ad anced Applica ions: A Re iew. Exp ess Polym. Le . 2019,13, 159–198. [C ossRe ]
11.
Kabi , M.M.; Wang, H.; Lau, K.T.; Ca dona, F. Chemical T ea men s on Plan -Based Na u al Fib e Rein o ced Polyme Composi es:
An O e iew. Compos. B Eng. 2012,43, 2883–2892. [C ossRe ]
12.
Lubis, M.A.R.; Handika, S.O.; Sa i, R.K.; Iswan o, A.H.; An o , P.; K is ak, L.; Lee, S.H.; Pizzi, A. Modi ica ion o Ramie Fibe ia
Imp egna ion wi h Low Viscosi y Bio-Polyu e hane Resins De i ed om Lignin. Polyme s 2022,14, 2165. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
13.
Mogh ade nejad, S.; Ba jas eh, E.; Johnson, Z.; S olpe, T.; Banuelos, J. E ec o he mo-oxida i e aging on su ace cha ac e is ics
o benzoxazine and epoxy copolyme . J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2021,138, 50211. [C ossRe ]
14.
He, L.; Li, W.; Chen, D.; Zhou, D.; Lu, G.; Yuan, J. E ec s o Amino Silicone Oil Modi ica ion on P ope ies o Ramie Fibe and
Ramie Fibe /Polyp opylene Composi es. Ma e . Eng. 2015,77, 142–148. [C ossRe ]
15.
A is i, M.A.; Lubis, M.A.R.; Laksana, R.P.B.; Sa i, R.K.; Iswan o, A.H.; K is ak, L.; An o , P.; Pizzi, A. The mal and Mechanical
Pe o mance o Ramie Fibe s Modi ied wi h Polyu e hane Resins De i ed om Acacia Mangium Ba k Tannin. J. Ma e . Res.
Technol. 2022,18, 2413–2427. [C ossRe ]
16.
Liu, Z.-T.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, L.; Liu, Z.W.; Xiong, H. S udy on he Ca ionic Modi ica ion and Dyeing o Ramie Fibe . Cellulose
2007
,
14, 337–345. [C ossRe ]
17.
Pandey, J.K.; Ahn, S.H.; Lee, C.S.; Mohan y, A.K.; Mis a, M. Recen Ad ances in he Applica ion o Na u al Fib e Based
Composi es. Mac omol. Ma e . Eng. 2010,295, 975–989. [C ossRe ]
18.
Ku, H.; Wang, H.; Pa a achaiyakoop, N.; T ada, M. A e iew on he ensile p ope ies o na u al ib e ein o ced polyme
composi es. Compos. Pa B Eng. 2011,42, 856–873. [C ossRe ]
19.
Peças, P.; Ca alho, H.; Salman, H.; Lei e, M. Na u al ib e composi es and hei applica ions: A e iew. J. Compos. Sci.
2018
,2, 66.
[C ossRe ]
20.
Luo, G.; Xie, J.; Liu, J.; Zhang, Q.; Luo, Y.; Li, M.; Jiang, Z. Highly conduc i e, s e chable, du able, b ea hable elec odes based on
elec ospun polyu e hane ma s supe icially deco a ed wi h ca bon nano ubes o mul i unc ional wea able elec onics. Chem.
Eng. J. 2023,451, 138549. [C ossRe ]
21.
Na een, J.; Jawaid, M.; Zainudin, E.S.; Sul an, M.T.H.; Yahaya, R. Mechanical and Mois u e Di usion Beha iou o Hyb id
Ke la /Cocos Nuci e a Shea h Rein o ced Epoxy Composi es. J. Ma e . Res. Technol. 2019,8, 1308–1318. [C ossRe ]
22.
Gi idha an, R. P epa a ion and p ope y e alua ion o Glass/Ramie ib es ein o ced epoxy hyb id composi es. Compos. Pa B
Eng. 2019,167, 342–345. [C ossRe ]
23.
Zhang, Y.; Wen, B.; Cao, L.; Li, X.; Zhang, J. P epa a ion and p ope ies o unmodi ied amie ib e ein o ced polyp opylene
composi es. J. Wuhan Uni . Technol.-Ma e . Sci. Ed. 2015,30, 198–202. [C ossRe ]
24.
To es-A ellano, M.; Ren e ia-Rod íguez, V.; F anco-U quiza, E. Mechanical P ope ies o Na u al-Fib e-Rein o ced Biobased
Epoxy Resins Manu ac u ed by Resin In usion P ocess. Polyme s 2020,12, 2841. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
25.
Li, W.; K ehl, J.; Gillespie, J.W.; Heide , D.; End ula , M.; Hoch ein, K.; Dubois, C.J. P ocess and Pe o mance E alua ion o he
Vacuum-Assis ed P ocess. J. Compos. Ma e . 2004,38, 1803–1814. [C ossRe ]
26.
Hsiao, K.-T.; Heide , D. Vacuum assis ed esin ans e molding (VARTM) in polyme ma ix composi es. In Manu ac u ing
Techniques o Polyme Ma ix Composi es (PMCs); Woodhead Publishing: Saws on, UK, 2012; pp. 310–347. [C ossRe ]
27.
Cicala, G.; Pe golizzi, E.; Piscopo, F.; Ca bone, D.; Recca, G. Hyb id composi es manu ac u ed by esin in usion wi h a ully
ecyclable bioepoxy esin. Compos. Pa B Eng. 2018,132, 69–76. [C ossRe ]
28.
Sanjee i, S.; Shanmugam, V.; Kuma , S.; Ganesan, V.; Sas, G.; Johnson, D.J.; Das, O. E ec s o wa e abso p ion on he mechanical
p ope ies o hyb id na u al ib e/phenol o maldehyde composi es. Sci. Rep. 2021,11, 13385. [C ossRe ]
29.
Dil i, K.F.A.; Che, Z.J.; Xian, G.J. G a ing o Nano-Silica on o Ramie Fibe o Enhanced Mechanical and In e acial P ope ies o
Ramie/Epoxy Composi e. J. Zhejiang Uni . Sci. A 2019,20, 660–674. [C ossRe ]
30.
Chen, M.; Lu, Z. Load T ans e Mechanism o he Composi es Inco po a ing Nanohyb id Shish-Kebab S uc u es. Compos. S uc .
2015,121, 247–257. [C ossRe ]

Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 17 o 18
31.
Swamy, R.P.; Kuma , G.C.M.; V ushabhend appa, Y.; Joseph, V. S udy o A eca-Rein o ced Phenol Fo maldehyde Composi es. J.
Rein . Plas . Compos. 2004,23, 1373–1382. [C ossRe ]
32.
Thaku , V.K.; Singha, A.S. Mechanical and Wa e Abso p ion P ope ies o Na u al Fib es/Polyme Biocom-posi es. Polym. -Plas .
Technol. Eng. 2010,49, 694–700. [C ossRe ]
33.
Joseph, S.; S eekala, M.S.; Oommen, Z.; Koshy, P.; Thomas, S. A compa ison o he mechanical p ope ies o phenol o maldehyde
composi es ein o ced wi h banana ib es and glass ib es. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2002,62, 1857–1868. [C ossRe ]
34.
Sa hyaseelan, P.; Sellamu hu, P.; Palanimu hu, L. In luence o s acking sequence on mechanical p ope ies o a eca-kena
ib e- ein o ced polyme hyb id composi e. J. Na . Fib es 2020,19, 369–381.
35.
Dunne, R.; Desai, D.; Sadiku, R.; Jaya amudu, J. A e iew o na u al ib es, hei sus ainabili y and au omo i e applica ions. J.
Rein . Plas . Compos. 2016,35, 1041–1050. [C ossRe ]
36.
Lo i, A.; Li, H.; Dao, D.V.; P us y, G. Na u al ib e- ein o ced composi es: A e iew on ma e ial, manu ac u ing, and machinabili y.
J. The moplas . Compos. Ma e . 2019,34, 238–284. [C ossRe ]
37.
Sujon, M.A.S.; Habib, M.A.; Abedin, M.Z. Expe imen al in es iga ion o he mechanical and wa e abso p ion p ope ies on
ib e s acking sequence and o ien a ion o ju e/ca bon epoxy hyb id composi es. J. Ma e . Res. Technol.
2020
,9, 10970–10981.
[C ossRe ]
38.
EL-Waze y, M.S.; El-Keli y, A.M.E.; Elsad, R.A. E ec o Wa e Abso p ion on he Tensile Cha ac e is ics o Na u al/Syn he ic
Fab ics Rein o ced Hyb id Composi es. In . J. Eng. 2020,33, 2339–2446.
39.
Da Sil a, R.V.; Vol z, H.; Filho, A.I.; Milag e, M.X.; Machado, C.D.C. Hyb id composi es wi h glass ib e and na u al ib es o sisal,
coi , and lu a sponge. J. Compos. Ma e . 2020,55, 717–728. [C ossRe ]
40.
Fab is, H.J.; Knauss, W.G. Comp ehensi e Polyme Science and Supplemen s. In Syn he ic Polyme Adhesi es; Else ie : Ams e dam,
The Ne he lands, 1989; pp. 131–177. [C ossRe ]
41.
Roy, A.; Naska , A.; Ghosh, A.; Adhika i, J.; Saha, P.; Ghosh, M. Hyb id Plas ics and Na u al Ma e ials. Re e ence Module in Ma e ials
Science and Ma e ials Enginee ing; Else ie : Ams e dam, The Ne he lands, 2021. [C ossRe ]
42.
Raja, T.; Ra i, S.; Ka hick, A.; A zal, A.; Saleh, B.; A unkuma , M.; P asa h, S. Compa a i e S udy o Mechanical P ope ies and
The mal S abili y on Banyan/Ramie Fib e-Rein o ced Hyb id Polyme Composi e. Ad . Ma e . Sci. Eng.
2021
,2021, 5835867.
[C ossRe ]
43.
Mohana el, V.; Raja, T.; Yada , A.; Ra ichand an, M.; Winczek, J. E alua ion o Mechanical and The mal P ope ies o Ju e and
Ramie Rein o ced Epoxy-based Hyb id Composi es. J. Na . Fib es 2021, 1–11. [C ossRe ]
44.
Bajpai, P.K.; Singh, I.; Madaan, J. De elopmen and Cha ac e iza ion o PLA-Based G een Composi es: A Re iew. J. The moplas .
Compos. Ma e . 2014,27, 52–81. [C ossRe ]
45.
Gomes, A.; Ma suo, T.; Goda, K.; Ohgi, J. De elopmen and E ec o Alkali T ea men on Tensile P ope ies o Cu aua Fibe
G een Composi es. Compos. Pa A Appl. Sci. Manu . 2007,38, 1811–1820. [C ossRe ]
46.
He, L.P.; Tian, Y.; Wang, L.L. S udy on Ramie Fib e Rein o ced Polyp opylene Composi es (RF-PP) and i s Mechanical P ope ies.
Ad . Ma e . Res. 2008,41–42, 313–316. [C ossRe ]
47.
Ashok, D.; Puhan, S.; P adhan, R.; Babu, P.K.; Reddy, Y.S. An Expe imen al In es iga ion o New Hyb id Composi e Ma e ial
Using Ramie-Flax and I s Mechanical P ope ies h ough Fini e Elemen Me hod. Recen T ends Mech. Eng.
2020
, 431–446.
[C ossRe ]
48.
Gup a, S.; Haq, M.I.U.; Mohan, S.; Anand, A.; Raina, A.; Du a, V.; Kuma , R. E alua ion o mechanical p ope ies o amie/banana
ein o ced hyb id composi es. J. Mech. Eng. (JMechE) 2019,1, 95–104.
49.
Yousi , B.F.; Shalwan, A.; Chin, C.W.; Ming, K.C. Flexu al P ope ies o T ea ed and Un ea ed Kena /Epoxy Composi es. Ma e .
Eng. 2012,40, 378–385. [C ossRe ]
50.
Vedana ayanan, V.; Kuma , B.S.P.; Ka una, M.S.; Jayan hi, A.; Kuma , K.V.P.; Radha, A.; Ch is ophe , D. Expe imen al In es iga ion
on Mechanical Beha iou o Ke la and Ramie Fib e Rein o ced Epoxy Composi es. J. Nanoma e .
2022
,2022, 8802222. [C ossRe ]
51.
He e a-F anco, P.J.; Valadez-González, A. A S udy o he Mechanical P ope ies o Sho Na u al-Fibe Rein o ced Composi es.
Compos. B Eng. 2005,36, 597–608. [C ossRe ]
52.
Biswas, S.; Kindo, S.; Pa naik, A. E ec o ib e leng h on mechanical beha io o coi ib e ein o ced epoxy composi es. Fib es
Polym. 2011,12, 73–78. [C ossRe ]
53.
Kuma , R.; Anand, A. Fab ica ion and mechanical cha ac e iza ion o Indian amie ein o ced polyme compo-si es. Ma e . Res.
Exp ess 2019,6, 055303. [C ossRe ]
54.
Almeida Pon es, L.D.; Ne o, P.A.; Fe ei a, J.B.; Ma gem, F.M.; Mon ei o, S.N. Flexu al Mechanical Cha ac e -iza ion o Polyes e
Composi es Rein o ced wi h Ramie Fib es. Cha ac . Mine . Me . Ma e . 2016, 385–390. [C ossRe ]
55.
Kapila, K.; Saman a, S.; Ki ania, S. Fab ica ion and Cha ac e iza ion o Ramie Fib e Based Hyb id Composi es. In Recen Ad ances
in Mechanical Enginee ing; Lec u e No es in Mechanical Enginee ing; Sp inge : Singapo e, 2021; pp. 839–848. [C ossRe ]
56.
Ramesh, M.; Rajeshkuma , L.; Balaji, D. Mechanical and Dynamic P ope ies o Ramie Fib e-Rein o ced Composi es. Mech. Dyn.
P op. Biocomposi es 2021, 275–291. [C ossRe ]
57.
S ini asan, V.S.; Boopa hy, S.R.; Sangee ha, D.; Ramna h, B.V. E alua ion o Mechanical and The mal P ope ies o Banana–Flax
Based Na u al Fib e Composi e. Ma e . Eng. 2014,60, 620–627. [C ossRe ]
58.
Sa wa , A.; Mahboob, Z.; Zde o, R.; Boughe a a, H. Mechanical Cha ac e iza ion o a New Ke la /Flax/Epoxy Hyb id Composi e
in a Sandwich S uc u e. Polym. Tes . 2020,90, 106680. [C ossRe ]
Polyme s 2022,14, 4887 18 o 18
59.
Haameem, J.A.M.; Majid, M.S.A.; A endi, M.; Ma zuki, H.F.A.; Fahmi, I.; Gibson, A.G. Mechanical P ope ies o Napie G ass
Fib e/Polyes e Composi es. Compos. S uc . 2016,136, 1–10. [C ossRe ]
60.
Öz u k, S. E ec o Fibe Loading on he Mechanical P ope ies o Kena and Fibe ax Fibe -Rein o ced Phenol-Fo maldehyde
Composi es. J. Compos. Ma e . 2010,44, 2265–2288. [C ossRe ]
61.
Chaudha y, V.; Bajpai, P.K.; Maheshwa i, S. S udies on Mechanical and Mo phological Cha ac e iza ion o De eloped
Ju e/Hemp/Flax Rein o ced Hyb id Composi es o S uc u al Applica ions. J. Na . Fibe s 2018,15, 80–97. [C ossRe ]
62.
Zhong, J.B.; L , J.; Wei, C. Mechanical p ope ies o sisal ib e ein o ced U ea o maldehyde esin composi es. Exp ess Polym. Le .
2007,10, 681–687. [C ossRe ]