Ci a ion: Kalendo a, A.; Kupko a, J.;
U basko a, M.; Me inska, D.
Applica ions o Clays in
Nanocomposi es and Ce amics.
Mine als 2024,14, 93. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/min14010093
Academic Edi o : Janos K is o
Recei ed: 2 Decembe 2023
Re ised: 7 Janua y 2024
Accep ed: 9 Janua y 2024
Published: 13 Janua y 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
mine als
Re iew
Applica ions o Clays in Nanocomposi es and Ce amics
Alena Kalendo a 1,* , Jana Kupko a 2, Ma ina U basko a 1and Dagma Me inska 3
1
Depa men o Polyme Enginee ing, Facul y o Technology, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, Va ecko a 5669,
76001 Zlín, Czech Republic
2Nano echnology Cen e, CEET, VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 15,
70833 Os a a, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o P oduc ion Enginee ing, Facul y o Technology, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, Va ecko a
5669, 76001 Zlín, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +420-739-659-478
Abs ac : Clays and clay mine als a e common na u al ma e ials, he unique p ope ies o which ha e
a ac ed he in e es o he indus y, especially because hese ma e ials a e easily a ailable, cheap, and
non- oxic. Clays and clay mine als a e widely used in many applica ions, such as in ce amic p oduc-
ion, in he cla i ica ion o liquids, pollu an adso be s, ille in composi es and nanocomposi es, soil
amendmen s, in pha macy, e c. This e iew assesses he de elopmen in he a ea o clay applica ion
in nanocomposi es and ce amics. The i s pa o his s udy co e s polyme /clay nanocomposi es.
Topics o in e es include nano ille sou ces o polyme nanocomposi es, he possible ways o clay
modi ica ion, polyme /clay nanocomposi e classi ica ion and hei p ocessing, and polyme ma ix
o e iew wi h possible enhancemen o nanocomposi e p ope ies. Some o he applica ions ha e
al eady been comme cialized. App oxima ely 80% o he polyme /clay nanocomposi es a e des ined
o he au omo i e, ae onau ical, and packaging indus ies. The second pa o his s udy desc ibes
ce amic ma e ials wi h a ocus on silica e ce amics. Talc and kaolini e ep esen he main na u al aw
ma e ials o adi ional ce amic applica ions. Less adi ional co die i e, s ea i e, and o s e i e could
o e p ope y enhancemen and seem o be use ul in elec onics, elec ical enginee ing, ca alys s,
sola he mal s o age, o medical applica ions.
Keywo ds: clay; mon mo illoni e; nano ille ; ce amics; nanocomposi e
1. In oduc ion
In he las cen u y, he esea ch in he a ea o nano echnology s a ed new echnological
de elopmen . The e m “nano echnology” was used i s by he Japanese scien is No io
Taniguchi in 1974 [
1
]. Nano echnology wo ks in he a ea o inc edibly small dimensions, in
he ange o 1–100 nm. A nanome e (nm) is 10
−9
m, smalle han he wa eleng h o isible
ligh and a hund ed- housand h he wid h o a human hai . In some senses, nanoscience
and nano echnologies a e no new. Nanos uc u ed and nanocomposi e ma e ials a e
commonly ound in na u e and li ing beings (such as bone) [
2
]. Also, chemis s make
polyme s, which a e la ge molecules made up o nanoscale subuni s [3].
“Syn he ic” polyme /clay nanocomposi es ha e hei o igin in he pionee ing e-
sea ch a Toyo a Cen al Resea ch Labo a o ies. In addi ion, he i s p ac ical applica ion
o nanocomposi es, he nylon/mon mo illoni e iming bel co e on he Toyo a Cam y
au omobile, ela es o his company as well. Nowadays, he PA/clay nanocomposi es
ha e he la ges comme cial p esence in he applica ion ield. The global nanocomposi es
ma ke size was USD 5.6 billion in 2022 and is likely o each USD 18.3 billion by 2031 [
4
].
The ma ke g ow h is a ibu ed o he apid inc ease in he use o nanocomposi es in
biomedical applica ions and packaging. Fu he , ising demand o nanocomposi es has
been eco ded also in he sec o s o a ia ion, spo ing goods, and au omobile pa s [4].
Despi e he de elopmen in he a ea o polyme nanocomposi es and hei expanding
use in di e en applica ions, esea ch in polyme science and nano echnology con inues.
Mine als 2024,14, 93. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/min14010093 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/mine als
Mine als 2024,14, 93 2 o 24
Especially, i is necessa y o unde s and he p inciples o nanocomposi e beha io a he
nanome ic le el.
Clays and clay mine als ha e been accompanying humans since he dawn o his o y.
Clays and clay mine als, aw o a e modi ica ion, ha e g ea impo ance in a wide a ie y
o applica ions mainly due o hei abundan , inexpensi e, ine ness, s abili y, eac i i y, and
en i onmen ally iendly [
5
,
6
]. Clays a e na u ally occu ing ma e ials consis ing p ima ily
o he a ious clay mine als con en and deg ee o pu i y [
5
,
7
–
9
]. Clay mine als belong o
he phyllosilica e g oup wi h a laye ed s uc u e and wi h one dimension in he nanome e
ange [
5
,
9
]. The p incipal building elemen s o he clay mine als a e wo-dimensional shee s
o silicon-oxygen e ahed al and wo-dimensional shee s o aluminum- o magnesium-
oxygen-hyd oxyl oc ahed al [
10
]. Indi idual clay mine als, such as kaolin, clay, ben oni e,
and e miculi e, di e signi ican ly in hei composi ion and c ys al s uc u e which causes
di e en physical and chemical p ope ies (e.g., pa icle size, su ace chemis y, su ace
a ea, iscosi y, plas ici y, abso p ion, and adso p ion) [
7
,
8
,
11
]. In many cases, he clays
o clay mine als can be modi ied o ob ain imp o ed mechanical, he mal, s uc u al, o
unc ional p ope ies.
Clays and clay mine als ha e many indus ial applica ions such as ce amics [
12
,
13
],
pape coa ings [
14
,
15
], pes icides [
16
], pain s [
17
,
18
], pha maceu icals [
19
,
20
], ag icul-
u e [
21
,
22
], cons uc ion indus y [
23
], ion exchange s, sepa a o s, plas ics [
24
–
26
], cos-
me ics [
27
], insula ions [
28
], and elec ical applica ions. Clay mine als can also be used as
a good adso ben o wa e pu i ica ion due o lamella s uc u e, high ca ion exchange
capaci y, po e size dis ibu ion, and la ge su ace a ea [
29
]. Mo eo e , conside able a en-
ion ob ained he clay composi e o nanocomposi e ma e ials which can be inco po a ed
in o many a eas such as biomedical, cons uc ion, au omobile, emedia ion echnology,
pe oleum indus y, was ewa e , ea men , ae ospace, and nano echnology [30].
In ce amic echnology, he mos impo an and mos widely used na u al aw ma e ials
also belong o clay mine als such as kaolini e, illi e, mon mo illoni e, alc, py ophylli e,
and se pen ine [
31
]. Gene ally, ce amic ma e ials show a combina ion o use ul p ope ies
such as high s eng h and s i ness a e y high empe a u es, chemical ine ness, and
low densi y. Thei applica ions a e es ic ed owing o hei b i le beha io . Co die i e,
ens a i e, and o s e i e a e silica e ma e ials ha o m he main componen s o he e na y
sys em MgO-Al
2
O
3
-SiO
2
. One o he me hods o he syn hesis o hese ce amic ypes is
he sin e ing o na u al aw ma e ials including clay and clay mine als, especially kaolini e,
alc, and a combina ion o bo h mine als. The impo an p ope ies ela ing o applica-
ions o clay mine als in he ce amic indus y a e plas ici y, chemical and mine alogical
composi ion, he mal p ope ies, colo , and mechanical s eng h a e i ing [
32
]. Ex ensi e
esea ch is also ca ied ou in he ield o ce amics. Nanoce amics ha e eme ged as aluable
ma e ials in biomedicine and medical echnology (o hopedics and bone issue enginee -
ing). In bone epai , nanoce amics se e as nano sca olds o suppo and acili a e bone
g ow h. Applica ions in ene gy s o age, coa ing sys ems, en i onmen al echnology (wa e
ea men ), chemis y, cons uc ion, elec onics, and ba e ies ha e also been epo ed [
33
].
This e iew is di ided in o wo main pa s. The i s pa desc ibes he use o clays
and clay mine als in nanocomposi es mainly in polyme /clay nanocomposi es and hei
applica ions. The second pa , conce ning ce amic ma e ials, p o ides a summa y o
clay and clay mine als used in p e-ce amic mix u es, ypes o inal silica e ce amics, and
hei applica ions.
2. Polyme /Clay Nanocomposi es
2.1. Nano ille Sou ces
Nanopa icles ha e a leas one cha ac e is ic leng h scale ha is o he o de o nanome-
e s and can ange om iso opic o highly aniso opic needle-like o shee -like elemen s.
These nanoelemen s can lead o ul a-la ge in e acial a eas be ween he cons i uen s. In
addi ion, he dis ance be ween he nanoelemen s begins o app oach molecula dimensions
a ex emely low loading o he nanopa icles. This la ge in e nal in e acial a ea and he
Mine als 2024,14, 93 3 o 24
nanoscopic dimensions be ween cons i uen s di e en ia e polyme nanocomposi es om
adi ional composi es [
34
]. Nano ille s can be di e en ypes o ma e ials like ca bon
nano ubes, ulle enes, ca bon black, polyhed al oligome ic silsesquioxanes (POSS), silica,
and phyllosilica es (mon o illoni e, halloysi e, and e miculi e). MXene, nano ibe s, me als,
and hei oxides a e also used. One o he mos common sou ces o nano ille s is a clay
mine al called mon mo illoni e (MMT).
Mon mo illoni e
Mon mo illoni e has become one o he mos widely used mine als as nano ille s,
because o he e sa ili y o eac ions, laye ed mo phology wi h a high aspec a io, and
la ge speci ic a ea, which o e s subs an ial ca ion exchange capaci ies. Addi ionally, MMT
is comme cially a ailable.
MMT is a na u ally occu ing mine al de i ed om he wea he ing o olcanic ash.
This mine al belongs o he clay mine als o he smec i e amily. MMT ep esen s 2:1
laye ed aluminous-silica e. The sugges ed c ys allog aphic s uc u e o mon mo illoni e is
in Figu e 1[
35
]. Isomo phous subs i u ions o Si
4+
o Al
3+
in he e ahed al la ice and
o Al
3+
o Mg
2+
in he oc ahed al shee cause an excess o nega i e cha ges wi hin he
mon mo illoni e laye s. All a oms may also be eplaced by Fe
3+
, Ti, Ni, Zn, C , and Mn [
36
].
In many mine als, an a om o lowe posi i e alence eplaces one o highe alence. These
nega i e cha ges a e coun e balanced by ca ions such as Ca
2+
and Na
+
si ua ed be ween
he laye s.
Mine als 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 25
Nanopa icles ha e a leas one cha ac e is ic leng h scale ha is o he o de o na-
nome e s and can ange om iso opic o highly aniso opic needle-like o shee -like ele-
men s. These nanoelemen s can lead o ul a-la ge in e acial a eas be ween he cons i u-
en s. In addi ion, he dis ance be ween he nanoelemen s begins o app oach molecula
dimensions a ex emely low loading o he nanopa icles. This la ge in e nal in e acial
a ea and he nanoscopic dimensions be ween cons i uen s di e en ia e polyme nano-
composi es om adi ional composi es [34]. Nano ille s can be di e en ypes o ma e i-
als like ca bon nano ubes, ulle enes, ca bon black, polyhed al oligome ic silsesquioxanes
(POSS), silica, and phyllosilica es (mon o illoni e, halloysi e, and e miculi e). MXene,
nano ibe s, me als, and hei oxides a e also used. One o he mos common sou ces o
nano ille s is a clay mine al called mon mo illoni e (MMT).
2.1.1. Mon mo illoni e
Mon mo illoni e has become one o he mos widely used mine als as nano ille s,
because o he e sa ili y o eac ions, laye ed mo phology wi h a high aspec a io, and
la ge speci ic a ea, which o e s subs an ial ca ion exchange capaci ies. Addi ionally,
MMT is comme cially a ailable.
MMT is a na u ally occu ing mine al de i ed om he wea he ing o olcanic ash.
This mine al belongs o he clay mine als o he smec i e amily. MMT ep esen s 2:1 lay-
e ed aluminous-silica e. The sugges ed c ys allog aphic s uc u e o mon mo illoni e is
in Figu e 1 [35]. Isomo phous subs i u ions o Si4+ o Al3+ in he e ahed al la ice and o
Al3+ o Mg2+ in he oc ahed al shee cause an excess o nega i e cha ges wi hin he mon -
mo illoni e laye s. All a oms may also be eplaced by Fe3+, Ti, Ni, Zn, C , and Mn [36]. In
many mine als, an a om o lowe posi i e alence eplaces one o highe alence. These
nega i e cha ges a e coun e balanced by ca ions such as Ca2+ and Na+ si ua ed be ween
he laye s.
Figu e 1. Chemical s uc u e o smec i e clay [35].
Figu e 1. Chemical s uc u e o smec i e clay [35].
Due o he high hyd ophilici y o mon mo illoni e, wa e molecules a e usually also
p esen be ween he laye s. S acking o he laye s leads o egula an de Waals gaps called
in e laye s o galle ies. The sum o he single laye hickness and he in e laye ep esen s
he epea uni o he mul ilaye ma e ial, so-called d-spacing o basal spacing.
2.2. Clay O ganophiliza ion
The main di icul ies o polyme /clay nanocomposi es ela e o he hyg oscopic
cha ac e o clay and clay mine als. I is ela i ely simple o dispe se clay in wa e o wa e -
Mine als 2024,14, 93 4 o 24
soluble polyme monome s, bu clay dispe sed in a high molecula hyd ophobic polyme
is like ying o mix oil in wa e . The eason o such beha io is he di e en na u e o
hese wo ma e ials as was men ioned abo e. O ganophilic polyme s a e no miscible wi h
p is ine hyd ophilic clay ep esen ed in ou case by mon mo illoni e (MMT). This phe-
nomenon is a ibu ed o he highe su ace ene gy o MMT compa ed o a mac omolecula
ma ix which ends o c ea e a s onge cohesi e in e ac ion be ween clay laye s and u he
hampe he inclusion o polyme chains in o he in e lamella egion o MMT [
37
–
41
].
The e o e, su ace modi ica ion o MMT plays a e y impo an ole in clay inco po a ion
in o he polyme ma ix. The p ocess leading o nanocomposi e is called delamina ion o
ex olia ion o mon mo illoni e o indi idual shee s. On he o he hand, he hyd ophilic
ea u e o he MMT su ace pe mi s wa e and o he pola molecules o in e cala e in o he
galle ies wi hin clay laye s [37].
The clay modi ica ion p ocess, called in e cala ion (1 chemical agen ) o co-in e cala ion
(2 o mo e chemical agen s), can be de ined as he e e sible inclusion o a molecule o ion
in o ille wi h a laye ed s uc u e. In he case o laye ed aluminous silica es (phylosilica es),
in e cala ion means in e calan pene a ion in o he clay-laye ed s uc u e. The esul o
such a success ul p ocess is an inc ease in d-spacing, Figu e 2. Nex , he changes depend on
he ype o used in e calan , i s concen a ion, and he leng h o he chain. The clay a ini y
o he polyme su ace is in luenced and he in e cala ion mo e compa ible mon mo illoni e-
polyme in e ace can be hen de eloped.
Mine als 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 25
Due o he high hyd ophilici y o mon mo illoni e, wa e molecules a e usually also
p esen be ween he laye s. S acking o he laye s leads o egula an de Waals gaps
called in e laye s o galle ies. The sum o he single laye hickness and he in e laye ep-
esen s he epea uni o he mul ilaye ma e ial, so-called d-spacing o basal spacing.
2.2. Clay O ganophiliza ion
The main di icul ies o polyme /clay nanocomposi es ela e o he hyg oscopic cha -
ac e o clay and clay mine als. I is ela i ely simple o dispe se clay in wa e o wa e -
soluble polyme monome s, bu clay dispe sed in a high molecula hyd ophobic polyme
is like ying o mix oil in wa e . The eason o such beha io is he di e en na u e o
hese wo ma e ials as was men ioned abo e. O ganophilic polyme s a e no miscible wi h
p is ine hyd ophilic clay ep esen ed in ou case by mon mo illoni e (MMT). This phe-
nomenon is a ibu ed o he highe su ace ene gy o MMT compa ed o a mac omolecu-
la ma ix which ends o c ea e a s onge cohesi e in e ac ion be ween clay laye s and
u he hampe he inclusion o polyme chains in o he in e lamella egion o MMT [37–
41]. The e o e, su ace modi ica ion o MMT plays a e y impo an ole in clay inco po-
a ion in o he polyme ma ix. The p ocess leading o nanocomposi e is called delamina-
ion o ex olia ion o mon mo illoni e o indi idual shee s. On he o he hand, he hyd o-
philic ea u e o he MMT su ace pe mi s wa e and o he pola molecules o in e cala e
in o he galle ies wi hin clay laye s [37].
The clay modi ica ion p ocess, called in e cala ion (1 chemical agen ) o co-in e cala-
ion (2 o mo e chemical agen s), can be de ined as he e e sible inclusion o a molecule
o ion in o ille wi h a laye ed s uc u e. In he case o laye ed aluminous silica es (phy-
losilica es), in e cala ion means in e calan pene a ion in o he clay-laye ed s uc u e.
The esul o such a success ul p ocess is an inc ease in d-spacing, Figu e 2. Nex , he
changes depend on he ype o used in e calan , i s concen a ion, and he leng h o he
chain. The clay a ini y o he polyme su ace is in luenced and he in e cala ion mo e
compa ible mon mo illoni e-polyme in e ace can be hen de eloped.
Figu e 2. P ocess o mon mo illoni e in e cala ion.
Amino acids we e employed as he i s in e calan s in he syn hesis o nanocompo-
si es (polyamide 6-clay hyb ids) [42]. Nume ous o he kinds o in e calan agen s ha e
been used in he syn hesis o nanocomposi es oday’s. The mos popula a e ca ionic su -
ac an s, such as alkylammonium ions, because hey can be exchanged easily wi h he ions
si ua ed be ween he clay laye s. All he comme cial ypes o mon mo illoni es a e based
on hese subs ances. This kind o su ac an consis s o wo dis inc pa s, a posi i ely
cha ged hyd ophilic head and a hyd ophobic hyd oca bon chain ail. A e modi ica ion,
ca ionic su ac an molecules a ach o he inne and ou e su ace o clay mine als and
hus al e he su ace p ope ies o clay mine als om hyd ophilic o hyd ophobic [43]. In
addi ion, silanes ha e been used because o hei abili y o eac wi h he hyd oxyl g oups
si ua ed a he su ace and he edges o he clay laye s.
Smec i e o ganically in e cala ed s uc u es we e i s s udied by Lagaly and Weis in
1969. A e modi ica ion, se e al a angemen s inside he in e laye a e possible Figu e 3.
Lagaly and Weis ound wo possible a angemen s o o ganic molecules in he in e laye ,
namely la e al and pe pendicula (pa a in) [44,45].
A p esen h ee basic me hods o in e cala ion a e pe o med:
Figu e 2. P ocess o mon mo illoni e in e cala ion.
Amino acids we e employed as he i s in e calan s in he syn hesis o nanocomposi es
(polyamide 6-clay hyb ids) [
42
]. Nume ous o he kinds o in e calan agen s ha e been
used in he syn hesis o nanocomposi es oday’s. The mos popula a e ca ionic su ac an s,
such as alkylammonium ions, because hey can be exchanged easily wi h he ions si ua ed
be ween he clay laye s. All he comme cial ypes o mon mo illoni es a e based on hese
subs ances. This kind o su ac an consis s o wo dis inc pa s, a posi i ely cha ged
hyd ophilic head and a hyd ophobic hyd oca bon chain ail. A e modi ica ion, ca ionic
su ac an molecules a ach o he inne and ou e su ace o clay mine als and hus al e
he su ace p ope ies o clay mine als om hyd ophilic o hyd ophobic [
43
]. In addi ion,
silanes ha e been used because o hei abili y o eac wi h he hyd oxyl g oups si ua ed a
he su ace and he edges o he clay laye s.
Smec i e o ganically in e cala ed s uc u es we e i s s udied by Lagaly and Weis in
1969. A e modi ica ion, se e al a angemen s inside he in e laye a e possible Figu e 3.
Lagaly and Weis ound wo possible a angemen s o o ganic molecules in he in e laye ,
namely la e al and pe pendicula (pa a in) [44,45].
A p esen h ee basic me hods o in e cala ion a e pe o med:
1.
Ion-exchange me hod is based on he MMT’s abili y o so b some ypes o ca ions and
o keep hem in he change s a e [46,47].
2.
Ion-dipole me hod is based on he ion-dipole in e ac ion o an o ganic in e calan and
an in e laye ca ion [48]
3.
G a ing, he o ma ion o a co alen linkage be ween he clay pla ele and he hy-
d ophobic pa o he coupling agen [37].
Mine als 2024,14, 93 5 o 24
Mine als 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 25
1. Ion-exchange me hod is based on he MMT’s abili y o so b some ypes o ca ions and
o keep hem in he change s a e [46,47].
2. Ion-dipole me hod is based on he ion-dipole in e ac ion o an o ganic in e calan
and an in e laye ca ion [48]
3. G a ing, he o ma ion o a co alen linkage be ween he clay pla ele and he hyd o-
phobic pa o he coupling agen [37].
Figu e 3. Alkyl chain a angemen in laye ed silica es: (a) la e al monolaye , (b) la e al bilaye , (c)
pa a in (monolaye ), and (d) pa a in ype bilaye .
2.2.1. Ion-Exchange In e cala ion
A cha ac e is ic ea u e o smec i es such as mon mo illoni e is hei abili y o so b
ce ain ca ions and e ain hem in an exchangeable s a e. I means ha hese in e cala ed
ca ions can be exchanged by ea men o o he ca ions in a wa e solu ion (we me hod),
Figu e 4. The mos common exchangeable ca ions a e Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, H+, K+, and NH4+.
Indeed, i he clay is placed in a solu ion o a gi en elec oly e, an exchange occu s be ween
he ions o he clay (X+) and hose o he elec oly e (Y+):
Figu e 4. De elopmen o o ganoclay ea ed wi h qua e na y sal : ion-exchange in e cala ion
me hod [49].
Figu e 3. Alkyl chain a angemen in laye ed silica es: (a) la e al monolaye , (b) la e al bilaye ,
(c) pa a in (monolaye ), and (d) pa a in ype bilaye .
2.2.1. Ion-Exchange In e cala ion
A cha ac e is ic ea u e o smec i es such as mon mo illoni e is hei abili y o so b
ce ain ca ions and e ain hem in an exchangeable s a e. I means ha hese in e cala ed
ca ions can be exchanged by ea men o o he ca ions in a wa e solu ion (we me hod),
Figu e 4. The mos common exchangeable ca ions a e Na
+
, Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
, H
+
, K
+
, and NH
4+
.
Indeed, i he clay is placed in a solu ion o a gi en elec oly e, an exchange occu s be ween
he ions o he clay (X+) and hose o he elec oly e (Y+):
X+−Mon mo illoni e +Y−⇄Y+−Mon mo illoni e−+X+
Mine als 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 25
1. Ion-exchange me hod is based on he MMT’s abili y o so b some ypes o ca ions and
o keep hem in he change s a e [46,47].
2. Ion-dipole me hod is based on he ion-dipole in e ac ion o an o ganic in e calan
and an in e laye ca ion [48]
3. G a ing, he o ma ion o a co alen linkage be ween he clay pla ele and he hyd o-
phobic pa o he coupling agen [37].
Figu e 3. Alkyl chain a angemen in laye ed silica es: (a) la e al monolaye , (b) la e al bilaye , (c)
pa a in (monolaye ), and (d) pa a in ype bilaye .
2.2.1. Ion-Exchange In e cala ion
A cha ac e is ic ea u e o smec i es such as mon mo illoni e is hei abili y o so b
ce ain ca ions and e ain hem in an exchangeable s a e. I means ha hese in e cala ed
ca ions can be exchanged by ea men o o he ca ions in a wa e solu ion (we me hod),
Figu e 4. The mos common exchangeable ca ions a e Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, H+, K+, and NH4+.
Indeed, i he clay is placed in a solu ion o a gi en elec oly e, an exchange occu s be ween
he ions o he clay (X+) and hose o he elec oly e (Y+):
Figu e 4. De elopmen o o ganoclay ea ed wi h qua e na y sal : ion-exchange in e cala ion
me hod [49].
Figu e 4. De elopmen o o ganoclay ea ed wi h qua e na y sal : ion-exchange in e cala ion me hod [
49
].
Fo gi en clay, he maximum numbe o ca ions ha can be aken up is cons an
and known as he ca ion-exchange capaci y (CEC). CEC is measu ed in milliequi alen s
pe g am (meq/g) o mo e equen ly pe 100 g (meq/100 g). Ca ion-exchange capaci y
measu emen s a e pe o med a a neu al pH o 7. The CEC o mon mo illoni e a ies om
80 o 150 meq/100 g [
50
]. In he dependence on he CEC and he cha ac e o o ganoca ion,
di e en s uc u es can be c ea ed in he in e laye space. These s uc u es could be help ul

Mine als 2024,14, 93 6 o 24
du ing he nanocomposi e compounding and o he igh choice o in e calan . The
success ul MMT in e cala ion and ollowing ex olia ion p ocess du ing compounding is a
good assump ion o enhancemen o inal ma e ials p ope ies.
2.2.2. Ion-Dipole In e cala ion
Ion-dipole me hod is based on ion-dipole in e ac ion. This me hod di e s om he ion-
exchange app oach in ha he exchangeable ca ion (pa ial posi i e cha ge) emains on he
clay su ace, Figu e 5. I means ha i is no necessa y o abla e any p oduc o a chemical
eac ion. Nex ion-dipole app oach ad an age ela es o he non-wa e en i onmen (d y
me hod). As he in e calan s, alkylamine (oc adecylamine (ODA), dodecylamine (DDA)),
and p ima y amine can be used. As he compa ibilize he common plas ics p ocessing
aid, like plas icize s, lub ican s, and o he modi ie s, could also be sui able [
51
–
53
]. The
in e cala e s uc u e depends on he concen a ion o used o ganic in e calan , in he gues -
gues and gues -hos in e ac ions. This echnique is also possible o apply o p ocess
co-in e cala ion [54,55].
Mine als 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 25
Fo gi en clay, he maximum numbe o ca ions ha can be aken up is cons an and
known as he ca ion-exchange capaci y (CEC). CEC is measu ed in milliequi alen s pe
g am (meq/g) o mo e equen ly pe 100 g (meq/100 g). Ca ion-exchange capaci y meas-
u emen s a e pe o med a a neu al pH o 7. The CEC o mon mo illoni e a ies om 80
o 150 meq/100 g [50]. In he dependence on he CEC and he cha ac e o o ganoca ion,
di e en s uc u es can be c ea ed in he in e laye space. These s uc u es could be help-
ul du ing he nanocomposi e compounding and o he igh choice o in e calan . The
success ul MMT in e cala ion and ollowing ex olia ion p ocess du ing compounding is a
good assump ion o enhancemen o inal ma e ials p ope ies.
2.2.2. Ion-Dipole In e cala ion
Ion-dipole me hod is based on ion-dipole in e ac ion. This me hod di e s om he
ion-exchange app oach in ha he exchangeable ca ion (pa ial posi i e cha ge) emains
on he clay su ace, Figu e 5. I means ha i is no necessa y o abla e any p oduc o a
chemical eac ion. Nex ion-dipole app oach ad an age ela es o he non-wa e en i on-
men (d y me hod). As he in e calan s, alkylamine (oc adecylamine (ODA), dodecyla-
mine (DDA)), and p ima y amine can be used. As he compa ibilize he common plas ics
p ocessing aid, like plas icize s, lub ican s, and o he modi ie s, could also be sui able [51–
53]. The in e cala e s uc u e depends on he concen a ion o used o ganic in e calan , in
he gues -gues and gues -hos in e ac ions. This echnique is also possible o apply o
p ocess co-in e cala ion [54,55].
Figu e 5. Ion-dipole in e cala ion me hod.
2.2.3. G a ing
The g a ing app oach has a ac ed scien is s o e he las 15 yea s. The me hod is
based on he o ma ion o co alen bonds be ween he mon mo illoni e pla ele su ace
and he hyd ophobic modi ie . This me hod can imp o e he s abili y o o ganophilized
clay su aces. The mos amous modi ie s a e silanes, he e o e his p ocess is called si-
laniza ion o silyla ion. Alkoxysilane and chlo osilane a e he mos common in e cala es.
Howe e , chlo osilane is no used oo o en due o i s endency o c ea e HCl du ing he
g a ing p ocess [56]. In addi ion o inc eased he mal s abili y, clay ea men by his ap-
p oach o e s i e e sible coupling and igh ly secu es he agen on he clay su ace, a oid-
ing elease in o he en i onmen o cause ad e se e ec s [57]. O ganosilanes also se e as
a key b idge o enhance he in e acial in e ac ion be ween he silyla ed-MMT and he
polyme ma ix owing o he educed clay su ace ene gy because o silane g a ing, hus
enabling be e dispe sibili y o he ein o cing phase in he con inuous ma ix [37,58].
2.3. Clay Applica ion in Nanocomposi es
Gene ally, nanocomposi es ep esen ma e ials wi h mul iphase ul a ine s uc u es
wi h a leas one dimension 10−9 m. In he case o polyme /clay nanocomposi es, hey a e
o med h ough he connec ion o wo di e en ma e ials, o ganic (polyme ) and ino -
ganic (mine al). The nex impo an ea u es o polyme nanocomposi es a e low con en
o ille (1%–5%) compa ed o con en ional composi es (30%–50%), anspa ency, and
Figu e 5. Ion-dipole in e cala ion me hod.
2.2.3. G a ing
The g a ing app oach has a ac ed scien is s o e he las 15 yea s. The me hod is
based on he o ma ion o co alen bonds be ween he mon mo illoni e pla ele su ace and
he hyd ophobic modi ie . This me hod can imp o e he s abili y o o ganophilized clay
su aces. The mos amous modi ie s a e silanes, he e o e his p ocess is called silaniza ion
o silyla ion. Alkoxysilane and chlo osilane a e he mos common in e cala es. Howe e ,
chlo osilane is no used oo o en due o i s endency o c ea e HCl du ing he g a ing
p ocess [
56
]. In addi ion o inc eased he mal s abili y, clay ea men by his app oach
o e s i e e sible coupling and igh ly secu es he agen on he clay su ace, a oiding
elease in o he en i onmen o cause ad e se e ec s [
57
]. O ganosilanes also se e as a key
b idge o enhance he in e acial in e ac ion be ween he silyla ed-MMT and he polyme
ma ix owing o he educed clay su ace ene gy because o silane g a ing, hus enabling
be e dispe sibili y o he ein o cing phase in he con inuous ma ix [37,58].
2.3. Clay Applica ion in Nanocomposi es
Gene ally, nanocomposi es ep esen ma e ials wi h mul iphase ul a ine s uc u es
wi h a leas one dimension 10
−9
m. In he case o polyme /clay nanocomposi es, hey a e
o med h ough he connec ion o wo di e en ma e ials, o ganic (polyme ) and ino ganic
(mine al). The nex impo an ea u es o polyme nanocomposi es a e low con en o
ille (1%–5%) compa ed o con en ional composi es (30%–50%), anspa ency, and la ge
changes in ma e ial p ope ies, like E-modulus, s eng h, sh inkage, densi y, chemical and
i e esis ance, e c.
The polyme nanocomposi es could be di ided in o se e al g oups acco ding o he
dimensions o he dispe sed nanoscale:
1.
Two-dimensional (2D) nanoma e ials—2 dimensions in mac oscale (laye ed sili-
ca e [
59
–
61
], g aphene [
62
,
63
] o MXene [
64
,
65
]—lamella nano ille s in he o m
o shee s o one o a ew nanome es hick and hund eds o housands o nanome es
long and wide).
Mine als 2024,14, 93 7 o 24
2.
One-dimensional (1D) nanoma e ials—2dimensions in nanome es and he hi d
is la ge (nano ibe s o nano ubes, e.g., ca bon nano ib es and nano ubes [
66
] o
halloysi e nano ubes [67–69]— ib illa nanoscale).
3.
Ze o-dimensional (0D) s uc u es—0 dimensions in mac oscale (sphe ical silica [
70
,
71
],
semiconduc o nanoclus e s [
72
] and quan um do s [
73
], and isodimensional sphe ical
pa icles) [74,75].
One o he p ocessing p oblems o nanocomposi es is he nano ille ex olia ion du -
ing p ocessing. The e o e, polyme /clay sys ems a e di ided in o ou gene al g oups
acco ding o he nano ille ex olia ion le el (Figu e 6):
1.
Mic ocomposi e, whe e he clay ac s as a con en ional ille . The inal ma e ial belongs
o adi ional composi e ma e ials.
2.
In e cala ed nanocomposi e consis s o a egula inse ion o he polyme be ween he
clay laye s. The inal ma e ial belongs o nanocomposi es.
3.
In e cala ed and pa ially delamina ed nanocomposi es, an in e media e s ep be ween
in e cala ed and ex olia ed s uc u e. The inal ma e ial belongs o nanocomposi es.
4.
Ex olia ed nanocomposi e whe e he ille is delamina ed o 1 nm- hick laye s. The
inal ma e ial belongs o nanocomposi es.
Mine als 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 25
la ge changes in ma e ial p ope ies, like E-modulus, s eng h, sh inkage, densi y, chem-
ical and i e esis ance, e c.
The polyme nanocomposi es could be di ided in o se e al g oups acco ding o he
dimensions o he dispe sed nanoscale:
1. Two-dimensional (2D) nanoma e ials—2 dimensions in mac oscale (laye ed silica e
[59–61], g aphene [62,63] o MXene [64,65]—lamella nano ille s in he o m o
shee s o one o a ew nanome es hick and hund eds o housands o nanome es
long and wide).
2. One-dimensional (1D) nanoma e ials—2dimensions in nanome es and he hi d is
la ge (nano ibe s o nano ubes, e.g., ca bon nano ib es and nano ubes [66] o hal-
loysi e nano ubes [67–69]— ib illa nanoscale).
3. Ze o-dimensional (0D) s uc u es—0 dimensions in mac oscale (sphe ical silica
[70,71], semiconduc o nanoclus e s [72] and quan um do s [73], and isodimensional
sphe ical pa icles) [74,75].
One o he p ocessing p oblems o nanocomposi es is he nano ille ex olia ion du -
ing p ocessing. The e o e, polyme /clay sys ems a e di ided in o ou gene al g oups ac-
co ding o he nano ille ex olia ion le el (Figu e 6):
1. Mic ocomposi e, whe e he clay ac s as a con en ional ille . The inal ma e ial be-
longs o adi ional composi e ma e ials.
2. In e cala ed nanocomposi e consis s o a egula inse ion o he polyme be ween
he clay laye s. The inal ma e ial belongs o nanocomposi es.
3. In e cala ed and pa ially delamina ed nanocomposi es, an in e media e s ep be ween
in e cala ed and ex olia ed s uc u e. The inal ma e ial belongs o nanocomposi es.
4. Ex olia ed nanocomposi e whe e he ille is delamina ed o 1 nm- hick laye s. The
inal ma e ial belongs o nanocomposi es.
Figu e 6. Polyme /clay nanocomposi e classi ica ion.
2.3.1. Polyme /Clay Nanocomposi e P ocessing
The inal s ep o nanocomposi e p epa a ion is he o ganoclay mixing wi h polyme .
Ea ly expe imen s wi h clay- illed polyme s equi ed p ocessing ha was no comme -
cially iendly, bu his si ua ion has changed. A p ima y di icul y is he p ope dispe -
sion o he ille in he polyme ma ix. Wi hou good dispe sion and ille dis ibu ion,
Figu e 6. Polyme /clay nanocomposi e classi ica ion.
2.3.1. Polyme /Clay Nanocomposi e P ocessing
The inal s ep o nanocomposi e p epa a ion is he o ganoclay mixing wi h polyme .
Ea ly expe imen s wi h clay- illed polyme s equi ed p ocessing ha was no comme cially
iendly, bu his si ua ion has changed. A p ima y di icul y is he p ope dispe sion
o he ille in he polyme ma ix. Wi hou good dispe sion and ille dis ibu ion, he
high su ace a ea is comp omised, and he agg ega es can ac as de ec s, which limi s hei
p ope ies [
2
]. Se e al s a egies ha e been conside ed o p epa e polyme /mon mo illoni e
nanocomposi es (Figu e 7) [76]:
1.
In-si u polyme iza ion me hod, in e cala ion o a sui able monome ollowed by
polyme iza ion. The i s me hod used o syn hesize polyme /clay nanocomposi es is
based on polyamide 6.
2.
Solu ion me hod, in e cala ion o dissol ed polyme om a solu ion. The d awback
o his me hod is he equi emen o a sui able sol en . I has been shown ha
in e cala ion only occu s o ce ain polyme /sol en o monome /sol en pai s [
77
].
Mine als 2024,14, 93 8 o 24
Nanocomposi es based on high-densi y polye hylene [
78
], and polyimide [
79
] can be
syn hesized by his me hod.
3.
Mel in e cala ion me hod, mixing he clay (usually o ganoclay) wi h he polyme
ma ix abo e i s so ening poin in ei he s a ic o low condi ions. The polyme chains
sp ead om he mol en mass in o he silica e galle ies o o m ei he in e cala ed
o delamina ed hyb ids acco ding o he deg ee o pene a ion [
56
]. This p ocess
was i s epo ed by Vaia e al. [
80
] in 1993. This me hod is ela i ely easy and
allows o he use o cu en p ocessing equipmen o nanocomposi e echnology.
T adi ional p ocessing echniques could be used o mel in e cala ion, like a wo- oll
mill, win-sc ew ex ude (PA, PP, PE, and PVC), injec ion molding, blow molding,
and he mal sp aying [2].
Mine als 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 25
he high su ace a ea is comp omised, and he agg ega es can ac as de ec s, which limi s
hei p ope ies [2]. Se e al s a egies ha e been conside ed o p epa e polyme /mon mo-
illoni e nanocomposi es (Figu e 7) [76]:
1. In-si u polyme iza ion me hod, in e cala ion o a sui able monome ollowed by
polyme iza ion. The i s me hod used o syn hesize polyme /clay nanocomposi es
is based on polyamide 6.
2. Solu ion me hod, in e cala ion o dissol ed polyme om a solu ion. The d awback
o his me hod is he equi emen o a sui able sol en . I has been shown ha in e -
cala ion only occu s o ce ain polyme /sol en o monome /sol en pai s [77].
Nanocomposi es based on high-densi y polye hylene [78], and polyimide [79] can
be syn hesized by his me hod.
3. Mel in e cala ion me hod, mixing he clay (usually o ganoclay) wi h he polyme
ma ix abo e i s so ening poin in ei he s a ic o low condi ions. The polyme
chains sp ead om he mol en mass in o he silica e galle ies o o m ei he in e ca-
la ed o delamina ed hyb ids acco ding o he deg ee o pene a ion [56]. This p o-
cess was i s epo ed by Vaia e al. [80] in 1993. This me hod is ela i ely easy and
allows o he use o cu en p ocessing equipmen o nanocomposi e echnology.
T adi ional p ocessing echniques could be used o mel in e cala ion, like a wo-
oll mill, win-sc ew ex ude (PA, PP, PE, and PVC), injec ion molding, blow mold-
ing, and he mal sp aying [2].
Figu e 7. Illus a ion o (a) in si u polyme iza ion, (b) mel in e cala ion, and (c) solu ion in e cala-
ion [76].
Highly pola polyme s such as Nylon [81–83] o polyimides [84,85] a e mo e easily
in e cala ed han non-pola polyme s such as polyp opylene because pola polyme s ha e
a highe a ini y o he pola clay galle ies. In si u polyme iza ion monome in e cala es
di ec ly in o he o ganically modi ied clay galle ies and he monome ei he can adso b on o
he laye su ace o can be ancho ed by ee adical echniques. Mel in e cala ion in ol es
mixing he clay and a polyme mel wi h o wi hou he shea . The success o mel in e ca-
la ion is su p ising, gi en ha he galle y spacing is only abou 2 nm and he adius o gy-
a ion o he polyme is signi ican ly la ge han his. E en mo e su p ising is ha he speed
o mel in e cala ion is as e han ha o he sel -di usion o polyme s and scales wi h he
Figu e 7. Illus a ion o (a) in si u polyme iza ion, (b) mel in e cala ion, and (c) solu ion in e cala ion [
76
].
Highly pola polyme s such as Nylon [
81
–
83
] o polyimides [
84
,
85
] a e mo e easily
in e cala ed han non-pola polyme s such as polyp opylene because pola polyme s ha e
a highe a ini y o he pola clay galle ies. In si u polyme iza ion monome in e cala es
di ec ly in o he o ganically modi ied clay galle ies and he monome ei he can adso b
on o he laye su ace o can be ancho ed by ee adical echniques. Mel in e cala ion
in ol es mixing he clay and a polyme mel wi h o wi hou he shea . The success o
mel in e cala ion is su p ising, gi en ha he galle y spacing is only abou 2 nm and he
adius o gy a ion o he polyme is signi ican ly la ge han his. E en mo e su p ising
is ha he speed o mel in e cala ion is as e han ha o he sel -di usion o polyme s
and scales wi h he in e se o he molecula weigh . The esul s o molecula dynamics
and expe imen al s udies indica e ha he s onge he clay/polyme in e ac ion, he lowe
he in e cala ion a e. In addi ion, laye lexibili y seems o con ol he mechanism o
in e cala ion [2].
2.3.2. Polyme Ma ix
Many di e en polyme s ha e al eady been used o p oduce polyme /clay nanocom-
posi es. Bo h he moplas ics and he mose s can be success ully u ilized o he p epa a ion
o nanocomposi es. In ensi e esea ch is ca ied ou in ubbe mix u es oo. The i s
and he mos s udied he moplas ics o he syn hesis o polyme -clay nanocomposi es
has been polyamide 6 [
86
–
91
]. Polyamide 6/clay hyb ids we e disco e ed by Toyo a e-
Mine als 2024,14, 93 9 o 24
sea che s in he ea ly nine ies [
92
–
95
] and nowadays hey a e used in au omo i e pa s.
The eams dealing wi h hese ma e ials we e concen a ed a ound Usuki A., Kojima Y.,
Okada A. [92–96]
, Azuma H. [
97
], Fukusima Y. [
98
], Wu T. [
99
], De aux, E. [
100
], Tanaka
G. [101], and U acki L. A. [87,89,90].
Poly inylchlo ide [
8
,
102
,
103
] nanocomposi e p ocessing was s udied, in addi ion.
Poly inylchlo ide (PVC) is an impo an comme cial polyme . I is one o he mos e sa ile
and oldes he moplas ics. I is a ma e ial ha o e s se e al posi i e aspec s like low cos ,
eco e abili y, acile p ocessing, and excellen elec ical and chemical esis ance. Commonly,
PVC is a ailable in wo b oad ca ego ies: lexible PVC (plas icized one), and igid PVC
(unplas icized one). The PVC p oduc s ange om piping and siding, doo and window
p o iles, blood bags, and ubing, o wi e and cable insula ion and mo e. The i s esul s
dealing wi h PVC/MMT nanocomposi es we e p esen ed a he in e na ional con e ences
ANTEC
′
01 and ANTEC
′
02 in he USA [
104
,
105
] by Kalendo a e al. In his s udy, pa ic-
ula ly he suspension ype o PVC was employed o he polyme /clay nanocomposi es
de elopmen . The o mula ion o he PVC mix u es consis s o 74% o PVC, 24% o plas i-
cize , and 2% o s abilize . The na u al ype o mon mo illoni e and he o ganophilized one
we e es ed. The mel in e cala ion was employed o p oduce nanocomposi es. One o he
impo an ques ions was how long alkyl chains should be used o he ex olia ion o silica e
laye s. The e o e, alkylamines wi h di e en alkyl chain leng hs we e es ed as he o ganic
compa ibilize . Especially sho e alkyl chains we e es ed as sui able chemical modi ie s o
MMT. Fi s ly, Na+ mon mo illoni e was ion-dipole in e cala ed wi h dodecylamine (DDA,
12 C) and oc ylamine (OA, 8C) molecules. The s uc u e o oc adecylamine (ODA, 18 C)
ion-dipole in e cala ed in o MMT was desc ibed by Pospisil e al. p e iously [
106
]. The
ma e ial s uc u e was de e mined based on X- ay di ac ion and molecula simula ion
esul s. Molecula mechanics and classical molecula dynamics we e ca ied ou in he
Ce ius2 modeling en i onmen . Based on calcula ed alues o in e ac ion ene gies be ween
wo gues laye s in he in e laye space o mon mo illoni e and XRD pa e ns, a p obable
in e calan molecules a angemen in he MMT in e laye was designed. I was con i med
by Pospisil [
106
], Figu e 8, ha ODA ion-dipole in e cala ed in o MMT allows he exis ence
o sup amolecula s uc u e which is p esen ed by bilaye a angemen alkyl chains pe -
pendicula o sligh ly oblique o he aluminosilica e laye . The esul s a e consis en wi h
he s udies ca ied ou by Lagaly [
43
,
107
–
109
] in he ield o ion-exchange in e cala ion.
In addi ion, he Oc ylamine (OA) ion-dipole in e cala ed was also no able o p o ide he
bilaye a angemen in he MMT in e laye space. F om he ob ained da a i ollows ha
mon mo illoni e in e cala ed wi h sho alkylamine chains sugges s a disad an age o
polyme /MMT nanocomposi e p oduc ion.
In he pas , he mos impo an equi emen o new syn he ic polyme s was hei e-
sis ance o clima e change [
110
]. Recen ly esea ch has unde gone subs an ial changes, due
o he ecological p oblems caused by non-deg adable polyme li e . These ac s esul ed in
he esea ch in he ield o biopolyme s. Cu en ly, biodeg adable polyme s like polylac ic
acid (PLA) and Polyhyd oxybu y a e (PHB) a e s udied success ully [
111
–
115
]. Poly(lac ic
acid) o polylac ide (PLA) has a leading posi ion in he ma ke o biobased polyme s and
is one o he mos p omising sus ainable al e na i es o pe oleum-based polyme s [
116
].
PLA is no only bio-based bu compos able and biodeg adable h ough hyd olysis by
mic oo ganisms [
117
]. Recen ly, new echniques o p oduce high molecula weigh PLA
wi h ela i ely good p ope ies, ha e led o he expansion o he p oduc po olio om he
biomedical a ea o sho se ice li e applica ions (ag icul u e and packaging).
None heless, p edisposi ion o deg ada ion, poo he mal esis ance, and unsui able
mechanical and ba ie p ope ies limi indus ial applica ion o long- e m pe o mance
p oduc s in au omo i e and elec onic indus ies. Fo i ems such as hese, esis ance o
deg ada ion is equi ed, unlike o disposable applica ions [
118
]. Fu he , high p ice is
also an obs acle o g ea e expansion o PLA on he ma ke . To add ess one o hese
limi a ions, nanoscale s uc u ed laye ed clay pa icles can be inco po a ed in o PLA
con e ing s eng h, inc easing i s gas ba ie p ope ies [
113
,
119
,
120
], and ul ima ely
Mine als 2024,14, 93 16 o 24
Table 2. Con .
P e-ce amic Mix u es
Clay Mine als O he Type o Ce amics
Sin e ing Tempe a u e (
◦
C)
Applica ions Re .
Kaolini e, alc,
e miculi e,
o gano- e miculi e Co die i e/s ea i e 1300 - [200]
Kaolini e, alc,
e miculi es Al2O3, Al(OH)3Co die i e 1300 - [187]
Kaolini e, alc,
e miculi e Al2O3Co die i e 1300 - [191]
Kaolini e, alc,
e miculi e,
o gano- e miculi e Co die i e/s ea i e 1300 - [203]
Talc, kaolini e,
e miculi e MgO, Al(OH)3Co die i e 1300 - [192]
Talc, kaolini e, ball
clay Al2O3, silica sand Co die i e 1300 Indus ial manu ac u e o
po ous ce amic ma e ials [194]
Talc, kaolini e,
CeO2/ e miculi e - Co die i e/CeO21300 Pho oca alys s [204,205]
Talc Polysiloxane, Al2O3,
expandable
mic osphe es Co die i e 1300 - [198]
Talc, kaolini e Al(OH)3Co die i e 1260 - [189]
Kaolin, sepioli e
Kaolin, alc Qua z
SiO2, eldspa Co die i e
Co die i e 1250, 1300, 1350 Applica ion in ound y [201]
Talc Fly ash, Al2O3Co die i e 1350 Re ac o y applica ion [197]
Talc, kaolin Feldspa , albi e,
andalusi e, Al2O3Co die i e/mulli e 1340–1420 The mal s o age ma e ials [207]
4. Conclusions
The p esen ed s udy ocuses on one pa o nano echnology a ge ed o polyme
science, conc e ely o he ield o polyme /clay nanocomposi es. These hyb id o ganic-
ino ganic ma e ials show an in e es ing enhancemen o p ope ies compa ed o adi ional
mic o-composi es wi h a low le el o nano ille loading ob iously in he ange o 1%–5%.
The mos a o i e sou ce o nanoelemen s is mon mo illoni e (MMT), a laye ed aluminosili-
ca e whose mo phology is c ea ed by s acks o indi idual pla ele s wi h 1 nm hickness.
Al hough clay nanocomposi es we e disco e ed in he 1990s, in e es om he scien i ic
communi y emains high. Some o he applica ions ha e al eady been comme cialized.
App oxima ely 80% o he polyme /clay nanocomposi es a e des ined o he au omo i e
(Gene al Mo o s, Che ole , Nissan), ae onau ical, and packaging indus ies [
208
]. The
key d i e s o he use o polyme /clay nanocomposi es in he au omo i e indus y a e
educ ion in ehicle’s weigh , imp o ed engine e iciency ( uel sa ing), educ ion in CO
2
emissions, and supe io pe o mance (g ea e sa e y, inc eased com o , and be e d i -
abili y) [
208
]. The nex pe spec i e is p esen ed by packaging applica ions. The es ed
ma e ials based on PLA showed common imp o emen in he ange o 30% [
113
]. O he
comme cial applica ions include cables, u ni u e, and domes ic appliances. Fu he , appli-
ca ions like in selec i e ca alyze s, conduc i e polyme s, il a ion o oxic ma e ials, d ug
deli e y sys ems, and ene gy s o age, a e expec ed. Al hough nanocomposi es p esen a
se ies o ad anced p ope ies, hei p oduc ion is conside ed low in compa ison wi h o he
ma e ials, due o he p oduc ion cos s.
The second pa ocused on ce amic ma e ials p epa ed om clay mine als in p e-
ce amic mix u es. The kind, quan i y, and combina ion o clay mine als in he p e-ce amic
mix u es, as well as di e en p epa a ion me hods o hei chemical modi ica ions signi -
ican ly in luence o al e he esul ing p ope ies o ce amics a e hei sin e ing. Clay

Mine als 2024,14, 93 17 o 24
mine als such as alc and kaolini e ep esen he main na u al aw ma e ials o adi ional
applica ions mainly o c ea ing silica e ce amics. Silica e ce amics like co die i e, s ea i e,
and o s e i e a e used in many indus ial applica ions (especially in elec onics and elec-
ical enginee ing) and o e cos sa ings mainly due o using na u al aw ma e ials in
compa ison o o he ypes o ce amics. Fu he , silica e ce amics ha e a g ea e sa ili y
o applica ions including e ac o y, insula ing, packing ma e ials, il e s, ca alys s, and
hick ilms and as glass-ce amics, o s e i e, and bioce amics. Mo eo e , ce amic composi e
ma e ials ha e been inc easingly used in a ious ields including ca alys s, sola he mal
s o age, and medical applica ions. S ea i e, o s e i e, and co die i e-based ce amics may
o e new p ope ies o indus y applica ions.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, o ma , esou ces, w i ing, edi ing—A.K. and J.K.; isual-
iza ion, in es iga ion—A.K., J.K., D.M. and M.U. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was unded by Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlin, Facul y o Technology n . IGA/FT/
2023/008 and IGA/FT/2024/008. Nex , his esea ch was unded by Jan Amos Komensky Ope a ional
P og am inanced by he EU and s a e budge o he Czech Republic, no. CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004631.
Also, EU unde he REFRESH—p ojec numbe CZ.10.03.01/00/22_003/0000048 ia he Ope a ional
P og amme “Jus T ansi ion” unded he p ojec .
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he co e-
sponding au ho . The da a a e no publicly a ailable due o some basic esea ch in ol ing con iden iali y.
Acknowledgmen s: Theau ho swouldlike o gi e hanks oMa aValáško áand also he Mine alsJou nal.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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