Canadian Jou nal o Communica ion Vol 45 (2020) 81–89 ©2020 Canadian Jou nal o
Communica ion Co po a ion h p://doi.o g/10.22230/cjc.2020 45n1a3441
Helena Machado is a P o esso o Sociology a he Ins i u e o Social Sciences and Resea che a
Communica ion and Socie y Resea ch Cen e (CECS), Uni e si y o Minho, Campus de Gual a ,
B aga, Po ugal. Email: [email protected] . Ra aela G anja is an Auxilia Resea che a
Communica ion and Socie y Resea ch Cen e (CECS). Uni e si y o Minho, Campus de Gual a ,
B aga, Po ugal. Email: .g [email protected] .
DNA T ansna ional Da a Jou neys and he
Cons uc ion o Ca ego ies o Suspicion
Helena Machado & Ra aela G anja
Uni e si y o Minho
ABSTRACT
Backg ound Sys ems o la ge-scale da a exchanges a e playing a pi o al ole in he go e -
nance, su eillance, and social con ol o c iminali y in di e en pa s o he wo ld.
Analysis This a icle explo es he case s udy o he P üm sys em, which is a echnological
sys em o he exchange o DNA da a among se e al Eu opean Union (EU) coun ies. Making
use o he concep o da a jou neys, i add esses how he ansna ional exchange o DNA da a
in he EU implica es he cons uc ion o ca ego ies o suspicion.
Conclusion and implica ions The a icle shows how sup ana ional- and na ional-le el
no ions and a i udes o e he owne ship o da a shape da a jou neys, and i discusses he
socie al implica ions o da a ica ion and eme ging da a jus ice issues.
Keywo ds P üm sys em; Da a jou neys; DNA da a; Ca ego ies o suspicion
RÉSUMÉ
Con ex e Les sys èmes d’échange de données à g ande échelle jouen un ôle cen al dans
la gou e nance, la su eillance e le con ôle social de la c iminali é dans di é en es égions
du monde.
Analyse Dans ce a icle, nous p enons l’é ude de cas du sys ème P üm, qui es un sys ème
echnologique pe me an l’échange de données d’ADN en e plusieu s pays de l’Union
eu opéenne (UE). En u ilisan le concep de aje s de données, nous examinons commen
l’échange ansna ional de données d’ADN dans l’UE implique la cons uc ion de ca égo ies
de suspicion.
Conclusion e implica ions Nous mon ons commen les aje s de données son
açonnés pa des no ions e a i udes sup ana ionales e na ionales su la p op ié é des
données e discu ons des implica ions socié ales de la communica ion des données e des
nou eaux p oblèmes éme gen s de jus ice des données.
Mo s clés Sys ème P üm; T aje s de données; Données d’ADN; Ca égo ies de suspicion.
82 Canadian Jou nal o Communica ion, Vol 45 (1)
In oduc ion
On May 21, 2015, an elde ly couple we e ound aped and killed in hei home in he
ci y o Vienna, Aus ia. Al hough he Aus ian police ound he alleged kille ’s DNA,
no DNA ma ches
1
we e iden i ied in he na ional DNA da abase. Howe e , unde a
ansna ional ag eemen on DNA da a exchange among Eu opean Union coun ies,
he Du ch DNA da abase o e ed a DNA ma ch o a 29-yea -old Polish man. The
Aus ian au ho i ies began looking o him. The suspec was a es ed a a ailway s a-
ion in Düsseldo , Ge many, on June 8, 2015. The e was suspicion ha his man migh
ha e commi ed iolen c imes in o he Eu opean coun ies. The e o e, he au ho i ies
o o he EU coun ies—namely, he U.K., Sweden, and Ge many—s a ed looking o
ma ches in he Polish DNA da abase. The suspec ’s DNA p o ile ma ched se e al
uniden i ied c ime scene s ains (Machado & G anja, 2018).
The ma ches in his c iminal case we e p oduced in he con ex o he P üm sys-
em, a ansna ional sys em o su eillance and iden i ica ion designed o go e n
some o he mos con en ious and high-p o ile issues in cu en Eu opean poli ics,
such as c oss-bo de c ime and e o ism. This ne wo k was c ea ed o exchange bio-
me ic da a (DNA p o iles, inge p in s, as well as mo o ehicle in o ma ion) s o ed
in he s a e da abases o di e en Eu opean Union (EU) membe coun ies (Eu opean
Union Council, 2008a, 2008b). This a icle ocuses solely on explo ing he da a jou -
neys o DNA da a in he EU and he implica ions o he cons uc ion o ca ego ies o
suspicion.
The Viennese c iminal case encompasses se e al in e es ing ace s o explain why
his case s udy is impo an in he con ex o da a powe . Fi s , he he o o he s o y
was a DNA ma ch, hus ela ing he c iminal case o a da a na a i e widely ci cula ed
ha po ays DNA echnologies as holding he un i alled powe o iden i y pe pe a-
o s o c imes (Lynch, Cole, McNally, & Jo dan, 2008). F amed mo e b oadly, his da a
na a i e hus con eys ha complex socie al p oblems, such as se ious c imes com-
mi ed by ansna ional c iminals, migh be wo ked ou by expanding he scope o
DNA p o iling and da abasing. T ansna ional DNA da a exchange enabled by he P üm
sys em is hus p esen ed as a powe ul, objec i e, and neu al me hod o sol ing se i-
ous c imes (P ainsack & Toom, 2010, 2013).
Second, he Eu opean scena io is pa icula ly in e es ing due o he manda o y
na u e o he P üm sys em. Coming in o o ce in 2008 (Eu opean Union Council,
2008a, 2008b), he P üm Decisions es ablished he manda o y exchange by all EU
membe s a es o DNA p o iles ac oss he EU, ega dless o each coun y’s pa icula
socio-economic condi ions and echnical adi ions ega ding he managemen o
biome ic da a. Cu en ly, 25 EU membe s a es ha e ope a ionalized he exchange
o DNA da a wi hin he P üm sys em (Eu opean Union Council, 2019).
2
Ne e heless,
he le el o implemen a ion o P üm a ies widely, o example while he
Ne he lands and Aus ia a e connec ed o 23 coun ies, Bulga ia is exchanging DNA
da a wi h nine coun ies and he Uni ed Kingdom wi h one coun y (Eu opean
Union Council, 2019).
The hi d elemen ou lined by he c iminal case ega ds he illain o he s o y:
an Eas e n Eu opean man mo ing a ound Eu ope and po en ially commi ing c imes
in di e en coun ies. This case is associa ed wi h he na a i e o he inc easing
ansna ional mo emen o people and g owing c oss-bo de c ime (B oede s, 2007;
Guild & Geye , 2008; Hu nagel & McCa ney, 2017; Lyon, 2004), and mo e impo an ly,
ela es his case o complex his o ical and geopoli ical in e sec ions be ween powe
and agency, which ame ela ions be ween Wes e n and Eas e n Eu ope (Wol , 1994).
The P üm sys em and da a jou neys
The e a e a numbe o e hical implica ions ela ed o he ansna ional exchange o
o ensic DNA da a unde he P üm egime, wi h mos o he academic deba e ocusing
on da a p o ec ion, he excessi e su eillance o ci izens, and po en ial h ea s o ci il
igh s, such as p i acy, libe y, and he p esump ion o innocence (McCa ney, 2010;
McCa ney, Wilson, & Williams, 2011; Nu ield Council on Bioe hics, 2007). This a icle
chooses a di e en app oach, ins ead building on insigh om science and echnology
s udies (STS) o examine he ansna ional exchange o DNA da a. In he las wo
decades, STS ha e signi ican ly con ibu ed o c i ical hinking abou he c ea ion and
expansion o he o ensic DNA da abases used o suppo he ac i i ies o c iminal
p osecu ion and he c iminal jus ice sys em (Cole, 2001; Jasano , 1998, 2006; Lawless,
2012; Lawless & Williams, 2010; Lynch, 2003; Williams & Johnson, 2005).
Inspi ed by such con ibu ions, he concep o da a jou neys (Ba es, Lin, &
Goodale, 2016; Leonelli, 2016) is used he e o add ess he “ a els” o DNA da a in he
EU and he implica ions o he cons uc ion o ca ego ies o suspicion. Acco ding o
Sabina Leonelli (2016), da a jou neys cons i u e “ he ma e ial, social and ins i u ional
ci cums ances by which da a a e packaged and anspo ed ac oss esea ch si ua ions,
so as o unc ion as e idence o a a ie y o knowledge claims” (p. 5). Applied o he
P üm sys em, he concep o da a jou neys allows o empi ically g asping he decisions
in ol ed in he p ac ices o da a p oduc ion, p ocessing, managemen , and use, while
simul aneously ou lining how da a objec s mo e h ough space and ime connec ing
di e en si es o p ac ice ac oss as da a in as uc u es (Ba es, Lin, & Goodale, 2016).
In addi ion, o concep ualize DNA as some hing ha a els helps d aw a en ion o
he mu abili y o da a, illumina ing how hey a e adap ed o di e en pu poses by di-
e se p ac i ione s (Ba es e al., 2016; Leonelli, 2016). By in e oga ing he p ocesses
o da a managemen as pe o ma i e, da a jou neys hus os e an unde s anding o
he p ac ices h ough which da a can be di e en ly app ehended, acqui ed, ep e-
sen ed, ans o med, and in eg a ed.
In he speci ic case o he P üm sys em, such an app oach illumina es how o ms
o subjec i a ion—in his case, c iminaliza ion—do no only depend on he ac ual in-
o ma ion p o ided by he da a bu also on he epis emic posi ioning o p ac i ione s
and on he la ge social and poli ical se ing wi hin which he da a a el. In o he
wo ds, he jou neys o DNA da a a e en angled wi h he p oduc ion o pa icula ca -
ego ies o suspicion, such as ce ain popula ions om pa icula Eas e n Eu opean
coun ies and o he non-EU mig an s. The e m ca ego ies o suspicion is used o ou -
line how “suspec s a e cons i u ed h ough social in e ac ion wi h c iminal jus ice sys-
em agen s, agencies, and p ocesses” in ways ha deploy he “demog aphic,
socioeconomic, and cul u al s igma ha c iminal jus ice agen s associa e wi h suspec
s a us” (Cole & Lynch, 2006, p. 40).
Machado & G anja Cons uc ion o Ca ego ies o Suspicion 83
Case s udy me hodology
This a icle is based on a Eu opean Resea ch Council (ERC)- unded p ojec
3
ha aims
o explo e he socie al, cul u al, e hical, egula o y, and poli ical impac s o he use o
DNA echnologies in he EU. This esea ch u ilizes a mul i-me hodological app oach,
including he collec ion and analysis o legisla ion and documen a ion, as well as in-
e iews wi h o ensic p ac i ione s di ec ly in ol ed wi h he P üm sys em. This a icle
d aws on insigh om 32 semi-s uc u ed eco ded and ansc ibed in e iews con-
duc ed in 20 Eu opean coun ies wi h 40 p o essionals ope a ing he P üm sys em,
also known as P üm Na ional Con ac Poin s (NCPs).
Pa icipan s we e i s iden i ied om he public con ac lis p o ided in he
Wo king Pa y on In o ma ion Exchange and Da a P o ec ion documen s (Eu opean
Union Council, 2015), and hen by con ac ing p i ileged in o man s in he a ea.
Pa icipan s we e ec ui ed by email, le e , and elephone calls. In e iews included
he collec ion o he ollowing in o ma ion: iews on and expe ience wi h he imple-
men a ion o P üm a s a e and Eu opean le els, opinions abou he pu pose and con-
ibu ion o P üm, e hical issues aised by he ansna ional exchange o DNA da a,
expec a ions abou DNA echnology de elopmen and inno a ion, and pe cep ions
ela ed o communica ion wi h he public. To p o ec he iden i y o he pa icipan s,
a le e was a ibu ed o each coun y in which he pa icipan is based.
Ex ac s om in e iews conduc ed wi h NCPs e e ing o he pa icula i ies o
DNA da a exchange and o ms o cons uc ing suspicion we e coded and subjec ed o
mul iple eadings o de elop an in-dep h unde s anding. To p e en na ow amings
o ca ego ies o suspicion, he no ion was made esea chable by conside ing no only
ideas abou suspec o c iminal g oups bu also wha he p o essionals di ec ly ci ed
as being impo an conside a ions when making decisions abou da a p ocessing, man-
agemen , and subsequen use. These quo a ions we e hen sys ema ically compa ed,
con as ed, syn hesized, and coded by heme and hema ic ca ego y ollowing he p in-
ciples o g ounded heo y (Cha maz, 2006), hen in e p e ed using a quali a i e con-
en analysis app oach (May ing 2004).
P üm s ep one and wo: A wo- old jou ney
Eu ope is g adually ans o ming in o a digi al and selec i e bo de machine
(B oede s, 2007; Van de Ploeg, 1999). The na a i es o he expe s who ope a e he
P üm sys em highligh an ambi alence be ween he celeb a ion o a Eu opean socie y
ha acili a es mo emen and p omo es he idea o “no bo de s” on he one hand,
and, on he o he , inc easingly a emp s o es ic and moni o he mobili y o people
deemed p oblema ic:
We a e jus ge ing globalised. … In e ms o igh ing c ime, he ee he
mo emen o people he ha de hings can ge . [Coun y K]
In his sense, he P üm sys em, by allowing he au oma ic exchange o DNA p o iles
ac oss coun ies, is seen by in e iewees as way o “con ol” po en ially dange ous
people on he mo e:
[P üm] gi es us he oppo uni y o ca ch ha guy who can a el eely in
all Eu ope. [Coun y G]
84 Canadian Jou nal o Communica ion, Vol 45 (1)
The jou ney o DNA da a in he P üm sys em is based on a wo-s ep app oach.
The i s s ep consis s o an au oma ic exchange o DNA p o iles. Speci ically, when a
sea ch is made in a na ional da abase o a DNA sample e ie ed om a c ime scene
and no ma ch is ound, he P üm sys em pe mi s he da a o be ansmi ed and
sea ched in o he EU membe s a e na ional da abases. A no i ica ion is hen sen o
he o iginal membe s a e no i ying i o a hi (a ma ching p o ile) o no hi . Acco ding
o in e iewees, he jou ney o da a in his i s s ep o he P üm sys em is cha ac e ized
by “neu ali y” due o he use o impe sonal iden i ica ion numbe s (Po e , 1995),
ha is, nume ical e e ences o p o iles. As he ollowing quo e illus a es, in e iewees
belie e ha he appa en “neu ali y” o codes and numbe s p o ec s he iden i y o
he pe son o whom he p o ile belongs, hus cons uc ing wha Helena Machado and
Ra aela G anja (2018) desc ibed as a black box o p i acy issues wi hin P üm:
In he i s s ep [o he P üm sys em] you only compa e DNA p o iles, and
DNA p o iles a e only wen y o hi y numbe s. The e is no hing you can
ell abou he owne o he DNA p o ile om he DNA p o ile i sel .
[Coun y A]
When DNA p o iles a e au oma ically exchanged be ween coun ies, i cons i u es an
ope a ion ha esona es wi h wha Ke in Hagge y and Richa d E icson (2000) desc ibe
as he “su eillan assemblage,” which “ope a es by abs ac ing human bodies om
hei na u al and e i o ial se ing and sepa a ing hem in o a se ies o disc e e lows”
(p. 606). Howe e , “hidden” in he seeming neu ali y o codes, numbe s, and s an-
da ds, DNA also plays a cons i u i e ole in he cons uc ion o ca ego ies o suspicion.
The second s ep wi hin he P üm sys em occu s i a hi is iden i ied. A his ime
u he eques s o u he in o ma ion a e p ocessed h ough he exis ing police o
judicial channels (McCa ney, 2014). C iminali y is pe sonalized—and e i o ialized—
in s ep 2, inasmuch as he ype o c ime, he name, he na ionali y, and o he pe sonal
da a a e disclosed. Such in o ma ion leads o subsequen decisions by NCPs on wha
ma ches “a e wo h” ollowing, i.e., which da a should con inue hei jou ney and
which jou neys should be in e up ed. The e a e se e al ac o s ha migh in e ene
in such decisions, such as he ime passed since he c ime, he se e i y o he c ime,
and he o e all alue o cons uc ing aluable in elligence (Innes, Fielding, & Cope,
2005) o c iminal in es iga ion:
The main pa ame e is ha i he case is no ongoing, and i he case is no
o a ce ain le el, nobody will ollow-up. Nobody. … The only aspec is o
make a balance be ween he addi ional alue o going u he o o s op
he e. [Coun y H]
Da a is hen eassembled in o dis inc “‘da a doubles’ which can be sc u inized and
a ge ed o in e en ion” (Hagge y & E icson, 2000, p. 606).
The cons uc ion o ca ego ies o suspicion
Making decisions abou da a jou neys also ope a e along speci ic no ions o ca ego ies
o suspicion. This does no only mean he e-pe o mance o he bo de o a na ion-
s a e bu also he pe o mance o he subjec iden i ied by he DNA p o ile. In such an
assessmen , in e iewees desc ibe how Eu ope’s isky o he s come in many e sions.
Machado & G anja Cons uc ion o Ca ego ies o Suspicion 85

One o he mos p ominen ca ego ies o suspicion in he P üm da a jou neys is he
o eigne om Eas e n Eu ope coun ies. The ollowing quo e is om a P üm NCP-
based coun y in cen al Eu ope:
Since he ea ly 2000s, wi h c iminals om Eas Eu opean coun ies and
so on, he e a e a lo o ne wo ks. … So, people a e c ossing, and wi h
Schengen ha ’s qui e easy, you know. … People a e coming, so we [know]
a lis o Li huanian ne wo ks, we know Romanian ne wo ks, Bulga ian
ne wo ks, Polish ne wo ks, and so on. [Coun y H]
The hopes and conce ns ha accompany he jou neys o DNA da a ac oss di e en
si es o p ac ice and dis inc as da a in as uc u es gene a e pa icula da a-based
suspec subjec i i ies. The choice o which da a should be p io i ized and looked a
ope a es along speci ic no ions o ca ego ies o suspicion. Da a ha a e collec ed in
one place and om a pa icula se o pe sons con ibu e o assessing and judging di -
e en pe sons in di e en places. This has one impo an consequence, as da a jou -
neys do no always en ail he eassembling o pe sonal da a ha hen imposes
suspicion on a pe son. O en, he e is a pa e n ha leads o da a-based judgmen s.
Ra he han jus p esen ing a eques -check o in o ma ion and esponding o a e-
ques , da a jou neys a e di e en ly app ehended and in eg a ed in o he P üm sys em.
As desc ibed by he ollowing in e iewee, some ca ego ies o suspicion imply imme-
dia e ac ions:
We know by in es iga ion expe ience ha such d ug c iminals, which a e
e y o en Nige ians, hey also mo e e y s ongly. They a e e y o en in
he Ne he lands, in F ance, in Spain. So, we say: Such ypes o c ime we
should be checking immedia ely agains hose, hose, and hose coun ies.
[Coun y M]
The na a i es o pa icipan s e eal how he c ea ion and consolida ion o ca ego ies
o suspicion do no only depend on he ac ual in o ma ion p o ided by he da a, bu
also on he la ge social and poli ical se ing wi hin which he da a a el.
The mu abili y o da a and i s jou neys
Besides making decisions abou which ma ches o ollow-up, in e iewees also men-
ion limi a ions imposed on da a jou neys, especially wi h ega d o he ype and
amoun o in o ma ion ha can be accessed a a ansna ional le el. Fo example, once
coun y A makes a eques o ob ain mo e in o ma ion abou a DNA hi —a pe son
linked o a pa icula DNA p o ile—coun y B (which ecei ed he eques ) migh de-
cide o sha e o no o sha e mo e in o ma ion. As one in e iewee s a es: “e e y coun-
y is ee o sha e wi h he es o he EU wha e e hey wan on a na ional le el”
[Coun y C].
Many in e iewees occupy di e en posi ions. Rep esen a i es o coun ies in
which he cus ody o he DNA da abase is in he hands o he police end o belie e
ha all in o ma ion a ailable should be p o ided in o de o collabo a e success ully
and achie e he same goal. In coun ies whe e he cus ody o o ensic DNA da abases
is in he hands o he judicia y, he in o ma ion p o ided is gene ally es ic ed o a
minimum. The ollowing quo a ions a e illus a i e o such di e en posi ionings:
86 Canadian Jou nal o Communica ion, Vol 45 (1)
As soon as i is a ailable … we send back he in o ma ion … we can all o-
ge he dis up all he [c ime] ne wo ks. [Coun y H]
This da a is only o ou use, no one else has access o his. … I you a e in-
o ming abou he da a a second coun y, when we ge a hi , we ha e a
s ic lis o da a ha we can p o ide hem. [Coun y G]
Such di e en a i udes owa d he a ailabili y o da a ou line how he mu abili y o
da a—how hey a e adap ed o di e en pu poses and ac ed on by di e se p ac i ion-
e s—plays a pa icula ly signi ican ole in he P üm sys em. The EU es s on he
u opian idea ha bo de s do no exis , which is (a leas pa ially) cha ac e ized by
he inc eased s eng h o ne wo ks o coope a ion among di e en coun ies. Bo de s
in he EU a e, howe e , e y eal ins i u ions, wi h he associa ed bo de echnologies.
Da a jou neys in such a con ex , hus, simul aneously pe o m openness and enclo-
su e—a cons an dialec ical in e play.
Conclusion
The esul s o his case s udy abou he da a jou neys o DNA da a ac oss he EU sug-
ges s ha no only do da a jou neys pe o m a di e en e sion o Eu ope, hey also
pe o m se e al o ms o ca ego ies o suspicion. This o ms wo ypes o in e ela ed
na a i es. Fi s , by en olling and ansla ing he e ogeneous elemen s in o se s o da a
ha de e mine, enac , and pe o m ca ego ies o suspicion, and second, by managing
con o e sies ela ed o da a jou neys be ween di e en ju isdic ions ha ( e)c ea e
bo de s wi hin EU.
This P üm case s udy—loca ed in he wide accoun o he changing dynamics o
echnology, geopoli ics, and c iminaliza ion— hus allows o he empi ical explo a ion
o issues o powe and social jus ice in an age o da a ica ion. Taking in o conside a ion
he inc easing shi s in se e al domains o social li e o collec and p ocess massi e
amoun s o da a, his case s udy a icula es how, wi hin con empo a y p ojec s ha
aim o know and go e n mobile bodies (Aas, 2011; B oede s, 2007), c iminaliza ion
migh ake place by managing se e al decisions ela ed o he p oduc ion, a els, and
use o da a. Demons a ing how sup ana ional- and s a e-le el no ions abou c oss-
bo de c ime and suspec social g oups and indi iduals, as well as a i udes o e he
na ional owne ship o da a, a e enac ed, his case s udy begins o un a el some o he
socie al implica ions o da a ica ion. While ini ial conce ns wi h he P üm sys em o-
cused on he issues o su eillance and p i acy, his case s udy shows how an inc eased
emphasis should be placed on he ac ha da a jou neys a e no uni o m and do no
implica e e e yone in he same way. Da a jou neys wi hin he P üm sys em ake pa
in a sys em o social so ing, hus ( e)cons uc ing ca ego ies o suspicion in ways ha
highligh geopoli ical ensions. In such a con ex , ques ions o da a jus ice equi e de-
ailed s udy o disco e how da a powe wo ks in di e en sys ems.
Acknowledgemen s
This wo k ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Resea ch Council (ERC) unde he
Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og amme (g an ag eemen
No. 648608), wi hin he p ojec “EXCHANGE – Fo ensic Gene icis s and he
T ansna ional Exchange o DNA Da a in he EU: Engaging Science wi h Social Con ol,
Machado & G anja Cons uc ion o Ca ego ies o Suspicion 87
Ci izenship and Democ acy” led by Helena Machado and hos ed a he Communica ion
and Socie y Resea ch Cen e a he Ins i u e o Social Sciences a he Uni e si y o
Minho in Po ugal.
No es
A “ma ch” o a “hi ” migh be used equally o desc ibe co espondence be ween DNA p o iles dis-1.
co e ed by a da abase sea ch a a single ins an in ime, independen o being a s ain o s ain- o-pe son
ma ch (Eu opean Ne wo k o Fo ensic Science Ins i u es, 2016).
The coun ies ha a e no in he P üm sys em a e G eece, I eland, and I aly. 2.
P ojec EXCHANGE “Fo ensic Gene icis s and he T ansna ional Exchange o DNA Da a in he EU:3.
Engaging Science wi h Social Con ol, Ci izenship and Democ acy” (ERC G an ag eemen No. 648608),
led by Helena Machado.
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