Academic Edi o : Jai o And ade
Recei ed: 29 Ap il 2025
Re ised: 2 June 2025
Accep ed: 4 June 2025
Published: 6 June 2025
Ci a ion: Cunha, S.; Kap an, K.;
Ha dy, E.; Aguia , J. Assessmen o he
E iciency o Mechanical G inding and
Calcina ion P ocesses o Cons uc ion
and Demoli ion Was e as Binde
Replacemen in Cemen Pas es:
Mechanical P ope ies E alua ion.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
su17125248
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A icle
Assessmen o he E iciency o Mechanical G inding and
Calcina ion P ocesses o Cons uc ion and Demoli ion Was e
as Binde Replacemen in Cemen Pas es: Mechanical
P ope ies E alua ion
Sand a Cunha 1,* , Kubilay Kap an 1, E wan Ha dy 2and José Aguia 1
1Cen e o Te i o y En i onmen and Cons uc ion (CTAC), Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing,
School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Minho, Campus de Azu ém, 4800-058 Guima aes, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed] (K.K.); [email p o ec ed] (J.A.)
2Dépa emen Genie Ci il, Poly ech Nan es, Ga y Océanis BP 152, 44603 Sain -Nazai e, CEDEX, F ance;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Reducing ca bon dioxide emissions is a key p io i y in he Eu opean Union,
which aims o achie e ca bon neu ali y by 2050. Cons uc ion has a key ole o play in
his e o , as i is esponsible o a signi ican p opo ion o g eenhouse gas emissions,
especially due o cemen p oduc ion. A he same ime, was e euse eme ges as a key
s a egy wi hin he ci cula economy, ano he pilla o Eu opean policies. By aluing
byp oduc s and was e, such as cons uc ion and demoli ion was e (CDW), i is possible o
educe he ex ac ion o na u al esou ces, amoun o was e sen o land ills, and emissions
associa ed wi h he p oduc ion o new ma e ials. This s udy, wi h he main objec i e o
e alua ing he possibili y o using CDW as supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ials, eme ges
as a possible solu ion o educe hese p oblems. Two CDW ea men me hods we e used:
(i) mechanical g inding and (ii) calcina ion. The mechanical g inding me hod, e en wi h
he use o labo a o y equipmen , has shown ha i is possible o ob ain CDW pa icles
wi h cha ac e is ics sui able o eplacing cemen . Fo he calcina ion p ocess, empe a u es
be ween 600
◦
C and 800
◦
C we e he mos sui able. The esul s p o ed ha he eplacemen
o cemen by CDW in pas es esul ed in sui able beha io o he cons uc ion indus y,
ha ing e ealed an inco po a ion con en o up o 25% CDW, a comp essi e s eng h and
s eng h ac i i y index highe han ha ound o pas es de eloped wi h ly ash. Rega ding
he calcina ion p ocess, his e ealed an imp o emen in he comp essi e s eng h o he
de eloped pas es, esul ing in an inc ease in s eng h ac i i y index o be ween 7 and 10%.
Keywo ds: cons uc ion and demoli ion was e; supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial;
mechanical g inding; calcina ion; pas es; comp essi e s eng h; s eng h ac i i y index
1. In oduc ion
Cu en ly, humani y aces se e al p oblems ela ed o was e p oduc ion and g een-
house gas emissions in o he a mosphe e. The cons uc ion indus y makes a huge con i-
bu ion o his p oblem, ep esen ing a ound 40% o he was e gene a ed wo ldwide [
1
] and
a ound 39% o ca bon dioxide emissions in o he a mosphe e [
2
]. On he o he hand, he
high in ensi y o he cons uc ion indus y has also led o an eno mous consump ion o
na u al aw ma e ials [
3
], which inc eases he impo ance o ci cula cons uc ion and he
euse o end-o -li e aw ma e ials.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su17125248
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 2 o 23
A ound 10 billion ons o cons uc ion and demoli ion was e (CDW) a e p oduced
annually [
4
], which can and should be eused. Today, a la ge pa o his was e s ill ends
up being placed in dumps o land ills [
1
,
5
], gene a ing majo en i onmen al and social
p oblems. On he o he hand, a g ea loss o esou ces is ensu ed by hei lack o euse.
CDW is made up o se e al ma e ials, such as conc e e, mo a s, b icks, and ce amics,
among o he s [
1
,
6
], which all ha e po en ial o se e al applica ions in he cons uc ion
indus y. The euse o CDW has been add essed by se e al esea ch eams, namely as
subs i u es o na u al agg ega es [
7
–
9
] and mo e ecen ly as supplemen a y cemen i ious
ma e ials [10,11].
Resea ch indica es ha subs i u ing up o 30% o na u al coa se agg ega e wi h
ecycled ma e ial in conc e e does no signi ican ly impai physical–mechanical quali-
ies [
10
,
12
,
13
]. The indings ha e also demons a ed ha he mechanical quali ies o
conc e es inco po a ing CDW agg ega es a e in e io o hose o e e ence conc e e com-
posed o na u al agg ega es. Mo eo e , conc e e p oduced using ecycled agg ega e is less
du able due o i s inc eased po osi y. Consequen ly, he u iliza ion o CDW as an agg ega e
in conc e e is inad isable o applica ions in agg essi e en i onmen s [14].
On he o he hand, he subs i u ion o a po ion o Po land cemen wi h CDW in
cemen -based ma e ials began o a ouse he in e es o he scien i ic communi y, since i
allows us o educe he ca bon oo p in , he e o e mi iga ing he en i onmen al ha m
associa ed wi h Po land cemen manu ac u ing [10,15,16].
The cemen indus y is deeply in eg a ed in o he Eu opean economy, wi h acili ies
sp ead h oughou he Eu opean Union [
17
]. A ound 175 million ons o cemen a e
p oduced in Eu ope each yea , mainly o p oduce conc e e, bu also o he cemen -based
composi e ma e ials such as mo a s and p ecas conc e e p oduc s. The cemen indus y
signi ican ly con ibu es o global ca bon emissions, mainly because ca bon dioxide (CO
2
) is
eleased du ing he cemen manu ac u ing p ocess [
18
]. The e o e, i is necessa y o educe
he en i onmen al impac esul ing om cemen p oduc ion, especially CO
2
emissions.
In his con ex , he Pa is Ag eemen aims o educe CO
2
emissions esul ing om cemen
manu ac u ing by 30% by 2030 [
19
]. Reducing ca bon emissions om cemen and conc e e
p oduc ion is essen ial o p omo ing sus ainable cons uc ion and add essing clima e
change [
18
]. The use o low-ca bon cemen and he inco po a ion o supplemen a y
cemen i ious ma e ials in conc e e p oduc ion can signi ican ly educe he ca bon oo p in
associa ed wi h conc e e. By in eg a ing ma e ials such as ly ash, slag, silica ume, pozzolan,
and o he s du ing he manu ac u ing p ocess, signi ican sa ings in CO
2
emissions a e
achie ed in he cemen manu ac u ing phase [17,20].
Tang e al. [
21
] and Zhang e al. [
22
] u ilized ecycled b ick powde o subs i u e 5–30%
o he cemen mass in mo a samples, e ealing ha an op imal quan i y o ecycled
b ick powde enhanced he mechanical quali ies o he mo a while exe ing negligible
e ec s on du abili y. Duan e al. [
23
] examined ecycled powde de i ed om a ious
CDW sou ces, including was e conc e e, asso ed was e b icks, and was e ae a ed b ick.
They disco e ed ha ma e ials ecycled om mixed CDW and was e b icks wi h a ine
pa icle size exhibi ed a supe io s eng h ac i i y index o 80% a a eplacemen a io o
30%. Wu e al. [
24
] obse ed ha he inco po a ion o ecycled conc e e powde educed
he d y sh inkage o mo a . They s a ed ha ecycled powde had a signi ican quan i y
o amo phous and glass phases, which acili a ed he seconda y hyd a ion eac ion. Li
e al. [
25
] u ilized ecycled conc e e powde o subs i u e 10–30% o cemen , yielding esul s
compa able o hose ob ained wi h ecycled b ick powde .
Exis ing esea ch conce ning CDW as cemen eplacemen p edominan ly ocused on
he indi idual examina ion o conc e e and b ick was e powde s. Mo eo e , nume ous
s udies aimed o educe was e ac o s by u ilizing ma e ials gene a ed in labo a o ies o
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 3 o 23
small-scale p oduc ions, allowing o he con ol o cemen ype, cu ing du a ion, and o he
pa ame e s. On he o he hand, he li e a u e esea ch [
10
] indica es ha an ac i a ion
p ocess can enhance he applica ion o CDW as a supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial.
The p e ailing ac i a ion me hods in ol e he mal, mechanical, chemical, nano-silica,
and biological ac i a ion [
26
], wi h mechanical and he mal ac i a ion me hods being he
mos used.
This s udy aims o go u he , s udying he inco po a ion o he CDW mix wi hou
he need o p io ea men ega ding i s sepa a ion by ma e ial ype. Thus, he main
objec i es o his s udy we e as ollows: (i) de elop a mechanical g inding p ocess sui able
o he use o CDW as supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial; (ii) e alua e he in luence o
he CDW calcina ion p ocess a 600
◦
C and 800
◦
C; (iii) e alua e he esh and ha dened
beha io o pas es inco po a ing CDW powde .
2. Resea ch Signi icance
Cu en ly, many o he s udies ha add ess CDW use his was e as a subs i u e o
na u al agg ega es. The use o CDW as a supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial is s ill
ecen , and much o he wo k de eloped ocuses on s udying speci ic ypes o was e,
such as conc e e o ce amic was e. These s udies ha e shown g ea po en ial o CDW as
supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ials. Howe e , se e al challenges s ill exis in socie y
and in he cons uc ion sec o , since he sepa a ion o CDW by ype o ma e ial is no a
common p ac ice in mos coun ies, as is he case in Po ugal. The e o e, his s udy aims o
add ess his p oblem using mix u es o CDW, consis ing o conc e e, mo a s, ce amics and
agg ega es, as po en ial supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial.
This s udy con ibu es signi ican ly o he ield compa ed o he exis ing li e a u e,
add essing inno a i e aspec s ha ha e been li le o no a all explo ed. Thus, his esea ch
p o ides aluable insigh s o p o ide o he ways o aluing CDW, a oiding i s p io
selec ion and ca ego iza ion. The de elopmen o hese new pas es using CDW as binde
eplacemen and he in es iga ion o hei impac on physical and mechanical pe o mance
allows us o elimina e c i ical gaps in he ield and pa e he way o ad ances in sus ainable
cons uc ion and was e managemen .
3. Ma e ials
3.1. T ea men o CDW
The CDW used in his s udy is cha ac e ized as mixed CDW, o igina ing om Po -
uguese cons uc ion wo ks and ma ke ed by a Po uguese was e managemen company,
loca ed in he cen al egion o Po ugal. CDW was ini ially p oduced o be ma ke ed as
a subs i u e o na u al agg ega e, wi h a g ain size be ween 0 and 10 mm, wi h quali y
con ol and composi ion. CDW has al eady been used by his esea ch eam [
6
], being a
mix u e o was e consis ing o mo a , conc e e, b ick, ce amic, lime pas e, na u al s one,
soil, and o he mino cons i uen s. I ea u es a densi y o 2143.9 kg/m
3
and wa e abso p-
ion o 7.82%. Se e al au ho s ha e success ully used mechanical g inding me hods o
he ea men o di e en ma e ials, especially indus ial was e, o ob ain supplemen a y
cemen i ious ma e ials [
10
,
27
–
29
]. Thus, in his s udy, only he ac ion be ween 0 and
4 mm was used, which was duly p ocessed o ob ain a ine powde which can be used
as a supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial. A hea ea men p ocess was also applied o
he CDW a e i s mechanical g inding. Figu e 1shows a schema ic ep esen a ion o he
ea men s eps applied o CDW.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 4 o 23
Figu e 1. Schema ic ep esen a ion o he CDW p ocessing s eps.
3.1.1. Mechanical G inding o CDW
To educe he dimensions o he CDW o o m a powde wi h dimensions like hose o
cemen , he CDW agg ega e was subjec ed o a mechanical g inding p ocess. The g inding
cycles we e pe o med using a Los Angeles mill wi h 20 me al balls inside. In each cycle,
5000 g o CDW agg ega es we e g ound o 15 min. Se e al g inding cycles we e applied
(Figu e 2) un il he e i ica ion o he ollowing condi ion (Equa ion (1)):
D50CDW ≤D50CEM, (1)
whe e
D50CDW—Size o 50% o he accumula ed e ained pa icles o he CDW powde ;
D50CEM—Size o 50% o he accumula ed e ained pa icles o he cemen .
A each g inding s age, a sample o CDW powde was collec ed and subsequen ly
analyzed using a lase g anulome e (Mal e n Ins umen s Limi ed, Wo ces e shi e, UK).
A lase pa icle size analysis, based on he lase di ac ion me hod, was pe o med on
he cemen and CDW powde u ilizing a Mal e n Ins umen s Mas e size 3000 (Mal e n
Ins umen s Limi ed, Wo ces e shi e, UK), capable o measu ing pa icle sizes anging om
10 nm o 3.5 mm. The pa icle size dis ibu ion, speci ic su ace a ea, D10, D50, and D90
alue we e de e mined om he measu emen s. In his way, i was possible o con inuously
con ol he milling p ocess and i s in e e ence in he dis ibu ion and a e age pa icle size
o he CDW. Figu e 3shows he pa icle size dis ibu ion o cemen and CDW powde a e
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 5 o 23
10, 20, 30, 40, and 60 g inding cycles. I was possible o e i y ha a e each g inding s ep,
he g anulome ic cu e o he CDW powde g adually app oached he g anulome ic
dis ibu ion cu e o he cemen .
Figu e 2. Schema ic ep esen a ion o he CDW mechanical g inding p ocess.
Figu e 3. G anulome ic cu e o cemen and CDW a e 10, 20, 30, 40, and 60 g inding cycles.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 6 o 23
Based on Figu e 4, i is possible o obse e he D50 alue and he speci ic su ace a ea
o he cemen and CDW a e he di e en g inding cycles. I was ound ha as he ime
and numbe o g inding cycles inc eased, he e was simul aneously a dec ease in D50 alue
and an inc ease in he speci ic su ace a ea, demons a ing he e ec i eness o he g inding
p ocess adop ed. I was also possible o e i y ha ca ying ou 60 g inding cycles led
o ob aining a CDW powde wi h a D50 alue abou 14% lowe han he one e i ied o
cemen . Howe e , he speci ic su ace a ea ob ained was much highe . In he li e a u e,
he ela ionship be ween he D50 alue and speci ic su ace a ea is well-es ablished [
30
,
31
].
I is clea ha as he a e age pa icle size o a powde dec eases, i s speci ic su ace
a ea inc eases. These p ope ies suppo he hyd a ion eac ion by acili a ing nuclea ion,
gene a ing new hyd a ed compounds, and imp o ing ma e ial densi y h ough a illing
e ec [21,30,31].
Figu e 4. D50 alue and speci ic su ace a ea o cemen and CDW a e 10, 20, 30, 40, and 60 g ind-
ing cycles.
Acco ding o Figu e 5, i was possible o e i y ha he CDW pa icle size, e alua ed
by he D10, D50, and D90 alue, dec eases as he numbe o g inding cycles inc eases, as
epo ed by o he au ho s [
30
,
31
]. I is impo an o highligh ha he g inding p ocess has
a g ea in luence on he D90 alue in all g inding cycles, demons a ing g ea e iciency
om he applica ion o a small numbe o cycles in educing he size o la ge pa icles.
Howe e , only a e he 20 h g inding cycle was i possible o e i y a g ea e in luence on
he D10 and D50 alue.
Based on he esul s ob ained o he di e en g inding cycles, he condi ion indica ed
in Equa ion (1), and he esul s p esen in Figu es 6and 7, he applica ion o 60 cycles
was selec ed as he CDW g inding p ocedu e. I is impo an o no e ha supplemen a y
cemen i ious ma e ials mus ha e diame e s equal o o smalle han hose ound o
cemen in o de o imp o e hei chemical eac i i y and pa icle packing e ec [
10
,
32
].
Some au ho s e alua ed he e ec o he g inding ime o supplemen a y cemen i ious
ma e ials on he mechanical beha io o mo a s, ha ing obse ed ha as he g inding ime
inc eases, he mechanical p ope ies ob ained a e imp o ed [10,33].
Acco ding o Figu e 6, i was possible o e i y ha he applica ion o 60 g inding
cycles in he CDW p o ed o be an e ec i e mechanical g inding p ocedu e. In ela ion
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 7 o 23
o he D10 and D50 alues, i was ound ha CDW p esen ed a dec ease in i s alue o
app oxima ely 96% and 14% compa ed o cemen , espec i ely. While o he D90 alue,
CDW p esen ed a alue app oxima ely 77% highe han ha o cemen . This beha io is
associa ed wi h he la ge dispe sion o pa icle sizes in he CDW used o p oduce he CDW
powde , which anges om 0 o 4 mm. Howe e , h ough he analysis o Figu e 7, we can
obse e ha mo e han 53% o he olume ic dis ibu ion o he CDW pa icles is be ween
14 µm and 120 µm, as is he case o he cemen pa icles.
Figu e 5. G inding cycle s. CDW pa icle size.
Figu e 6. D10, D50, and D90 alues o cemen (CEM I 42.5R) and CDW a e 60 g inding cycles.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 8 o 23
Figu e 7. Volume ic dis ibu ion o cemen pa icles and CDW a e 60 g inding cycles.
Table 1shows he densi y o Po land cemen and CDW powde de e mined acco ding
o LNEC Speci ica ion E 64 [
34
]. I was possible o e i y ha he densi y o CDW is
app oxima ely 14% lowe han ha p esen ed by cemen . Simila alues we e ob ained by
Taka e a e al. [12].
Table 1. Densi y o cemen and CDW powde a e 60 cycles o 60 g inding cycles.
Ma e ial Densi y (kg/m3)
Cemen 3142
CDW Powde 2707
3.1.2. The mal T ea men o CDW
Figu e 8shows he esul s ob ained o he he mog a ime y es s (TG), pe o med
using a NETZSCH The mal Analyze (NETZSCH-Ge ä ebau GmbH, Selb, Ge many).
App oxima ely 20 mg o CDW powde was placed in an alumina c ucible and subjec ed o
hea ing om oom empe a u e o app oxima ely 1000
◦
C a a uni o m a e o 10
◦
C/min.
In his way, i was possible o e alua e he mass loss ha occu ed in he samples unde
analysis. The es was ca ied ou on h ee samples. The he mog a ime ic (TGA) and
di e en ial he mog a ime ic (DTG) cu es p o ide insigh in o he he mal s abili y and
decomposi ion beha io o he samples [
35
]. The TGA analysis iden i ies se e al signi ican
he mal e en s ela ed o mois u e loss and he decomposi ion o mine al phases. Based
on he DTG cu e, i was possible o obse e he exis ence o wo peak poin s, indica ed
in Figu e 8as zones (zone (a) and (b)). Zone (a), wi h loss be ween 30
◦
C and 150
◦
C,
is a ibu ed o he e apo a ion o wa e , as epo ed in o he esea ch wo ks [
12
,
35
–
37
].
Zone (b), wi h loss be ween 600
◦
C and 800
◦
C, is ela ed o he deca bona ion o calcium
ca bona e (CaCO3) o o m calcium oxide (CaO) and ca bon dioxide (CO2) [12,37–40].
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 9 o 23
Figu e 8. TGA and DTG o CDW powde .
Based on he esul s ob ained, he CDW was subjec ed o a calcina ion p ocess o 4 h,
adop ing wo di e en empe a u es, 600 ◦C and 800 ◦C, as shown in Figu e 9.
Figu e 9. CDW calcina ion p ocess.
Figu e 10 shows he densi y o CDW calcined a 600
◦
C and 800
◦
C. Compa ed o CDW
wi hou hea ea men , i was possible o e i y ha he densi y did no p esen signi ican
changes, emaining p ac ically unchanged, as al eady epo ed by Baggio e al. [10].
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 16 o 23
Howe e , he inco po a ion o a low con en o CDW powde (5% CDW) did no
cause a signi ican change in he comp essi e s eng h o he pas es, due o hei lowe
cemen eplacemen [
12
] and he small pa icle size o he powde [
57
]. Toka e a e al. [
12
]
obse ed he same beha io o mo a s de eloped wi h di e en con en s o di e en ypes
o CDW. The educ ion in he mechanical s eng h o he cemen pas es was an icipa ed,
p ima ily due o he lowe cemen con en (dilu ion e ec ), which led o a lowe o ma ion
o hyd a ion p oduc s as he CDW con en inc eased [
58
–
60
], and also because o he highe
wa e –binde a io o he pas es (Figu e 14), which c ea es a mo e po ous and consequen ly
mo e agile s uc u e [
61
,
62
]. Rega ding CDW as supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial,
se e al au ho s ha e s udied he inco po a ion o conc e e was e ( ecycled conc e e powde )
as cemen eplacemen , also e i ying a dec ease in mechanical p ope ies o cemen i ious
ma e ials as a esul o a highe con en eplacemen [28,29,63].
Rega ding he composi ion inco po a ing 25% ly ash (P_FA25), i was possible o
e i y a dec ease in comp essi e s eng h o app oxima ely 43%, 48%, and 31% a 7, 28,
and 90 days o cu ing, espec i ely. The dec ease in comp essi e s eng h o cemen i ious
mix u es wi h ly ash inco po a ion has al eady been epo ed by o he au ho s [
41
,
64
,
65
],
due o he lowe pozzolanic eac i i y, lowe clinke con en and highe pas e wa e –binde
a io. Fly ash is a well-known supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial al eady used in he
manu ac u e o cemen [
66
]. This composi ion also se es as a s anda d composi ion o
e alua e he pe o mance o pas es p oduced wi h he inco po a ion o CDW powde .
Acco dingly, a compa a i e analysis be ween cemen pas e inco po a ing 25% o non-
calcina ed CDW powde (P_CDW25) and he pas e wi h 25% o ly ash (P_FA25) e ealed
ha he CDW-based pas e exhibi ed compa able comp essi e s eng h a 7 days, a 12%
inc ease a 28 days, and app oxima ely 30% lowe s eng h a 90 days. This e ec o g ea e
gain in comp essi e s eng h o cemen i ious mix u es inco po a ing ly ash a la e ages
has also been iden i ied by o he au ho s [
41
,
65
]. This beha io is a ibu ed o he slowe
pozzolanic eac ion kine ics o ly ash, which consequen ly delays he de elopmen o
comp essi e s eng h [41].
Conside ing he e olu ion o e ime in gene al, mainly be ween 28 and 90 days o
age, he inco po a ion o CDW powde does no p o ide a de elopmen in esis ance
as signi ican as ha obse ed o he pas e wi h he inco po a ion o ly ash, whose
e olu ion is a ound 64%. Howe e , by compa ing he e e ence pas e (P_REF) wi h he
pas e inco po a ing 25% CDW powde (P_CDW25), i was possible o e i y ha he
e olu ion o he comp essi e s eng h be ween 28 and 90 days was posi i e and simila ,
wi h an inc ease o app oxima ely 25%. This beha io suppo s wha has al eady been
men ioned in p e ious wo ks [
31
,
57
,
59
]: (i) a minimal in luence o sligh imp o emen in
he mechanical p ope ies is seen i he pe cen ages o supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial
a e lowe (be ween 20 and 30%); (ii) CDW, mainly ecycled conc e e pa icles, pa icipa e
in he pozzolanic eac ion.
Figu e 17 shows he beha io o he pas es wi h he inco po a ion o CDW powde
calcined a 600
◦
C (P_CDW25-600
◦
C) and 800
◦
C (P_CDW25-800
◦
C), based on he esul s
ob ained in he he mog a ime y es s (Figu e 8). I was possible o e i y ha he he mal
ea men o CDW a e mechanical g inding p o ided an imp o emen in comp essi e
s eng h compa ed o un ea ed CDW. The exposu e o CDW powde o a empe a u e
o 600
◦
C esul ed in an imp o emen in comp essi e s eng h o app oxima ely 20% a
7 days and app oxima ely 7% a 28 days. In u n, he exposu e o a empe a u e o 800 ◦C
led o an imp o emen in comp essi e s eng h o app oxima ely 22% a 7 days o age and
app oxima ely 10% a 28 days compa ed o he pas e wi hou he mal ac i a ion (P_CDW25).
Se e al au ho s ha e epo ed ha he applica ion o he mal ea men in CDW o ecycled
conc e e was e powde has led o imp o ed mechanical pe o mance [
10
,
30
,
67
,
68
]. I was
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 17 o 23
s a ed by Rocha and Toledo Filho [
31
] ha he ideal empe a u e ange o hea ea men
is be ween 600 and 900
◦
C, since in his empe a u e ange CH decomposi ion in o CaO
occu s, accele a ing he hyd a ion and imp o ing mechanical beha io [
69
] and he CaCO
3
decomposi ion in o CaO, which may pa icipa e in a new hyd a ion eac ion [
30
,
70
]. In he
bibliog aphy i is also men ioned ha hea ea men wi h empe a u es below 600
◦
C and
abo e 1000
◦
C a e no as e ec i e ega ding he mechanical pe o mance o cemen i ious
ma e ials wi h he inco po a ion o supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ials [30,31].
5.3. S eng h Ac i i y Index
Figu es 18 and 19 p esen he SAI esul s o 28 days o he pas es wi h he inco -
po a ion o non-calcina ed CDW powde and calcina ed CDW powde , espec i ely. As
men ioned be o e, he e is no uni e sally accep ed s anda d de ining a speci ic h esh-
old. Howe e , esea che s commonly adop a 75% benchma k, as ecommended by EN
450-1 [47] o ly ash ac i i y index.
Based on Figu e 18, i was possible o e i y ha o he de eloped pas es, he ac i i y
index was only eached acco ding o he limi es ablished in he EN 450-1 [
48
] s anda d
o he pas e wi h he inco po a ion o 5% CDW. Howe e , based on he ac i i y index
achie ed wi h he pas e inco po a ing 25% ly ash (P_FA25), i was possible o e i y ha
he pas es inco po a ing 5%, 15%, and 25% o CDW powde p esen ed a highe ac i i y
index a 28 days, demons a ing a be e pe o mance. By compa ing he pas e wi h he
inco po a ion o 25% ly ash and 25% CDW powde , i was possible o e i y ha he pas e
wi h CDW p esen ed a highe ac i i y index o app oxima ely 12%. This beha io can be
explained by he smalle pa icle size o CDW and i s la ge speci ic su ace a ea (Figu e 4)
compa ed o ly ash pa icles (Figu e 12).
Figu e 18. Ac i i y index o pas es wi h inco po a ion o ly ash and CDW powde a 28 days [48].
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 18 o 23
Figu e 19. Ac i i y index o pas es wi h inco po a ion o calcina ed CDW powde a 28 days [48].
The ac i i y index o he pas es inco po a ing calcined CDW powde can be seen
in Figu e 19. Once again i was possible o e i y ha none o he pas es inco po a ing
25% CDW eached he limi imposed by he EN 450-1 s anda d [
48
]. Howe e , all o
hem p esen ed a highe ac i i y index han ha p esen ed by he pas es inco po a ing
25% ly ash. I was also possible o e i y ha exposu e o calcina ion o CDW powde
esul ed in a highe ac i i y index. Calcina ion a 600
◦
C esul ed in an imp o emen in he
ac i i y index o app oxima ely 7% and calcina ion a 800
◦
C esul ed in an imp o emen
o app oxima ely 10% compa ed o he ac i i y index o he pas e wi h un ea ed CDW. As
p e iously men ioned, his beha io is jus i ied mainly by he CaCO
3
decomposi ion in o
CaO, which may pa icipa e in a new hyd a ion eac ion [30,31,70].
6. Conclusions
The u iliza ion o CDW as supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ials ep esen s a ield
wi h signi ican esea ch po en ial, pa icula ly conce ning he applica ion o mixed CDW,
which is widely a ailable ac oss he wo ld. The use o mixed CDW could ci cum en he
need o p e-selec ion and sepa a ion p ocesses, he eby enhancing i s p ac ical iabili y. In
his s udy, CDW was used as a subs i u e o cemen and i s pe o mance was compa ed
wi h ly ash, a well-known supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial.
The ollowing conclusions can be d awn om his s udy:
1.
T ea men o CDW: The CDW g inding p ocess was c ucial o ob ain a powde wi h
an a e age pa icle size sui able o eplacing he binde . The applied g inding p ocess
led h ough nume ous g inding cycles o an inc easingly smalle a e age pa icle
size, making i possible o achie e an a e age pa icle size abou 14% lowe han ha
e i ied o cemen . Howe e , he e was a huge change in he speci ic su ace o he
CDW pa icles, which p esen ed a alue much highe han ha o cemen . Howe e ,
e en hough a speci ic mill was no used o ob ain e y ine pa icles, i was possible
o ob ain p omising esul s and pa icles wi h he po en ial o eplace cemen . On
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 19 o 23
he o he hand, he calcina ion p ocess applied o CDW p o ed o be e ec i e, since
he selec ed empe a u es (600
◦
C and 800
◦
C) allow he deca bona ion o calcium
ca bona e, as can be e i ied in he he mog a ime y es s.
2.
Wo kabili y: The wa e –binde a io o he pas es wi h he inco po a ion o CDW
powde (non-calcined and calcined) e ealed a sligh inc ease wi h he inco po a ion
o highe CDW con en because o he smalle pa icle size and highe speci ic su ace
o CDW compa ed o cemen pa icles.
3.
Comp essi e s eng h: The inco po a ion o a highe con en o non-calcined CDW
esul ed in a dec ease in he comp essi e s eng h o he s udied pas es o all ages
analyzed. This beha io is ela ed o he lowe cemen con en (dilu ion e ec ),
which led o a lowe o ma ion o hyd a ion p oduc s and a highe wa e –binde
a io. Howe e , he inco po a ion o CDW up o an inco po a ion con en o 25% in
eplacemen o cemen allowed us o ob ain a beha io a 7 and 28 days e y simila ,
and, in some cases (5% CDW and 15% CDW), e en supe io o ha o he pas es
p oduced wi h he inco po a ion o 25% o ly ash. On he o he hand, he comp essi e
s eng h o he pas es p oduced wi h he inco po a ion o 25% o CDW calcined a
600
◦
C and 800
◦
C, which p o ed o be a e y e ec i e ea men , since i s mechanical
pe o mance was imp o ed due o he CH decomposi ion in o CaO and he CaCO
3
decomposi ion in o CaO, allowing he accele a ion o he hyd a ion eac ions.
4.
Ac i i y index: I was possible o e i y ha only he pas e inco po a ing 5% o
non-calcined CDW e ealed an ac i i y index highe han ha speci ied by he EN
450-1 s anda d [
48
], ha is, highe han 75%. I was possible o e i y ha highe
CDW con en s esul ed in a lowe ac i i y index as a esul o i s lowe comp essi e
s eng h. Howe e , up o an inco po a ion con en equal o o g ea e han 25%
CDW, he ac i i y index obse ed was highe han ha obse ed o pas es wi h he
inco po a ion o 25% ly ash. On he o he hand, he calcina ion p ocess applied o
CDW allowed us o ob ain an ac i i y index ha was app oxima ely 10% highe han
he pe o mance o non-calcined CDW because o CaCO
3
decomposi ion in o CaO,
which may pa icipa e in a new hyd a ion eac ion.
Thus, his s udy demons a ed ha non-calcined and calcina ed CDW can be used
as a supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ial, being able o eplace no only cemen , bu
also ly ash, whose p oduc ion has al eady ended in se e al Eu opean Union coun ies
due o he closu e o he moelec ic plan s as a esul o measu es implemen ed by he
Eu opean Union o achie e ca bon neu ali y by 2050. The use o CDW as a supplemen a y
cemen i ious ma e ial also con ibu es o he deca boniza ion o buildings and he educ ion
in he consump ion o na u al aw ma e ials, aking ad an age o indus ial was e ha is
widely a ailable h oughou he wo ld and gene a ed by he cons uc ion indus y i sel .
6.1. Resea ch Limi a ions and Challenges
The use o CDW as a pa ial eplacemen o cemen in conc e e has gained a en ion
o i s po en ial o educe en i onmen al impac s; howe e , se e al limi a ions hinde i s
widesp ead applica ion. A majo challenge lies in he highly a iable composi ion and qual-
i y o CDW, which can include a he e ogeneous mix o conc e e, mason y, mo a , ce amics,
and some imes con aminan s such as me als, o ganics, o haza dous subs ances. This a i-
abili y a ec s he consis ency and eliabili y o ecycled ma e ial’s pe o mance. Mo eo e ,
mos C&D-de i ed ma e ials exhibi low pozzolanic ac i i y compa ed o con en ional
supplemen a y cemen i ious ma e ials like ly ash o slag, limi ing hei con ibu ion o
he mechanical and du abili y p ope ies o conc e e. Signi ican p ocessing—such as
c ushing, g inding, and sc eening—is o en equi ed o make CDW sui able o use as a
binde , which adds economic and ene gy cos s. Addi ionally, high eplacemen le els may
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 5248 20 o 23
lead o educ ions in comp essi e s eng h, inc eased po osi y, and du abili y issues such
as ca bona ion o sul a e a ack. Fu he mo e, he absence o widely accep ed echnical
s anda ds and speci ica ions o he use o CDW in cemen i ious applica ions p esen s
egula o y and ma ke adop ion challenges. Finally, logis ical cons ain s ela ed o he
collec ion, anspo a ion, and p ocessing o was e ma e ials can unde mine he economic
easibili y o such p ac ices. Collec i ely, hese ac o s limi he p ac ical and en i onmen al
bene i s o inco po a ing CDW as a cemen subs i u e in cons uc ion.
6.2. Fu u e Di ec ions
The u u e de elopmen o CDW as sus ainable al e na i es o cemen is p omising,
pa icula ly in he con ex o global e o s o educe ca bon emissions, minimize esou ce
consump ion, and ansi ion o a ci cula economy. Ad ances in p ocessing echnologies,
such as high e iciency g inding, he mal ac i a ion, and chemical enhancemen , a e ex-
pec ed o imp o e he eac i i y and pe o mance o CDW powde s. The in eg a ion o
digi al ools such as AI-d i en ma e ial cha ac e iza ion and li ecycle assessmen models
may also help op imize o mula ions and e alua e cos -e ec i eness mo e accu a ely. Ad-
di ionally, inc easing egula o y p essu e o educe land ill was e and ca bon emissions
may incen i ize he de elopmen o s anda dized guidelines and ce i ica ions o CDW
powde p oduc ion and use. Collabo a ion be ween indus y, academia, and policymake s
could lead o he es ablishmen o echnical s anda ds, quali y benchma ks, and inancial
incen i es ha suppo ma ke adop ion. On he o he hand, u he applica ion de elop-
men s a e equi ed in o he cons uc ion ma e ials, namely mo a s and conc e e, which
can be widely used in he cons uc ion sec o .
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, S.C., K.K. and J.A.; me hodology, S.C., K.K. and J.A.;
so wa e, S.C.; alida ion, S.C. and J.A.; o mal analysis S.C., K.K. and E.H.; in es iga ion, S.C.,
K.K., E.H. and J.A.; esou ces, S.C. and J.A.; da a cu a ion, S.C. and E.H.; w i ing—o iginal d a
p epa a ion, S.C. and K.K.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, S.C., K.K. and J.A.; isualiza ion, S.C., K.K.,
E.H. and J.A.; supe ision, S.C., K.K. and J.A.; p ojec adminis a ion, S.C., K.K. and J.A. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This wo k was also pa ly inanced by FCT/MCTES h ough na ional unds (PIDDAC)
unde he R&D Uni Cen e o Te i o y, En i onmen and Cons uc ion (CTAC) unde e e ence
UIDB/04047/2025 and UIDP/04047/2025.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
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