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Assessing s uden s’ epis emic belie s ela ed o
p o essional and school science
F auke Voi le, Benedik Heuckmann, Nele Kampa & Ke s in K eme
To ci e his a icle: F auke Voi le, Benedik Heuckmann, Nele Kampa & Ke s in K eme (2022)
Assessing s uden s’ epis emic belie s ela ed o p o essional and school science, In e na ional
Jou nal o Science Educa ion, 44:6, 1000-1020, DOI: 10.1080/09500693.2022.2059821
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09500693.2022.2059821
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UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
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Assessing s uden s’epis emic belie s ela ed o p o essional
and school science
F auke Voi le
a,b
, Benedik Heuckmann
a,c
, Nele Kampa
d
and Ke s in K eme
a,b,e
a
Ins i u e o Science Educa ion, Leibniz Uni e si y Hanno e , Hanno e , Ge many;
b
Depa men o Biology
Educa ion, Leibniz Ins i u e o Science and Ma hema ics Educa ion (IPN) a he Uni e si y o Kiel, Kiel,
Ge many;
c
Cen e o Biology Educa ion, Uni e si y o Müns e , Müns e , Ge many;
d
Depa men o Resea ch
and De elopmen in Teache Educa ion, Uni e si y College o Teache Educa ion Ty ol, Innsb uck, Aus ia;
e
Ins i u e o Biology Educa ion, Jus us Liebig Uni e si y, Giessen, Ge many
ABSTRACT
The school con ex , like o he influences, affec s he de elopmen
o s uden s’epis emic belie s (EBs), wi h heo e ical
concep ualiza ions sugges ing a dis inc ion be ween EBs ela ed
o p o essional and school science. Howe e , empi ical s udies
a ely add ess his dis inc ion, and ins umen s sepa a ely
assessing hese EBs a e no a ailable. We add ess his esea ch
gap by p o iding a new ques ionnai e ha is based on he
es ablished ins umen by Conley e al. (2004) and which uses
pai s o analogous i ems e e ing o he con ex s o p o essional
and school science. We succeeded in simul aneously assessing
s uden s’EBs wi h eliable scales ha allow o di ec
compa isons. C oss-sec ional da a is epo ed om a coho s udy
(N= 405) in g ades 6 (n= 132), 8 (n= 167) and 10 (n= 106) ha
showed highe ag eemen wi h he scales ela ed o p o essional
science as well as highe ag eemen in highe g ade le els. We
u he discuss me hodological aspec s o scale- o ma ion, and
highligh p omising implemen a ions o ou ques ionnai e ha
u u e esea ch could benefi om.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 30 Janua y 2021
Accep ed 27 Ma ch 2022
KEYWORDS
Assessmen ; epis emology;
seconda y/high school
In oduc ion
Epis emic belie s (EBs) ha e epea edly been linked o s uden s’lea ning and academic
achie emen (Ho e , 2016; Lee e al., 2016; Lin & Tsai, 2017) and con inue o be a mean-
ing ul esea ch in e es in in e na ional science educa ion (Lee e al. 2021). The inclusion
o EBs in la ge-scale assessmen s, such as he P og amme o In e na ional S uden
Assessmen (PISA) (OECD, 2019) has helped o iden i y EBs as an impo an p edic o
o science lea ning (Ka akolidis e al., 2019; She e al., 2019). Like iews abou he na u e
© 2022 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way.
CONTACT F auke Voi le [email p o ec ed] Ins i u e o Science Educa ion, Leibniz Uni e si y Hanno e ,
Hanno e , Ge many; Depa men o Biology Educa ion, Leibniz Ins i u e o Science and Ma hema ics Educa ion (IPN) a
he Uni e si y o Kiel, Kiel, Ge many
Supplemen al da a o his a icle can be accessed a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09500693.2022.2059821
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
2022, VOL. 44, NO. 6, 1000–1020
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09500693.2022.2059821
o science (Khish e & Lede man, 2007), EBs ha e p o en o be sensi i e o science
ins uc ion (Be nhol e al., 2021; Conley e al., 2004; Schie e e al., 2020) and diffe
be ween g ade le els, wi h olde s uden s holding belie s ha a e less absolu e (K eme
& Maye , 2013). Fu he mo e, in addi ion o hei discipline- and domain-specific
na u e (Ho e , 2000; Muis e al., 2006), EBs a e also si ua ed and con ex ualised
(Mason, 2016).
An impo an bu o en unde a ed aspec o EB esea ch is conce ned wi h dependen-
cies be ween he specific con ex o school science and s uden s’EBs abou science.
Resea che s ha e a gued ha s uden s may de elop ‘pa allel ways o knowing’(Edmond-
son & No ak, 1993, p. 550), wi h s uden s’ iews abou p o essional and school science
mos ly emaining sepa a e om each o he . Howe e , while s uden s’pe cep ions o p o-
essional and school science a e likely o diffe , his explici dis inc ion emains com-
monly unacknowledged in he analyses o empi ical s udies (Conley e al., 2004;
Solomon e al., 1996; Villanue a e al., 2019) and ques ionnai es sepa a ely assessing
he wo con ex s a e no a ailable.
In ou pape , we aim o (a) de elop an ins umen ha allows o simul aneous assess-
men o s uden s’EBs ela ed o p o essional and school science and (b) in es iga e hese
EBs o s uden s a diffe en g ade le els. Ou newly-de eloped Like -scale ques ionnai e
is based on he mos equen ly used ins umen o assessing s uden s’EBs abou science
by Conley e al. (2004), which ollows he widely-ag eed ou -dimensional s uc u e o
EBs (Ho e , 2000). In ou adap ion, pai s o analogous i ems simul aneously assess s u-
den s’EBs ela ed o p o essional and school science. We epo a compa ison o hese
EBs o s uden s om g ades 6, 8 and 10. Ou s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e by sys-
ema ically desc ibing s uden s’EBs abou bo h p o essional and school science, a he
han ocusing on only one con ex , and by p o iding esea che s wi h a ques ionnai e
ha allows o simul aneous elici a ion and di ec compa ison o hese EBs.
Theo e ical backg ound
The ole o epis emic belie s in science educa ion
The Handbook o Epis emic Cogni ion (G eene e al., 2016) imp essi ely summa ises he
g ea a ie y and amifica ion o ‘epis emic “some hing” e ms’(p. 506, ff.) cu en ly used
in he li e a u e. No wi hs anding he di e si y o concep ualiza ions and in icacies, we
e e o EBs as a mul idimensional cons uc ep esen ing a se o pe sonal heo ies and
belie s ha one holds abou he na u e o knowledge and he p ocess o knowing (Ho e
& Pin ich, 1997). In his con ex , we use he e m epis emic belie s (e.g. Ka akolidis e al.,
2019; Lin & Tsai, 2017; Muis e al., 2006) ins ead o epis emological belie s (e.g. Conley
e al., 2004; Ho e & Pin ich, 1997; Schomme e al., 1992) in o de o emphasise he
ocus on knowledge a he han he heo y o knowledge (Ki chene , 2002).
Wi h ega d o science educa ion, EBs ha e an impo an ole o science lea ning,
bo h as a p e equisi e o lea ning and as a lea ning goal (B omme e al., 2010; Kampa
e al., 2016). Fo ins ance, s uden s’EBs a e ela ed o hei use o lea ning s a egies
(Lee e al., 2016; Schomme e al., 1992; U hahne & Hop , 2004), hei cons uc ion o
a gumen s and pe o mance in scien ific easoning (Bay elman e al., 2020; Yang e al.,
2019) and hei academic achie emen (Schomme e al., 1992; S a hopoulou &
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDUCATION 1001
Vosniadou, 2007). In line wi h he iew o EBs as lea ning goals and ela ed esea ch on
na u e o science (e.g. Lede man e al., 2002), he iew o knowledge, o example, as en-
a i e, cons uc ed and subjec i e is commonly conside ed sophis ica ed in EB assess-
men (Conley e al., 2004; Lin & Tsai, 2017; Neh ing, 2020). Howe e , his iew o
sophis ica ion aligned wi h he in e p e a ion o Like -scales has been c i icised as oo
simplis ic (Elby e al., 2016; Ho e , 2016). Rega ding he school science con ex and i s
pa icula demands, conside a ion o EBs in e ms o p oduc i i y is sugges ed (Elby
e al., 2016).
Sepa a ing p o essional and school science in assessmen o epis emic belie s
Resea che s ha e epea edly a gued ha he school con ex con ibu es o he de elop-
men and change o EBs (Hogan, 2000; Muis e al., 2006; Sando al, 2005). Theo e ical
suppo o he impac o school science expe iences on EBs is p o ided by Hogan
(2000) and Sando al (2005). The au ho s p opose o dis inguish ‘dis al and p oximal
knowledge o he na u e o science’(Hogan, 2000, p. 52) and s uden s’‘ o mal epis em-
ologies’as well as ‘p ac ical epis emologies’(Sando al, 2005, p. 635). Hogan (2000) bases
he dis inc ion on he pe cei ed dis ance o pe sonal expe iences. Sando al (2005)
ocuses on he con ex in which science is conduc ed, as well as on s uden s’ac i e
pa in doing science. Fu he suppo o he impac o school science expe iences on
EBs comes om he Theo ies o In eg a ed Domains in Epis emology (TIDE) amewo k
(Muis e al., 2006). The amewo k illus a es he impac o diffe en con ex s, including
he school o academic con ex , in shaping and changing EBs. To empi ically es he a-
mewo k, Muis e al. (2016) analysed s uden s’ a ionales o hei esponses o an EB
ques ionnai e. They ound ha school expe iences shaped and influenced s uden s’
explana ions when e e ing o p o essional disciplines. Ano he s udy explo ed s uden s’
belie s abou which sou ces inspi ed hemsel es o scien is s o do science expe imen s
(Elde , 2002). The au ho ound ha s uden s mo e o en epo ed scien is s as ac i ely
cons uc ing knowledge. E en hough hese s udies show he impo ance o dis inguish-
ing and sys ema ically assessing s uden s’EBs in p o essional and school science, s udies
explici ly compa ing hese wo con ex s a e a e.
In ou pape , we build on he concep ualiza ions by Hogan (2000) and Sando al
(2005) in e ms o dis inguishing be ween wo con ex s bu es ic he scope o he con-
side ed cons uc s o he s udy o EBs. The e o e, we use he e ms ‘EBs ela ed o p o-
essional science’and ‘EBs ela ed o school science’in o de o emphasise he espec i e
con ex s o conduc ing science. Ne e heless, ou no ion o EBs ela ed o p o essional
science is e y simila o Hogan’s(2000) no ion o dis al knowledge and Sando al’s
(2005) no ion o o mal epis emologies. Howe e , ou no ion o EBs ela ed o school
science en ails an impo an diffe ence. This diffe ence becomes e iden in he s udy con-
duc ed by Bu gin and Sadle (2013), who in es iga ed he ela ion be ween s uden s’
p ac ical and o mal epis emologies. Du ing he highly au hen ic expe ience o comple -
ing an in e nship in a labo a o y, s uden s acqui ed fi s -hand expe ience o p o essional
science. The s udy ound ha s uden s’p ac ical and o mal epis emologies we e pa ially
consis en . Howe e , while he expe iences acqui ed du ing he in e nship a e conside ed
as pa o s uden s’p ac ical epis emologies (o p oximal knowledge), we would no
assume hem o be pa o s uden s’EBs ela ed o school science. In line wi h Muis
1002 F. VOITLE ET AL.
e al. (2006) and Sando al (2016), we limi ou defini ion o school science o science con-
duc ed in he educa ional con ex o ins i u ionalised, o mal science educa ion in K12.
Building on he use o he e m by Sando al (2005), we define p o essional science as
science conduc ed by p o essional esea che s in he con ex o o example, uni e si ies
o p i a e companies. In his ega d, we unde s and and use he e m ‘science’as an
umb ella e m e e ing o a ious o ms o science, including o example science con-
duc ed a school (‘school science’) o in a p o essional se ing (‘p o essional science’). In
pa icula , ins ead o ‘science’ he e m ‘p o essional science’is used o s ess i s diffe -
ence om he school subjec and emphasise i s pe o mance by scien is s.
The assessmen o epis emic belie s abou science
Se e al ins umen s assess s uden s’EBs abou science (Elby e al., 2016; Lee e al., 2021;
Sando al, 2016), wi h sel - epo ed Like -scale ques ionnai es being commonly used o
he assessmen o mul idimensional EBs (Mason, 2016). Despi e he limi a ions o Like -
scales, hey acili a e he use o sophis ica ed in e en ial s a is ics and ep esen a i e
la ge-scale assessmen s o in es iga e ela ionships be ween EBs and s uden s’achie e-
men , as well as o he cons uc s (Ho e , 2016; Mason, 2016). Among he mos ci ed
ins umen s e e ing o he con ex o p o essional science (see Table 1) a e he ones
by Conley e al. (2004), S a hopoulou and Vosniadou (2007), and Tsai and Liu (2005).
These ins umen s diffe mainly in e ms o he numbe o i ems, he examined EB
dimensions, and hei applica ion o diffe en s udy popula ions. The 26-i em ins umen
by Conley e al. (2004) is he mos es ablished. I has equen ly been implemen ed in
a ious age g oups (g ade 5 and upwa ds) o assess EBs in he dimensions o Sou ce, Ce -
ain y, De elopmen , and Jus ifica ion o knowledge.
Table 1. Mos equen ly ci ed pape s ha include ins umen s on s uden s’EBs abou (p o essional)
science.
Au ho s (Yea ) & (Web o Science
Ci a ions) Desc ip ion
Conley e al. (2004)
(240 ci a ions)
.26 i ems
.5-poin Like -scale
.4 dimensions: sou ce, ce ain y, de elopmen , and jus ifica ion
.ini ially adminis e ed o fi h-g ade s uden s
.used in a ious age g oups
. a ious ansla ions and adap ions a ailable.
S a hopoulou and Vosniadou (2007)
(74 ci a ions)
.G eek Epis emological Belie s E alua ion Ins umen o Physics (GEBEP)
.40 s a emen i ems and 9 deba e i ems
.4 dimensions: s uc u e, s abili y, sou ce, and jus ifica ion
. alida ed wi h en h-g ade s uden s.
Tsai and Liu (2005)
(68 ci a ions)
.19 i ems
.5-poin Like -scale
.5 dimensions: ole o social nego ia ion, in en ed and c ea i e na u e o
science, heo y-laden explo a ion, cul u al impac s, and changing and
en a i e ea u e o science knowledge
. alida ed o high school s uden s (and hei eache s)
.25 i em e sion a ailable o college s uden s (Liu & Tsai, 2008).
No e. Ci a ions las upda ed:03/23/2022.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDUCATION 1003

Resea ch on EBs ela ed o school science, howe e , is sca ce, wi h mainly quali a i e
da a a ailable, such as s uden s’jou nals and labo a o y w i e-ups (e.g. Schalk, 2012),
in e iews (e.g. Bu gin & Sadle , 2013;Wu&Wu,2011) and ideo aped lessons (e.g.
Hamza & Wickman, 2013;Wu&Wu,2011). To he bes o ou knowledge, he P ac ical
Epis emology in Science Su ey (PESS) by Villanue a e al. (2019) is he fi s and only
ques ionnai e explici ly assessing EBs ela ed o school science in la ge sample sizes.
Simila o ins umen s a ailable o p o essional science, he PESS is a sel - epo ool
which consis s o 26 Like -scale i ems in he dimensions o imme si e and non-imme -
si e inqui y, and which measu es s uden s’ iews abou hei pa icipa ion in school
science. The i ems display high specifici y and exclusi eness o he school-science
con ex .
Resea ch ques ions
Despi e effo s o accoun o he diffe ences be ween he school-science and p o-
essional-science con ex s in heo e ical concep ualiza ions (Hogan, 2000; Sando al,
2005), empi ical s udies and ins umen s sys ema ically assessing his diffe ence a e
a e. One he one hand, quali a i e me hods such as in e iews o ideo aped lessons
a e no designed o compa ing s uden s’EBs ela ed o p o essional and school
science ac oss g ade le els wi hin la ge samples (e.g. Bu gin & Sadle , 2013;Wu&
Wu, 2011). On he o he hand, exis ing ins umen s wi h closed-ended i ems ha
allow o quan i a i e assessmen o la ge samples (e.g. Conley e al., 2004; S a hopoulou
& Vosniadou, 2007; Tsai & Liu, 2005; Villanue a e al., 2019) do no add ess diffe ences
be ween s uden s’EBs ela ed o p o essional and school science, and p esume diffe en
dimensionali ies o EBs (Conley e al., 2004; Villanue a e al., 2019). The e o e, compa i-
sons based on hese ques ionnai es would be se iously impai ed. In summa y, science
educa ion esea ch specifically lacks an ins umen ha allows o a quan i a i e assess-
men o EBs in la ge samples and a simul aneous sepa a ion be ween s uden s’EBs
ela ed o p o essional and school science. To add ess his gap, we de eloped a ques ion-
nai e ha allows he sepa a ion and sys ema ic compa ison o s uden s’EBs ela ed o
p o essional and school science.
The ollowing wo esea ch ques ions (RQ) guided ou esea ch:
(1) To wha ex en does he newly de eloped ques ionnai e measu ing EBs ela ed o
school science and he adap ed ques ionnai e measu ing EBs ela ed o p o essional
science allow o o ming eliable scales?
(2) Do s uden s hold diffe ing EBs wi h ega d o p o essional and school science a
diffe en g ade le els?
Me hods
S udy design and p ocedu es
We conduc ed ou coho s udy in Ge man academic- ack schools (Gymnasium)
be ween 2017 and 2019 o in es iga e s uden s’EBs ela ed o p o essional and school
science. The sample comp ised 405 seconda y school s uden s ( emale = 221, male =
1004 F. VOITLE ET AL.
178, di e se = 3, M
age
= 13.4 yea s, SD
age
= 1.60). In ou sample, 9.9% o he s uden s
ini ially lea ned a fi s language o he han Ge man and 20.7% we e aised mul i-
lingual. The socioeconomic s a us wi hin ou sample was a he high, wi h 66.2% o
he s uden s ha ing a leas one pa en who had a ained he highes Ge man educa ional
deg ee A le el (Abi u ) and 53.6% o he s uden s epo ing ha a leas one pa en
s udied a a uni e si y. In Ge many, science educa ion in academic ack schools com-
monly eaches biology, chemis y, and physics sepa a ely, bu no all subjec s a e being
augh simul aneously in each school yea . To accoun o diffe en expe ience le els,
we su eyed s uden s om g ade le els 6 (n= 132), 8 (n= 167) and 10 (n= 106). Da a
collec ion ook place in Ge man du ing egula science classes. We ob ained in o med
consen om all pa icipan s and hei pa en s. No incen i es we e gi en. The Fede al
Minis y o Educa ion, Science and Cul u e in Schleswig-Hols ein, Ge many, and he
heads o schools app o ed he s udy p o ocol.
De elopmen o he ques ionnai e
We de eloped a ques ionnai e wi h wo analogous i em se s which assess s uden s’EBs
ela ed o p o essional and school science and allow o di ec compa ison. Since i is he
mos equen ly used ins umen o assessing EBs abou science (Lee e al., 2021) and
fi s analy ical checks o he use o a Ge man e sion by U hahne and Hop (2004)
a e a ailable, we used he ques ionnai e by Conley e al. (2004) as he basis o his
p ocess. The ques ionnai e assesses s uden s’EBs abou science in p o essional con ex s.
We ex ended i s scope by adding pa allel i ems ha a ge analogous si ua ions in school
science.
Ou ques ionnai e de elopmen ollowed h ee s eps: Fi s , we cons uc ed gene al
desc ip ions o he EB dimensions Sou ce, Ce ain y, De elopmen , and Jus ifica ion
o he con ex o p o essional science and school science. We summa ised desc ip ions
o he con ex o p o essional science p o ided by Conley e al. (2004) as well as ela ed
a icles and o mula ed de ailed desc ip ions ela ed o p o essional science (see Sup-
plemen al Ma e ial 1). In o de o o m school- ela ed desc ip ions o he EB dimen-
sions (see Table 2), en i ies o si ua ions exclusi e o he con ex o p o essional
science we e sys ema ically exchanged wi h ph ases explici ly e e ing o school
science.
Second, we cons uc ed 26 i ems o he school science con ex ha we e analogous o
he exis ing 26 i ems o he p o essional science con ex by Conley e al. (2004).
Table 2. Desc ip ions o he school- ela ed EB dimensions.
Dimension Desc ip ion
Sou ce Comp ises a lea ne ’s pe sonal ela ion o au ho i ies who a e ele an and impo an in science class
( eache s and ex books). The sou ce o knowledge in science class is ei he loca ed as ex e nal o
in e nal.
Ce ain y Re e s o pe sonal iews as o whe he ques ions in science class ha e always one co ec and absolu e
answe .
De elopmen Comp ises he conside a ion o one’s own knowledge in science class as ei he s a ic o dynamic and
subjec o change. P og ession and ad ancemen o knowledge can be ela ed o he (addi i e)
ex ension, eo ganisa ion o quali a i e, con en -wise changes o knowledge.
Jus ifica ion Comp ises answe s o he ques ion o how knowledge can be achie ed and jus ified in science class.
Focuses on he ole o expe imen s o scien ific inqui y in science class.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDUCATION 1005
Howe e , he ques ionnai e by Conley e al. (2004) is no comple ely consis en in i s use
o e minology e e ing o he con ex o p o essional science. Some i ems in he dimen-
sion Sou ce a ge school science a he han p o essional science. Fo hese i ems we
de eloped analogous i em pai s wi h i em siblings e e ing o one o he con ex s
each. We ans o med he i ems by sys ema ically exchanging ph ases ela ed o p o-
essional science wi h ph ases e e ing o school science (see Supplemen al Ma e ials
2 and 3 o a able o analogous ph ases). Fo example, he Ce ain y i em In scien ific
esea ch, scien is s always ag ee abou wha is ue ha e e s o p o essional science
was ans o med o he analogous school- ela ed i em In science class, we always ag ee
abou wha is ue. Analogous ph ases esul ed om a ecu si e p ocess du ing which
we checked he sui abili y o analogous ph ases wi hin a pai o i ems as well as ac oss
all i ems un il we eached consis ency.
Thi d, we p e-pilo ed he newly de eloped i ems o he school-science con ex in a
pape -and-pencil assignmen , as well as in sho in e iews wi h a ocus g oup o
eigh h-g ade s. In he p e-pilo ing o he school- ela ed i ems we checked whe he
e e ing o in eg a ed school science ( a he han sepa a e school subjec s) i i a ed s u-
den s. S uden s commen ed on he ques ionnai e and p o ided eedback on he i em
o mula ions. Responses o se e al i ems showed ceiling effec s o dis inc peaks o
example on he ou h esponse op ion and some s uden s asked o a highe
numbe o esponse ca ego ies (‘I would like o ha e mo e possible op ions o
answe s’). The e o e, in addi ion o mino changes o i em o mula ions, p e-pilo ing
led o usage o a 7-poin Like -scale in o de o inc ease he sensi i i y o he scale.
Finally, a panel o expe s om science educa ion (n= 3) e iewed he e ised i ems.
All i ems we e discussed and modified un il consensus among expe s and au ho s
was eached.
Measu es
The ques ionnai e adminis e ed in he p esen s udy consis ed o 26 analogous i em pai s
(fi e i em pai s on Sou ce, six on Ce ain y, six on De elopmen , and nine on Jus ifica-
ion) assessed wi h a 7-poin Like -scale anging om 1 do no ag ee a all o 7 comple-
ely ag ee. I is common o in e p e s uden s’ esponses in e ms o sophis ica ion wi h
highe ag eemen indica ing highe sophis ica ion (Conley e al., 2004). In con as o
De elopmen and Jus ifica ion, i ems on Sou ce and Ce ain y we e s a ed om a pe -
spec i e e e ed o as less sophis ica ed by Conley e al. (2004). We andomised i ems
on he ou dimensions wi hin he i em se s ela ed o p o essional and school science,
wi h he school- ela ed i em se p esen ed fi s (see ull lis o i ems in Ge man and
English in he Supplemen al Ma e ials 2 and 3).
Psychome ic p ope ies o he ques ionnai e
Fi s , we pe o med confi ma o y ac o analyses (CFA) o assess he ques ionnai e’s
dimensional s uc u e in e ms o model fi and ac o loadings as well as he disc imi-
na o y powe o he i ems. Sepa a ely speci ying EBs ela ed o p o essional and school
science, we an wo CFAs wi h ou ac o s and 26 i ems each. Benchma ks indica ing
a good model fi a e alues o a leas .90 (o be e .95) o Compa a i e Fi Index
1006 F. VOITLE ET AL.
(CFI) and Tucke -Lewis Index (TLI) and alues o .08 (o be e .06) o Roo Mean
Squa e E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA) and S anda dised Roo Mean Squa e Residual
(SRMR) (Sch eibe e al., 2006). We u he analysed modifica ion indices o iden i y
possible sou ces o measu emen e o due o i em o mula ion and conside ed s anda -
dised ac o loadings g ea e .40 as accep able. I ems combined in a scale we e selec ed o
ha e a disc imina o y powe , ha is, i em- o al co ela ion,
i
≥0.3. We calcula ed C on-
bach’sα o measu e scales’in e nal consis ency and aimed o alues abo e α≥.70. Since
eliabili y coefficien s o mos sel - epo measu es ange be ween α= .50 and .70 (Muis
e al., 2006), we e alua ed hese coefficien s as accep able. In addi ion, we calcula ed he
composi e eliabili y (CR) and he a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE). In line wi h Huang
e al. (2013), we aimed o alues abo e .70 o CR and highe han .40 o .50 o AVE
(Fo nell & La cke , 1981). All h ee coefficien s aken oge he gi e insigh s in o he
in e nal consis ency as well as explained a iance due o he cons uc . To main ain ana-
logous i em pai s, and he e o e allow a di ec compa ison be ween EBs ela ed o p o-
essional and school science, we excluded i ems and hei espec i e siblings om he
o he con ex in u he analyses, i hey did no mee he a o emen ioned c i e ia (see
Supplemen al Ma e ial 4 o omission c i e ia applying o each i em). We e iewed
each excluded i em pai c i ically o con ex ual suppo o i s exclusion o ensu e ha
scale o ma ion did no impai he scope o he ins umen . In o al, 13 i em pai s
emained in he final ins umen . An o e iew o he final scales’psychome ic p ope ies
is p o ided in Table 3 (see Supplemen al Ma e ial 5 o in e co ela ions o final scales).
Second, we assessed whe he EBs ela ed o p o essional and school science should be
conside ed as wo sepa a e cons uc s. Fo his pu pose, we used CFAs o compa e
diffe en heo e ical models and analysed he ex en o which EBs ela ed o p o essional
and school science can be dis inguished empi ically. We used bo h da a se s o he
espec i e CFAs and due o he pa allel i em o mula ions co ela ed he e o s o ana-
logous i ems o each i em pai .
Based on ou concep ualisa ion o EBs ela ed o p o essional as well as school science,
we assumed ha he scales o ou ins umen would be bes ep esen ed wi h a model in
which he EB dimensions as well as he con ex we e conside ed in he ac o s uc u e.
The e o e, we heo e ically defined a CFA model o eigh ac o s, each ep esen ing one
o he EB dimensions ela ed ei he o he con ex o p o essional o school science
(Model A). In Model A, i em siblings load on o diffe en ac o s.
Al e na i e models we e analysed in o de o compa e he fi o compe ing models
and ule ou o he heo e ical concep ualisa ions (see Supplemen al Ma e ial 6 o an
o e iew o he compe ing models). In o de o compa e he compe ing models, we
Table 3. O e iew o he EB scales.
Scales measu ing he EB
dimensions
Numbe o
i ems C onbach’sα
I em- o al
co ela ion (
i
)
Composi e
eliabili y
A e age
a iance
ex ac ed
School P o . School P o . School P o . School P o . School P o .
Sou ce 3 3 .62 .71 .39 –.46 .40 –.64 .36 .48 .36 .48
Ce ain y 3 3 .58 .68 .38 –.39 .43 –.56 .31 .42 .31 .42
De elopmen 3 3 .55 .65 .29 –.44 .38 –.51 .32 .39 .34 .40
Jus ifica ion 4 4 .60 .69 .30 –.47 .37 –.52 .35 .44 .30 .37
No e. School = School science con ex ; P o . = P o essional science con ex .
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDUCATION 1007
ha school- ela ed EBs seem o ha e simila p ope ies o EBs ela ed o p o essional
science bu ne e heless a e significan ly diffe en in di ec compa isons o he
scales.
Fu he mo e, o bo h con ex s, we ound diffe ences in he exp essed ag eemen wi h
EB scales be ween g ade le els o some o he dimensions. Fo EBs ela ed o p o-
essional science, he diffe ences we e consis en , wi h significan ly highe ag eemen
occu ing o highe g ade le els. This is in line wi h exis ing ela ed esea ch on s u-
den s’ iews abou science and scien ific inqui y (Rei h & Neh ing, 2020; Solomon
e al., 1996) and s udies on EBs ha mos ly epo ed highe sco es a highe g ade
le els, al hough hese s udies a ied ega ding he dimensions and g ade le els in
which significan diffe ences occu ed (K eme & Maye , 2013; Osbo ne e al., 2013;
U hahne e al., 2008). Fo EBs ela ed o school science, ou findings we e less consis en .
In pa icula , o he school- ela ed Jus ifica ion scale, we ound significan ly lowe
sco es o highe g ade le els compa ed o he sco e o g ade 6. P e iously, his
phenomenon o younge s uden s exp essing highe ag eemen wi h Jus ifica ion
i ems had also occu ed in Ge man samples (K eme & Maye , 2013; U hahne e al.,
2008). The au ho s’explana ion e e ed o he Ge man cu iculum, in which conside -
able ime and effo a e applied, especially in ea ly seconda y educa ion, o eaching wi h
expe imen al p ac ices. Howe e , we canno ule ou o he influences, as ou sample
was, o example, he e ogeneous in e ms o diffe en science eache s. The g owing
con en knowledge in he a ea o science o he olde s uden s could be a ac o ha
shapes he s uden s’ iew o become mo e scep ical abou science epis emology.
Howe e , esea ch indica es ha he e is no necessa ily a linea ela ionship be ween
he inc ease o scien ific knowledge and a mo e scep ical s ance owa ds science epis em-
ology (B omme e al., 2008).
Finally, he empi ical esul s o ou s udy suppo ou cen al assump ion o subs an-
ial diffe ences be ween EBs ela ed o school science and EBs ela ed o p o essional
science. Ou analysis wi hin g ade le els allowed us o compa e s uden s’ esponses o
he EB scales ela ed o p o essional and school science. Wi h wo excep ions (De elop-
men : g ade 6; Jus ifica ion: g ade 8), we ound significan diffe ences be ween he school
and p o essional con ex s o all scales and g ade le els in a ou o p o essional science.
The only excep ion om his pa e n occu ed in g ade 6 o Jus ifica ion, whe e highe
mean alues occu ed o EBs ela ed o school science. These findings can be in e -
p e ed wi h espec o he dual na u e o EBs as lea ning goals as well as p e equisi es
o lea ning (B omme e al., 2010; Kampa e al., 2016). I EBs a e p ima ily conside ed
as lea ning goals, s onge ag eemen wi h he scales o he ques ionnai e migh be
e e ed o as sophis ica ed (Kampa e al., 2016; Lede man e al., 2002). This in e p e -
a ion in e ms o sophis ica ion is commonly applied o EBs ela ed o p o essional
science (Conley e al., 2004; Kizilgunes e al., 2009). Howe e , esea che s ha e
poin ed ou ha in e p e a ions o EBs in e ms o sophis ica ion ail o acknowledge
he pa icula demands inhe en o educa ional en i onmen s (Elby e al., 2016;
Ho e , 2016). The sepa a e conside a ion o EBs ela ed o school science sugges s a
middle g ound in his ongoing deba e. While EBs, when conside ed as lea ning goals,
migh be in e p e ed in e ms o sophis ica ion (Conley e al., 2004), EBs p ima ily con-
side ed as p e equisi es o lea ning migh be iewed h ough he lens o p oduc i i y
(Elby e al., 2016).
1014 F. VOITLE ET AL.

Fo ma ion o epis emic belie s scales
In EB esea ch, one o he main challenges is he o ma ion o EB scales ha allow o a
eliable assessmen (Mason, 2016; Muis e al., 2006). S udies showed ha high le els o
C onbach’sαcanno necessa ily be expec ed and ha he epo ed le els o in e nal con-
sis ency a y g ea ly be ween samples (Kizilgunes e al., 2009; K eme & Maye , 2013;
U hahne & Hop , 2004). In a e iew a icle, Muis e al. (2006) ound ha eliabili y coeffi-
cien s o sel - epo measu es on s uden s’EBs commonly ange be ween α= .50 and .70.
In line wi h hese o me esul s, eliabili y measu ed in ou s udy anged be ween α= .55
and .62 o EBs ela ed o school science and α= .65 and .71 o EBs ela ed o p o-
essional science. The AVE anges be ween .30 and .36 o EBs ela ed o school
science and be ween .37 and .48 o EBs ela ed o p o essional science. While acco ding
o he bounda ies sugges ed by Huang e al. (2013) AVE alues may be accep able o
h ee ou o ou scales o EBs ela ed o p o essional science, AVE alues we e no
ye sa is ac o y o he school science i em se . Fo bo h i em se s CR was below he
aspi ed alues anging be ween CR = .31 and .36 o EBs ela ed o school science and
CR = .39 and .48 o EBs ela ed o p o essional science. Howe e , as hese c i e ia
we e no epo ed in he publica ions p o iding he o iginal English and Ge man
e sion o he EB ques ionnai e by Conley e al. (2004) and U hahne and Hop (2004),
we a e no able o compa e ou esul s o o me s udies. We he e o e need o ocus
on C onbach’sα. The eliabili ies ound in ou s udy o C onbach’sαa e wi hin he
ange commonly ound and epo ed in o he s udies on EBs (Muis e al., 2006). A
he same ime, findings om ou s udy on he fi o he model as well as he ac o load-
ings a e well wi hin he cu -offc i e ia and hus p o ide suppo o he o e all s uc u e
o he eigh ac o model (Hai e al., 2010). Rega ding he scales ela ed o p o essional
science, we ound eliabili ies equal o o abo e he es ima es o he Ge man ansla ion
(U hahne & Hop , 2004) and he ques ionnai e by Conley e al. (2004). Rega ding he
scales ela ed o school science, we ob ained lowe eliabili y in compa ison o he wo
scales o he PESS (Villanue a e al., 2019). Al hough C onbach’sαwe e sa is ac o y
o all scales, conside a ion o AVE and CR alues as well as he eliabili ies ob ained
o he PESS p omo e he desi e o u he imp o emen o he ques ionnai e as well
as u u e esea ch in his ega d. Also conside ing he amoun o i em pai s ha we e
excluded du ing scale o ma ion, i migh be beneficial o de elop addi ional i em
pai s, in o de o u he imp o e he eliabili y o he ins umen and especially he
scales ela ed o school science.
Du ing scale o ma ion, we had o exclude 13 o he ini ial 26 i em pai s. The numbe
o excluded i ems esul ed p ima ily om he pai wise omission o i ems which we pe -
o med in a ou o pa allelism o he wo i em se s. Thus, he scale o ma ion le us wi h
scales ha allow o di ec compa isons be ween he con ex s, while, a he same ime, he
diminishing numbe o i ems pe dimension migh ha e esul ed in lowe eliabili ies.
Howe e , i we had e ained om pai wise i em exclusion and only omi ed indi idual
i ems, we would ha e p oduced he e ogeneous scales. These scales would hen no ha e
been compa able. Howe e , ou p ocedu e affec ed he scope o he Jus ifica ion dimen-
sion. In con as o he o iginal concep ualisa ion by Conley e al. (2004), he Jus ifica ion
scales o ou s udy do no co e he use o mul iple me hods in science, and solely ocus
on he ole o expe imen s. Howe e , his emphasis may be accep able wi h espec o he
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE EDUCATION 1015
impo an ole o expe imen s in school science p ac ice (A nold e al., 2014; Osbo ne
e al., 2013).
The compa ison o compe ing models e ealed ha an eigh - ac o model accoun ing
o bo h, he con ex and dimension o science EBs, bes ep esen ed he da a. This is in
line wi h ou heo e ical concep ualisa ion o EBs ela ed o school science sepa a ely
om EBs ela ed o p o essional science. Ou s udy he e o e p o ides empi ical e idence
ha a ou s he dis inc ion o EBs ela ed o diffe en con ex s o science o e hei joined
conside a ion. Fu he mo e, compa ison o compe ing models sugges s a ela ionship
be ween he EB dimensions and he conside ed con ex ha is no domina ed by
ei he o hese ac o s. Finally, his finding p o ides empi ical suppo o he claims
o o he au ho s, who a gued o a dis inc ion be ween he con ex s o p o essional
and school science (e.g. Hogan, 2000; Sando al, 2005).
Limi a ions
E en hough ou s udy sheds ligh on a e y impo an opic wi hin he discussion on
science EBs, we need o ou line some limi a ions o ou s udy. Fi s ly, diffe ences in
he epo ed deg ees o eedom occu ed in he epo ed - es s and ANOVAs. These
diffe ences esul ed om missing da a o indi idual s uden s. Secondly, ou esul s
a e based on c oss-sec ional da a. The e o e, ou coho s udy can only gi e fi s hin s
on longi udinal in e ences ega ding he de elopmen o EBs du ing seconda y edu-
ca ion. We canno ule ou bias ac oss coho s no effec s om s uden s fi s answe ing
EB scales ela ed o school science and subsequen ly answe ing scales ela ed o p o-
essional science. The e o e, highe ag eemen wi h scales o p o essional science
migh be due o sequen ial o posi ional effec s. Fu u e s udies may add ess his limi -
a ion by longi udinally in es iga ing EBs ela ed o school science and EBs ela ed o p o-
essional science simul aneously, using a balanced ques ionnai e design. Finally, due o
he missing baseline da a o he Ge man and English e sions o he o iginal ques ion-
nai e ega ding he AVE and CR alues, easons o ou low alues a e difficul o de e -
mine. P ospec i ely, in es iga ing and epo ing ex e nal psychome ic quali ies such as
he conside a ion o ela ions be ween he assessed EBs and lea ning ela ed a iables
migh be a p omising app oach o os e unde s anding abou he ela ionship
be ween EBs ela ed o p o essional and school science.
Di ec ions o u he esea ch and conclusion
The esul s and he ques ionnai e p esen ed in his s udy lay he g oundwo k o u u e
esea ch on he ela ionship be ween s uden s’science lea ning and hei EBs ela ed o
p o essional and school science. To ou knowledge, ou s udy diffe en ia es o he fi s
ime empi ically be ween EB conce ning school and p o essional science. Fu he
esea ch has o elabo a e specifically he in e play be ween ins uc ional and lea ning-
ela ed effec s on he o ma ion o hese belie s. Fi s , co ela ional s udies in la ge and
p e e ably ep esen a i e samples may be conduc ed o assess whe he s uden s’EBs
ela ed o p o essional and school science possess diffe ing ele ance o s uden s’lea n-
ing. Second, since we de eloped pa allel i em se s o EBs ela ed o p o essional and
school science, diffe en ial mani es a ions o he espec i e EBs can be in es iga ed.
1016 F. VOITLE ET AL.
Resea che s should conside i u u e in e en ional s udies designed o os e EBs migh
benefi om using ou ques ionnai e in addi ion o quali a i e, p ocedu al me hods.
Finally, a supplemen al assessmen using a mixed me hods app oach seems pa icula ly
ui ul in he ligh o in e p e ing EBs ela ed o school science beyond common iews o
sophis ica ion and ins ead h ough he lens o p oduc i i y as sugges ed o example, by
Elby e al. (2016). In pa icula , using he de eloped ins umen in a mixed me hods
app oach migh allow o link assessmen s o ‘p ac ical epis emologies’(Sando al, 2005,
p. 635) wi h co ela ional analyses linked o p io esea ch on ‘epis emological belie s
in science’(Conley e al., 2004, p. 187). In his ega d, ou ques ionnai e p o ides a p om-
ising ool o esea che s o add ess and hope ully b idge he gap be ween ‘s uden s’epis-
emic belie s and hei p ac ices in school science’(Lee e al., 2021, p.899). Howe e , wi h
ega d o science eaching, con inued effo s a e needed o gain a comp ehensi e unde -
s anding o s uden s’EBs ela ed o p o essional and school science ha will p o ide ea-
che s wi h powe ul knowledge o b idge s uden s’‘pa allel ways o knowing’
(Edmondson & No ak, 1993, p. 550) and efficien ly os e s uden s’EBs abou science.
In ou s udy, we success ully assessed s uden s’EBs ela ed o p o essional and school
science. Ini ially, we aced he ques ion o how bes o assess hese EBs. We had he wo
op ions o ei he using exis ing bu s uc u ally and concep ually diffe en ins umen s,
o de eloping a new ques ionnai e ha allows o pa allel assessmen and ensu es com-
pa abili y. We chose he la e and belie e ha ou esul s affi m ou decision. Ou esul s
indica e ha we succeeded in sepa a ely measu ing EBs ela ed o p o essional and school
science and p o ide empi ical suppo o hei dis inc ion, which allows o in e ences
wi h espec o bo h con ex s.
Acknowledgemen s
We would like o hank I ene Neumann (IPN Kiel) and Julia Schwanewedel (Uni e si ä
Hambu g) o he ui ul discussions du ing he de elopmen o he esea ch idea and he measu -
ing ins umen .
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial conflic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
ORCID
F auke Voi le h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1795-7170
Benedik Heuckmann h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5008-6031
Nele Kampa h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5633-9335
Ke s in K eme h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-2305-3650
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