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Bridging the gap? An analysis of Public-Private Partnerships as an instrument to establish sustainable models of Faecal Sludge Management in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Young, Jonathan

Abstract

People are rapidly filling cities across Africa that are unequipped to provide sufficient infrastructure, especially in the water supply and sanitation (WSS) sector. In the last few decades public-private partnerships (PPPs) have been promoted as a means to bridge this gap in infrastructure and service provision, but the literature is mixed on their efficacy. This thesis analysed PPPs as an instrument to establish small-scale faecal sludge management (FSM), a promising alternative to traditional sewered sanitation in complex urban environments. By building a framework for analysis based on a thorough literature review of critical success factors (CSFs) of PPPs in developing regions and in the WSS sector, this thesis was able to rate the readiness of Tanzania, and Dar es Salaam in particular, for their ability to adopt PPPs as an instrument to scale-up FSM. The findings showed a low readiness in Tanzania and Dar es Salaam for the adoption of PPPs. However, the private sector certainly has a role to play in providing sanitation services, of which they are already a part of, formally or not. A further gap analysis of three FSM private service providers identified key areas that can be improved, and a new partnership structure was proposed: Open Partnerships (OPs). These partnerships are community-led, flexible, less complex and open to all actors across the sanitation service chain in order to meet the growing need for adequate and safely-managed sanitation in quickly growing cities like Dar es Salaam.

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Bridging the gap? An analysis of Public-Private Partnerships as an instrument to establish sustainable models of Faecal Sludge Management in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Author: Young, Jonathan
Source: https://repos.hcu-hamburg.de/bitstream/hcu/693/1/2022-08-17_young-jonathan_masterarbeit.pdf
B idging he Gap?
An analysis o Public-P i a e Pa ne ships as an ins umen o es ablish sus-
ainable models o Faecal Sludge Managemen in Da es Salaam, Tanzania
Jona han Young
Ha enci y Uni e si y
Hambu g / June, 2021
Ma ikel-N : 6058705
Resou ce E iciency in A chi ec u e and Planning
ii
B idging he Gap? An analysis o Public-P i a e Pa ne ships as an ins umen
o es ablish sus ainable models o Faecal Sludge Managemen in Da es Salaam, Tanzania
by
Jona han William Young
MASTER THESIS
Submi ed in pa ial sa is ac ion o he equi emen s o he deg ee o
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Resou ce E iciency in A chi ec u e and Planning
Thesis Ad iso s:
P o . D .-Ing. Wol gang Dickhau
Tim Fe back, M.Sc.
June, 2021
iii
© Jona han Young
J. Young
i
Lis o Figu es i
Lis o Tables ii
Lis o Abb e ia ions iii
Acknowledgemen s ix
Abs ac x
Pa One: Se ing he Scene - A Li e a u e Re iew
Chap e 1: In oduc ion 2
1.1 Backg ound & Con ex 5
1.2 Social, Poli ical and Economic 6
1.3 P oblem S a emen 9
1.4 O e all Objec i e 9
1.5 Resea ch Hypo hesis 9
1.6 Resea ch Ques ions 9
1.7 Resea ch F amewo k 10
Chap e 2: Wha is Faecal Sludge Managemen (FSM)? 12
2.1 Wha is Faecal Sludge? 13
2.2 The Need o T ea men 13
2.3 Sani a ion Se ice Chain 15
2.3.1 Con ainmen 16
2.3.2 Emp ying and T anspo 16
2.3.3 T ea men 18
2.3.4 Disposal/Reuse 19
2.4 Enabling En i onmen 20
Chap e 3: PPPs and hei ise o p ominence 22
3.1 An ambiguous e m. De ining Pa ne ships 22
3.2 An impossible ask: De ining Public-P i a e Pa ne ships 22
3.3 PPP ypes and classi ica ions 25
3.4 PPPs in he Public Adminis a ion (PA) con ex 28
3.5 PPPs, a b ie his o y 28
Chap e 4: The Supply and Demand o PPPs and In as uc u e 30
4.1 The di e ence be ween PPPs and adi ional p ocu emen 31
4.2 Financial A angemen s (PPP . TP) 33
4.3 The V M o PPPs s. T adi ional P ocu emen 34
4.4 The ole o PPPs in he wa e supply and sani a ion sec o 35
4.5 PPP Da abases 36
4.6 Dis ibu ion and T ends in he PPP ma ke 37
4.6.1 Dis ibu ion by sec o 37
4.6.2 Dis ibu ion by income g oup 38
4.6.3 Dis ibu ion o ypes o PPPs in WSS 38
4.7 PPPs in de eloping coun ies 39
4.8 Summing up he a gumen s o and agains PPPs 41
4.9 Conclusion 43
Table o Con en s
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
Pa Two: Me hodological analysis and p oposal
Chap e 5: Wha makes p ojec s success ul? 46
5.1 C i ical Success Fac o s o PPPs 46
5.2 Building he amewo k: Syn hesis o C i ical Success Fac o s in WSS in De eloping Regions 47
5.2.1 P ojec Le el 51
5.2.2 O ganiza ion Le el 51
5.2.3 Policy Le el 52
5.2.4 Ins i u ional Le el 52
5.2.5 Mac o Le el 53
5.3 Popula ing he amewo k: De eloping a eadiness ada 53
5.3.1 Limi a ions o his me hod 54
5.3.2 Economis In ascope Repo 54
5.3.3 Wo ld Bank Benchma king In as uc u e Repo 57
5.3.4 GTZ Pa ne ship Landscape 58
5.3.5 GIZ Gap Analysis 58
5.3.6 Filling in he gaps – Assessmen s o PPP eadiness in o he li e a u e 59
5.4 The Readiness Rada - Resul s 62
Chap e 6: Analysis o he PPP enabling en i onmen in Da es Salaam 65
6.1 Expe In e iews 65
6.1.1 Ca oline Chema E ic 65
6.2.2 Eng. Romanus A. Mwang’ingo and Eng. Mu aekulwa Mu egeki 66
6.2.3 Pe e Hawkins 67
6.3 A PESTLE Analysis 68
6.4 Tanzania: An uncon incing en i onmen o PPPs in FSM 70
Chap e 7: Case S udies and business gap analysis 71
7.1 O e iew o wo FSTPs and an E&T business in Da es Salaam 71
7.1.1 Kigamboni FSTP/ UMAWA Was e Managemen Si e 71
7.1.2 Toangoma FSTP 75
7.1.3 Vacuum T uck Business 78
7.2 Analysis o PSPs wi h he p ojec and o ganiza ion le el CSFs 80
7.3 Lessons Lea n 86
Chap e 8: PPPs by any o he name: A p oposal o Open Pa ne ships 88
8.1 The need o a eb anding 88
8.2 A look a non-con en ional PPPs 88
8.3 OPUS: Open Pa ne ships o U ban Sani a ion 90
8.4 Fu he Resea ch 91
8.5 Conclusion 92
Re e ences 94
Appendix A - Full lis o CSFs men ioned in he selec ed li e a u e 101
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies 102
Appendix C - PPP p ocu emen and app o al p ocess acco ding o 2020 Regula ions 111
Appendix D - Fac shee da a om FSTPs 112
Appendix E - Sou h A ica’s Readiness Rada alues
114

J. Young
i
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 01 View o Da es Salaam Ci y Cen e om
he Kigamboni Fe y 4
Figu e 02 A e age yea ly ain all and empe a u e
(sou ce: Au ho , Da a: clima e-da a.o g) 5
Figu e 03 To al in es men and numbe o PPP
p ojec s in Tanzania om 1990-2020 (sou ce: PPI
Da abase, 2021) 6
Figu e 04 PPPs by sec o in Tanzania (sou ce: Au-
ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase, 2021) 7
Figu e 05 F equency o appea ances o he e m
“public-p i a e pa ne ship” in li e a u e om
1950-2020 (Sou ce: Google ng am iewe , 2021) 10
Figu e 06 The mul iple le els o PPP (sou ce: Au-
ho , adap ed om Hodge & G e e (2016)) 11
Figu e 07 Sludge d ying bed a Kigamboni FSTP
(Sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 12
Figu e 08 Faecal sludge in an unplan ed d ying
bed (sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 13
Figu e 09 Shi - low diag am (SFD) o Da es Sa-
laam, 2015 (Sou ce: Au ho , adap ed om Eawag/
Sandec (2015)) 14
Figu e 10 Sani a ion se ice chain (Sou ce: Wiki-
media Commons) 15
Figu e 11 Vacuum uck se icing a sep ic ank
(Sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 15
Figu e 12 In o mal and unplanned neighbou -
hood in Da es Salaam (Sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 16
Figu e 14 Se ice wi h he mo o ized “Toyo” icy-
cle (Sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 17
Figu e 13 Se ice wi h he Gulpe echnology
(Sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 17
Figu e 15 Emp ying a acuum uck a a DEWATS
FSTP (Sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 18
Figu e 16 D awn schema ic o a DEWATS a BOR-
DA HQ (Sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 18
Figu e 18 Unplan ed d ying bed a Kigamboni
FSTP (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 19
Figu e 17 Was e S abilisa ion Pond (WSP) in Da
es Salaam (Sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 19
Figu e 19 FS being d ied o use as soil condi ion-
e (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 20
Figu e 20 FS soil condi ione (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021) 20
Figu e 22 Ae ial iew o Mbu aha i-Ubungo FSTP
(sou ce: BORDA, 2021) 21
Figu e 21 Enabling en i onmen o communi-
y-led u ban sani a ion (CLUES) (sou ce: Lü hi e
al., 2011) 21
Figu e 23 Hodge & G e e’s i e le els o meaning
(sou ce: Hodge & G e e, 2016)) 23
Figu e 24 Con inuum o p i a e sec o in ol e-
men and isk (adap ed om Wo ld Bank, 2021) 27
Figu e 25 In as uc u e in es men gap in A ica
(sou ce: GI Hub, 2021) 30
Figu e 26 Ve ical ela ionship ypical in TP (Au-
ho , 2021) 32
Figu e 27 Ho izon al ela ionship ypical in PPPs
(Adap ed om Nizko odo , 2017) 32
Figu e 28 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s in low, low-
e -middle, and uppe -middle income coun ies by
in es men and numbe , all sec o s, wo ldwide
(sou ce: PPI Da abase, 2021) 35
Figu e 29 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s by in es -
men and numbe o p ojec s o e ime (sou ce:
PPI Da abase, 2021) 37
Figu e 30 Dis ibu ion o PPPs by sec o , wo ld-
wide (sou ce: Au ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase,
2021) 37
Figu e 31 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s by income
le el (sou ce:Au ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase,
2021) 38
Figu e 32 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s in he WSS
sec o in SSA s. he es o he wo ld (sou ce:Au-
ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase, 2021) 38
Figu e 33 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s in he WSS
sec o by ype (sou ce:Au ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da-
abase, 2021) 38
Figu e 34 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s in he WSS
sec o in SSA s. he es o he wo ld (sou ce:Au-
ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase, 2021) 38
Figu e 35 Dog aking a nap in he sludge d ying
bed o Kigamboni FSTP (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 45
Figu e 36 Combining he CSFs (sou ce: Au ho ) 47
Figu e 36 Mic o, Meso and Mac o le els o he CSF
F amewo k (sou ce: Au ho ) 51
Figu e 37 Popula ing he CSF amewo k wi h
a eadiness a ing o p oduce a eadiness ada
(sou ce: Au ho ) 62
Figu e 38 Readiness Rada (sou ce: Au ho ) 63
Figu e 39 Compa ison o Tanzania and Sou h A i-
ca’s PPP Readiness (sou ce: Au ho ) 64
Figu e 40 Zoom in e iew wi h Tim Fe back and
Ca oline Chema E ic (sou ce: Zoom/Au ho , 2021) 65
Figu e 41 Zoom in e iew wi h Tim Fe back and
Eng. Romanus A. Mwang’ingo and Eng. Mu aekul-
wa Mu egeki (sou ce: Zoom/Au ho , 2021) 66
Figu e 42 Zoom in e iew wi h Tim Fe back and
Pe e Hawkins (sou ce: Zoom/Au ho , 2021) 67
Figu e 43 Resea ch amewo k o analysis o
bo h Tanzania and Da es Salaam’s PPP eadiness
(sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 68
Figu e 44 Resea ch amewo k o analysis o case
s udies and he de elopmen o Open Pa ne -
ships in Chap e 7 and 8 (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 70
Figu e 45 M . Milinga si ing in his o ice (sou ce:
Au ho , 2021) 71
Figu e 46 M . Milinga and I eneo Shinga s anding
in on o he Sludge-Go (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 72
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
ii
Figu e 47 UMAWA scale-up plan (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021) 72
Figu e 48 Sani a ion T aining Cen e (sou ce: Au-
ho , 2021) 73
Figu e 49 Unplan ed sludge d ying bed and d ying
FS soil condi ione (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 73
Figu e 50 E luen ish pond (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
73
Figu e 51 Banana and Papaya ees ed wa e om
e luen (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 73
Figu e 54 M . Milinga showing us his “ loa ing”
compos heap in a nea by ield (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021) 74
Figu e 52 T ac o and icycle o accessing un-
planned a eas (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 74
Figu e 53 Sludge-Go acuum ank (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021) 74
Figu e 55 UMAWA acuum uck (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021) 75
Figu e 56 Ms. Mhando (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 75
Figu e 57 Ms. Mhando o e looking Toangoma
om he hill op FSTP (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 76
Figu e 58 Toangoma FSTP pa ne ship wi h Wa -
e aid (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 76
Figu e 59 Sludge d ying beds (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021) 77
Figu e 60 Expansion chambe wi h plas ic was e
(sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 77
Figu e 61 Plan ed G a el Fil e s (PGF) (sou ce:
Au ho , 2021) 77
Figu e 62 Biogas se le (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 77
Figu e 65 Godlo e Ngoda s anding ou side he
BORDA HQ (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 78
Figu e 63 Used acuum uck (sou ce: Godlo e
Ngoda, 2019) 78
Figu e 64 Vacuum uck wi h expanded capaci y
(sou ce: Godlo e Ngoda, 2019) 78
Figu e 66 Expanded and epain ed acuum uck
(sou ce: Godlo e Ngoda, 2019) 79
Figu e 67 Gap analysis o he Kigamboni FSTP,
Toangoma FSTP and Vacuum T uck business
(sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 82
Figu e 68 Gap analysis o he Kigamboni FSTP
(sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 83
Figu e 69 Gap analysis o he Toangoma FSTP
(sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 84
Figu e 70 Gap analysis o he Vacuum T uck busi-
ness (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 85
Figu e 71 P o i abili y o acuum uck businesses
based on size o business (sou ce: adap ed om
Kone & Chowdh y, 2012) 87
Figu e 72 Wo d cloud om FSM6 session 4 - How
do we ensu e ha he sludge eaches he ea -
men plan ? (Fe back e al., 2021) 87
Table 01 WHO & UNICEF’s Join Moni o ing P o-
g am (JMP) De ini ions o sani a ion se ice le -
els (sou ce: WHO & UNICEF, 2020) 2
Table 02 Common con ac ual a angemen s in
he WSS sec o (adap ed om GTZ, 2010) 27
Table 03 Ad an ages o PPP o e TP (adap ed
om Col e son & Pe e a, 2012) 41
Table 04 Disad an ages o PPPs o e TP (adap ed
om Boa dman e al., 2016; Col e son & Pe e a,
2012) 42
Table 05 Lis o CSFs wi h mo e han one men-
ion ga he ed om 23 s udies (sou ce: Au ho )
48
Table 06 Lis o CSFs wi h i e o mo e men ions
ga he ed om 23 s udies (sou ce: Au ho ) 49
Table 07 Final lis and de ini ions o CSFs o gan-
ised by le el (sou ce: Au ho ) 50
Table 08 Economis In elligence Uni ’s (EIU)
anking o A ican economies acco ding o PPP
eadiness (sou ce: EIU, 2015) 56
Table 09 Thema ic a eas su eyed in he Wo ld
Banks Benchma king In as uc u e Repo
(sou ce: Wo ld Bank, 2020b) 57
Table 10 De ailed in o ma ion on he epo s
and da abases used o de e mine he alues o
he eadiness assessmen (Sou ce: Au ho ) 61
Table 11 A e aged a ings om a ious sou ces
o de e mine Tanzania’s PPP eadiness (Sou ce:
Au ho ) 63
Table 12 A PESTLE Analysis o he PPP and FSM
enabling en i onmen in Da es Salaam (sou ce:
Au ho , 2021) 69
Table 13 Selec ed applicable CSFs + business el-
emen s amewo k o a ing and gap analysis
(sou ce: Au ho , 2021) 82
Lis o Tables
J. Young
iii
De elopmen
O&M Ope a ion and Main enance
OSS Onsi e Sani a ion
P PPP People- i s Public-P i a e Pa ne ship
PPCP Public-P i a e-Communi y Pa ne ships
PPI P i a e Pa icipa ion in In as uc u e
PPIAF P i a e Pa icipa ion in In as uc u e Ad-
iso y Facili y
PPP Public-P i a e Pa ne ship
PPRA Public P ocu emen Regula o y Au ho i y
PRC People’s Republic o China
PSP P i a e Sec o Pa icipa ion
QCA Quali a i e Compa a i e Analysis
SDG Sus ainable De elopmen Goal
SME Small and Medium-Sized En e p ise
SOE S a e-owned En e p ise
SSA sub-Saha an A ica
T T ea men
TP T adi ional P ocu emen
UMAWA Uhai wa Mazingi a na Wa u
UMIC Uppe Middle Income Coun y
UN Uni ed Na ions
UNDP Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme
UN DESA Uni ed Na ions Depa men o Eco-
nomic and Social A ai s
UNECA Uni ed Na ions Economic Commission
o A ica
UNECE Uni ed Na ions Economic Commission
o Eu ope
UN IATF Uni ed Na ions In e -agency Task Fo ce
on Financing o De elopmen
V M Value o Money
WB Wo ld Bank
WDI Wo ld De elopmen Indica o s
WEF Wo ld Economic Fo um
WSS Wa e Supply and Sani a ion
Lis o Abb e ia ions
A DB A ican De elopmen Bank
AU A ican Union
BOO Build-Ope a e-Own
BOT Build-Ope a e-T ans e
BTI Be elsmann S i ung Index
CETA Ci ic Educa ion Teache s’ Associa ion
CPI Co up ion Pe cep ion Index
DAWASA Da es Salaam Wa e and Sewe age Au ho -
i y
DB Design-Build
DBFMO Design-Build-Finance-Main ain-Ope a e
DSK Dus ha Shas hya Kend a
EISA Elec o al Ins i u e o Sou he n A ica
EPI En i onmen al Pe o mance Index
ET Emp ying and T anspo
FBO Fai h-based O ganiza ion
FS Faecal Sludge
FSM Faecal Sludge Managemen
GCR Global Compe i i eness Repo
GII Global Inno a ion Index
ICT In o ma ion and Communica ions Technology
IFI In e na ional Finance Ins i u ion
JMP Join Moni o ing P og am
KAS Kon ad Adenaue S i ung
LGA Local Go e nmen Au ho i y
LIC Low Income Coun y
LIDC Lowe Income De eloping Coun y
LMIC Lowe Middle Income Coun y
MC Municipal Council
MDB Mul i-la e al De elopmen Bank
MoEST Minis y o Educa ion, Science and Technol-
ogy
MoW Minis y o Wa e
MoWI Minis y o Wa e and I iga ion
MSP Mul i-S akeholde Pa ne ship
NPM New Public Managemen
NPG New Public Go e nance
OECD O ganiza ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
ix
Acknowledgemen s
Fi s and o emos , I would like o hank my daugh e , Noemie Jean, o deciding o
be bo n h ee weeks be o e submission, and my wonde ul wi e, Roya o deli e ing a
baby, pu ing up wi h my long hou s o wo k, and s ill inding ime o e iew his hesis.
You bo h pu e e y hing in o pe spec i e.
I would also like o hank my ad iso s, P o . D .-Ing. Wol gang Dickhau and Tim
Fe back. Wi hou Tim’s guidance and ou long hou s spen discussing he minu iae o
weigh ed a ings and he ole o he p i a e sec o , his hesis would no exis .
I would also like o hank hose who p o ided in aluable insigh by gene ously ag ee-
ing o hold in e iews: Ca oline Chema E ic, Eng. Romanus A. Mwang’ingo, Eng. Mu-
aekulwa Mu egeki, Pe e Hawkins, Godlo e Ngoda, Ma hias Milinga, Cha les Makoye,
Mwanahama Mhando, Joyce Musi a and Eng. Lydia Ndibalema.
Fu he mo e, I would like o hank hose I me o communica ed wi h in Tanzania and
elsewhe e who helped me unde s and he local con ex , a anged si e isi s, showed me
a ound, in oduced me o he igh people, ga e me eedback o poin ed me in he igh
di ec ion: Lau a B igh -Da ies, Alex Mille , Con ad Thombansen, F id jo Behnsen,
A is a ick Mkenda, F anka an Ma ewijk, Ki ya Heinemann and Julia Pleuse .
Finally, I would like o hank he unending suppo o my amily. Momma, his is o
you.
J. Young
6
na ional Mone a y Fund (IMF) suppo ed
s uc u al ma ke e o ms in Tanzania
which we e success ul in inc easing eco-
nomic g ow h, in es men and expo s,
howe e he e u n on o eign- inanced
in es men (aid money) was low, acco d-
ing o a join epo om he WB and IMF
(Ag awal e al., 1993). The low p oduc i i y
o in es men , w o e Ag awal e al. (1993),
“can pa ly be a ibu ed o he domina-
ion o he Tanzanian economy by a la ge
and ine icien pa as a al sec o .” Accele -
a ing he e o m o he public sec o and
imp o ing he enabling en i onmen o
p i a e sec o de elopmen , hey a gued,
could inc ease he p oduc i i y o in es -
men (Ag awal e al., 1993).
This policy ecommenda ion se he
s age o he in oduc ion o one o Tanza-
nia’s i s PPPs in 1995 - he con o e sial
G a Tain s Powe Pu chasing Ag eemen
be ween s a e-owned TANESCO and Inde-
penden Powe Tanzania Limi ed (IPTL)
o a 100 MW diesel powe pu chasing
ag eemen (Fa lam, 2005). A e yea s o
legal ba les and up oa om dono s and
consul an s due o he choice o echnol-
ogy, cos , co up ion allega ions and de-
mand p ojec ion, i was inally commis-
sioned in 2002 and unc ioned a only 10%
o i s capaci y, cos ing he go e nmen 40
million USD in capaci y paymen s in he
i s yea alone (Fa lam, 2005; Mou gues
& Kingombe, 2017).
J. Young
a e age empe a u e is 25.9℃ wi h a ela-
i e humidi y be ween 75 and 84 pe cen
h oughou he yea (clima e-da a.o g,
n.d.).
The ollowing sec ion will gi e a b ie
o e iew o he social, poli ical and eco-
nomic ac o s ha a e ele an o his e-
sea ch and he in ol emen o he p i a e
sec o in FSM se ice p o ision.
1.2 Social, Poli ical and Economic
Fo med in 1964 a e he joining o
Tanganyika and Zanziba , he Uni ed Re-
public o Tanzania shook o i s Ge man
and B i ish colonial pas o become a
P esiden ial Cons i u ional Republic un-
de he leade ship o P esiden Julius K.
Nye e e. A e en belie e in Pan-A i-
canism and sel - eliance, Nye e e im-
plemen ed a o m o A ican socialism
based on he Ma xis -Leninis s ance on
social, poli ical and economic p inciples,
called ‘Ujaamaa’, o b o he hood, which
owned upon p i a e weal h (Ci ic Edu-
ca ion Teache s’ Associa ion/Kon ad-Ad-
enaue -S i ung, 2018).
Unde his sys em o e 400 banks, in-
dus ies and o he en e p ises we e s a e-
owned and du ing his ime he economy
expe ienced only a 1.5 pe cen annual
g ow h un il he mid 1980s (CETA/KAS,
2018). In 1986 he Wo ld Bank and In e -
Figu e 03 To al in es men and numbe o PPP p ojec s in Tanzania om 1990-2020 (sou ce: PPI Da abase, 2021)

B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
7
a e Pa ne ship Ac , 2010 was passed, and
a yea a e ha The Public-P i a e Pa -
ne ship Ac , Regula ions, 2011. The e ha e
been se e al amendmen s o bo h he Ac
(2014, 2018) and he Regula ions (2015,
2020). The PPP Ac and Regula ions c e-
a e he ins i u ional amewo k o PPP
ag eemen s be ween he p i a e and pub-
lic sec o s in Tanzania and se he “ ules,
guidelines and p ocedu es go e ning
p ocu emen , de elopmen and imple-
men a ion” o PPPs (Ze os, 2020).
The la es se o egula ions (2020) c e-
a es an addi ional PPP desk ha is o be
se up wi hin he espec i e Con ac ing
Au ho i y (Minis y, Go e nmen Depa -
men , Au ho i y o Agency) and also pu s
mo e emphasis on local con en , p io i-
ising local se ice p o ide s and manu-
ac u ed goods, jobs o Tanzanians, and
ha Tanzanian ci izens a e gi en p io i y
in any ma e ela ed o echnology ans-
e , esea ch, de elopmen o inno a ion
(Go e nmen o he Uni ed Republic o
Tanzania, 2020). The amewo k has been
ound o be obus , albei leng hy and
complica ed (see Appendix C o an o e -
iew o he 16 s ep p ocu emen and ap-
p o al p ocess o small-scale PPPs).
This i s b ush wi h PPPs was ollowed
by ano he disas ous PPP in he WSS sec-
o in 2003. Again, a e yea s o a cos ly se-
lec ion p ocess beginning in 1997, he Da
es Salaam Wa e and Sewe age Au ho i y
(DAWASA) en e ed in o a lease ag eemen
wi h Ci y Wa e Se ices (CWS), a p i a e
conso ium including Biwa e Gau Tan-
zania Limi ed (BGT) – a join en u e be-
ween a B i ish i m Biwa e In e na ional
and a Ge man enginee ing i m, HP Gau
Ingenieu e GmbH – and he local i m Su-
pe Doll T aile Manu ac u e Company
Limi ed (STM) (T iche, 2012). The lead
p o essional company, Biwa e , owned
a 41% s ake, while HP Gau owned 10%
and Supe Doll – a company wi h no ex-
pe ience in he WSS sec o - owned 49%
(T iche, 2012). A e wo yea s o inancial
di icul ies and poo pe o mance, he
con ac collapsed and he o eign pa -
ne s we e d ama ically expelled om he
coun y, leading o wo in e na ional i-
bunals and li le, i any, imp o emen in
se ice (T iche, 2012).
Despi e hese se backs, Tanzania has
had 25 PPP p ojec s since 1993 in a a ie y
o sec o s including elec ici y (13), in o -
ma ion and communica ions echnology
(ICT) (7), ailways (2), WSS (1), ai po s (1)
and po s (1) (PPI Da abase, 2021) (Figu e
04). In o al, h ee ha e been cancelled,
1 is in dis ess, ou ha e been comple ed
and he es a e s ill ac i e. As can be seen
in Figu e 03, p ojec s peaked be ween 2005
and 2011, and in he las decade only ou
PPPs ha e been implemen ed (PPI Da a-
base, 2021)
Tanzania’s legal amewo k o PPPs
has also been s eadily, and equen ly,
buil up since 2009, beginning wi h he
Na ional Public P i a e Pa ne ship Policy
2009. The ollowing yea , The Public-P i-
PPPs by Sec o
Elec ici y ICT Railways WSS Ai po s Po s
Figu e 04 PPPs by sec o in Tanzania (sou ce: Au-
ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase, 2021)
J. Young
8
basic educa ion su i al a e (pe cen age
o s uden s who a e expec ed o inish
basic educa ion) in Da es Salaam om
23.94% (2016) o 48.29% (2018), hough
he numbe o s uden s who comple ed
basic educa ion dec eased o 43.42% in
2019 (MoEST, 2019). Educa ion is c i ical
o go e nmen s no only o inc ease eco-
nomic ou pu and compe i i eness, bu
also o ha e enough skilled wo ke s o ill
ci il se ice posi ions (a e aking in o
accoun many o he mos skilled will p e-
e highe paid sala ies a p i a e i ms).
Poli ically speaking, Tanzania has been
unde de ac o one-pa y ule by he Cha-
ma Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) pa y since i s
incep ion in 1964. In 1992, he cons i u-
ion was amended o allow o mo e pa -
ies, howe e he CCM has main ained i s
g ip on powe and is he longes se ing
uling pa y in A ica (Campbell, 2020).
While he CCM has emained ela i ely
popula , he e we e allega ions o o e
“opp ession” by he Elec o al Ins i u e o
Sou he n A ica (EISA) in he las elec-
ion, wi h P esiden Maga uli winning in
a landslide ic o y wi h 84% o he o es
(Kombe, 2020).
Those I alked o in Da es Salaam ad-
mi ed Maga uli o his ough s ance on
co up ion and his commi men o in-
c easing in as uc u e, made isible by
he la ge numbe o p ojec s going on
h oughou he ci y. P esiden Maga uli
died om hea complica ions on Ma ch
17, 2021, jus as I was lea ing Tanzania,
and his ice p esiden Salia Suluhu Has-
san ook o e as he i s emale p esiden
o Tanzania.
Beyond PPPs, Tanzania has been g adu-
ally imp o ing i s business en i onmen ,
hough i s ill anks ai ly low wi h an ease
o doing business (DB) sco e o 54.5/100
and anking 141/190 (Wo ld Bank, 2021a).
While his numbe has s ayed ela i ely
le el o e he las 10 yea s (55.1/100 in
2011), he economy has been expe ienc-
ing sus ained g ow h and in July o 2020
unde o me P esiden John Maga uli,
Tanzania hi hei miles ones in he Tan-
zania De elopmen Vision (TDV) 2025 and
became a Lowe Middle-Income Coun y
(LMIC) (Wo ld Bank, 2021c).
The TDV 2025 ou lines he ollowing
key s a egic goals o achie e a s ong and
compe i i e economy in Tanzania, ely-
ing hea ily on indus ialisa ion and in a-
s uc u e o achie e hei a ge s (CETA/
KAS, 2018):
1. Di e si ica ion and semi-indus ialisa-
ion o he economy wi h a p ominen in-
dus ial sec o compa able o ypical mid-
dle-income coun ies
2. Economic s abili y h ough low in la ion
and basic mac oeconomic balances
3. Adequa e le els o in as uc u e o imple-
men he ision in all sec o s
4. Becoming an ac i e and compe i i e play-
e in egional and wo ld ma ke s wi h he
capaci y o a icula e and p omo e na-
ional in e es s and o adjus quickly o
egional and global ma ke ends.
Tanzania has also enac ed a numbe o
policies o imp o e educa ion ou comes,
including he TDV 2025, he Na ional Fi e-
Yea De elopmen Plan (FYDP) 2016-2021,
he Educa ion Sec o De elopmen Plan
(2016-2021) and he Educa ion and T ain-
ing Policy o 2014 (Minis y o Educa ion,
Science and Technology [MoEST], 2019).
These policies ha e posi i ely a ec ed he
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
9
1.4 O e all Objec i e
The objec i e o his esea ch is o
analyse he sui abili y o PPPs as a ool
o b idge exis ing gaps in he sani a ion
in as uc u e and se ice p o ision o
FSM in Da es Salaam. Th ough he use o
C i ical Success Fac o s (CSFs) and a PPP
eadiness ada , Tanzania’s PPP eadiness
will be e alua ed, and ecommenda ions
will be gi en o a pa ne ship model sui -
able o he cu en condi ions. By de e -
mining he mos e ec i e, e icien and
ealis ic means o se ice deli e y in Da
es Salaam, a sui able pa ne ship model
could le e age he s eng hs o bo h he
p i a e and public sec o s o bene i all
s akeholde s and educe he en i onmen-
al and heal h isks associa ed wi h poo
FSM.
1.5 Resea ch Hypo hesis
The e is a clea gap in bo h he amoun
o exis ing in as uc u e needed o ad-
equa ely ea aecal sludge (FS), and in
he implemen a ion o se ice deli e y in
FSM. This gap can be iden i ied, assessed,
and gi en a amewo k o enable success-
ul p i a e sec o pa icipa ion and make
FSM mu ually bene icial o all s akehold-
e s.
1.6 Resea ch Ques ions
1. How sui able a e PPPs o small-
scale FSM se ice deli e y in Da es
Salaam?
2. Wha kind o pa ne ship ame-
wo k would bes sui he enabling
en i onmen in Da es Salaam o
help scale-up FSM?
1.3 P oblem S a emen
By 2030, he UN p ojec s ha Da es Sa-
laam will join he anks o 42 o he Meg-
aci ies wi h a popula ion o 10 million o
mo e - doubling in size in he space o 15
yea s (UN DESA, 2018). This will make a bad
si ua ion, e en wo se. The expansion o
he sewe age sys em is slow and i egula ,
mee ing less han 10 pe cen o he needs
o he ci y (Ndibalema, Eng. L., H., pe son-
al communica ion, June, 2021). This means
on-si e sani a ion (OSS) and decen alized
ea men , wi h suppo om he p i a e
sec o , will ha e o mee his challenge.
While he Go e nmen o Tanzania (GoT)
has passed an inc easing amoun o leg-
isla ion o e he pas se e al decades o
c ea e a amewo k o he in oduc ion o
PPPs as a means o mee hese challenges,
poo pas expe iences wi h p i a e sec o
pa icipa ion in WSS ha e pu a dampe on
PPP up ake in he sec o (Leigland, 2018;
T iche, 2012). Cu en ly, he e a e no o i-
cial FSM-speci ic PPP guidelines, and he
PPP a angemen s ha do exis in he wa e
and sani a ion sec o a e limi ed o a ew
ins ances wi h ad-hoc con ac ual a ange-
men s o se ice con ac s (T ade Was e
Ag eemen s (TWAs) wi h acuum uck
owne s) ha , while imp o ing se ice p o-
ision, a e insu icien o mee he inc eas-
ing needs o he as -g owing popula ion.
Howe e , in e es in imp o ing FSM se -
ice p o ision is g owing, and Tanzania’s
Minis y o Wa e (MoW) and he Ene gy
and Wa e U ili ies Regula o y Au ho i y
(EWURA) came ou wi h onsi e sani a ion
(OSS) and FSM guidelines in 2020 ha men-
ion se e al PPP o PSP a angemen s as
po en ial business models o p o ision o
FSM, indica ing a g owing in e es in FSM
speci ic PPPs (EWURA, 2020).
J. Young
10
single lens and encompasses a a ie y o
elemen s including he p ojec , o ganiza-
ion and pa ne ship s uc u e/ ela ion-
ship, policy, ins i u ional amewo k and
he mac o inancial, en i onmen al, and
communi y le el. By ocusing only on one
app oach, we may miss he o es o he
ees and lose he b oade pic u e.
Hodge and G e e (2013) b eak down
PPP esea ch in o h ee gene a ions:
he i s gene a ion beginning in he 70s
ha ocused on indi idual p ojec s, he
second gene a ion beginning in he 90s
ha ocused on he policy en i onmen
su ounding PPP adop ion, and he la -
es gene a ion ha conce ns he exoge-
nous p essu e o he de eloping wo ld
o adop PPPs as a means o b idge in a-
s uc u e and unding gaps. This can also
be iewed as a mic o, meso and mac o
le el app oach o PPPs, and he in e ac-
ion o ac o s on and be ween hese le els
can in luence he success o ailu e o a
PPP.
The e o e his esea ch will adop a
holis ic, social-ecological model and sys-
ems heo y* app oach adap ed o anal-
1.7 Resea ch F amewo k
O e he pas se e al decades he can-
on o li e a u e on PPPs has g own signi i-
can ly as hey ha e con inued o inc ease
in popula i y as a ool o mee he wo ld’s
in as uc u e needs (Figu e 05).
While he implemen a ion o PPPs has
inc eased, so oo ha e he esea ch ame-
wo ks ha a e used o analyse hei e ica-
cy. Weihe (2008) men ions ou esea ch
lenses o PPPs, 1) he u ban egene a-
ion app oach, 2) he policy app oach, 3)
he in as uc u e app oach, and 4) he
de elopmen app oach. Each wi h hei
own se o ac o s, objec i es and analy-
ses (Nizko odo , 2017). Due o he di e -
en app oaches, Weihe (2008) a gues ha
PPPs exis in di e en con ex s o di e -
en needs, and a single de ini ion is bo h
logically impossible o PPPs and could
lead o alse compa isons. This esea ch
ecognises hese di e en lenses, howe -
e due o he na u e o PPPs ope a ing on
mul iple le els as poin ed ou by Hodge
& G e e (2016), I belie e i is necessa y o
ake a mac o iew o PPPs as a phenom-
enon in hemsel es ha anscends one
*The social-ecological model, i s in oduced by U ie B on enb enne , is a sys ems-based heo y ha
aims o unde s and he dynamic in e ela ions be ween di e en ac o s in di e en se ings. Simply pu ,
one hing a ec s ano he , and no hing occu s in a acuum. The indi idual is in luenced by, and in luences
he en i onmen in which i li es, and each mic o, meso and mac o le el eedback on each o he (B on-
enb enne , 1977).
Figu e 05 F equency o appea ances o he e m “public-p i a e pa ne ship” in li e a u e om 1950-2020
(sou ce: Google ng am iewe , 2021)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
11
ype o p i a e sec o in ol emen wi h
he go e nmen , con en ional PPPs a e
long- e m, con ac ually complex and in-
ol e p i a e sec o in ol emen h ough-
ou he li ecycle o he p ojec (design,
build, ope a e, main ain). A sho - e m
se ice ag eemen , o a design-build con-
ac would no be conside ed PPPs by he
Wo ld Bank’s de ini ion and hus a e no
he subjec o his analysis, hough hey
will be discussed.
The analysis includes a ho ough li -
e a u e e iew o CSFs in de eloping e-
gions and he WSS sec o o iden i y he
mos ci ed CSFs, which will hen be used
o c ea e a “Readiness Rada ” amewo k
o assessmen . Va ious sou ces om he
Wo ld Bank, Economis In elligence Uni
(EIU), Deu sche Gesellscha ü Tech-
nische Zusammena bei (GTZ; since 2010
a pa o GIZ), Deu sche Gesellscha ü
In e na ionale Zusammena bei (GIZ),
Tanzanian in e nal audi epo s, in e -
na ional da abases, li e a u e e iew and
in e iews will be used o de e mine he
deg ee (0-100) o which Da es Salaam’s
enabling en i onmen mee s he “Read-
iness Rada ” o PPP implemen a ion. A
de ailed desc ip ion o he me hodology
begins in Pa II.
The esea ch will co e he ollowing
s eps:
1. Iden i ying he p oblem - insu i-
cien FSM.
2. Analysing a po en ial solu ion - PPPs
o FSM.
3. Gap analysis o p i a e se ice p o-
ide s in FSM in Da es Salaam.
4. P oposal o a pa ne ship model
sui able o he cu en si ua ion ha
would help o scale up FSM in Da
es Salaam.
yse PPPs and hei c i ical success ac-
o s (CSFs) a each le el using Hodge and
G e e’s (2016) amewo k, wi h a speci ic
ocus on he WSS sec o in he de eloping
wo ld (Figu e 06).
As he in e na ional communi y allies
a ound he SDGs as pu o h by he UN, i
is aluable o assess he sui abili y o SDG
17 (c ea ing pa ne ships) o achie e SDG
6 (wa e and sani a ion). Pa ne ships
in hei b oades sense a e undoub edly
necessa y, bu a e PPPs (SDG 17.17) he
igh ins umen o achie e he SDGs in
de eloping egions?
The e a e wo common ypes o con-
en ional PPPs, hose used in social se -
ices (p isons, hospi als, schools, e c.)
and hose used in in as uc u e (Pessoa,
2010). This esea ch will ocus on con-
en ional PPPs as de ined by he Wo ld
Bank and he Uni ed Republic o Tanza-
nia, which a e p ima ily used o in a-
s uc u e and/o se ice deli e y o pub-
lic goods (elec ici y, wa e , sani a ion). I
is impo an he e o dis inguish be ween
con en ional PPPs as de ined by he Wo ld
Bank and PPPs as a e m in common us-
age. While many conside PPPs o be any
Figu e 06 The mul iple le els o PPP (sou ce: Au-
ho , adap ed om Hodge & G e e (2016))

J. Young
12
This inc easing a en ion in he sani a-
ion sec o has c ea ed a body o knowl-
edge suppo ed by eal wo ld successes
and ailu es ha has shi ed he hinking
om sewe -based sys ems o OSS, which
is be e sui ed o ci ies wi h a apidly ex-
panding popula ion and unplanned se le-
men s (Na ayan & Lü hi, 2020; Reymond
e al., 2016; S ande e al., 2014). Depend-
ing on local condi ions, i has been shown
ha FSM echnologies can be i e imes
less expensi e han sewe -based sys ems
(Dodane e al., 2012).
The impo ance o e ec i e FSM is es-
pecially e iden in Da es Salaam, whe e
a ound 90% o he ci y’s inhabi an s use
OSS, mos ly cha ac e ised by pi la ines
and sep ic anks, and a ea men a e o
only 7% (Eawag/Sandec, 2015). The Shi -
Flow Diag am (Figu e 09) below shows
he lows o was ewa e and FS in Da es
Figu e 07 Sludge d ying bed a Kigamboni FSTP (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
Chap e 2: W h a i s Fa e c a l S l u d g e Ma n a g e m e n ( F S M ) ?
O e 2.7 billion people use on-si e sani-
a ion (OSS) ha is unconnec ed o sewe
sys ems o ea men plan s (Rao e al.,
2016). OSS is especially p e alen in low-
and middle-income coun ies, whe e he
ope a ional capaci y o go e nmen u il-
i ies is no always su icien o p ope ly
ea he aecal sludge and was ewa e
ha is gene a ed. This inabili y o p op-
e ly manage FS has wide- anging heal h,
social, economic and en i onmen al im-
pac s ha has long been o e looked in
he ace o o he c ises ha ge mo e a -
en ion and unding (Annam aju e al.,
2001). Howe e , wi h he Millenium De-
elopmen Goals (MDGs) and subsequen
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs),
p ope sani a ion has been inc easingly
pu in o ocus and he e ha e been g ea
s ides owa d inclusi e sani a ion in he
las decades (Na ayan & Lü hi, 2020; Rey-
mond e al., 2016).
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
13
hen disposed o in an unsa e manne in
nea by open spaces, wa e ways, s o m-
wa e d ains o le o be di e ed in o
he en i onmen du ing he ainy season
(Fe back e al., 2021; S ande e al., 2014).
The pa hogenic na u e o FS hen c ea es
a h ea o he heal h o bo h he en i on-
men and public heal h h ough diseases
such as chole a and eu ophica ion in wa-
e bodies (Tayle , 2018).
Fu he mo e, when analysing he busi-
ness case o he euse o FS, i is impe -
a i e o ha e an end-p oduc ha is ee,
o accep ably ee, o pa hogens and con-
aminan s ha could pose a isk o a m-
e s and consume s (Bha e al., 2011).
The ollowing chap e will elabo a e on
he cha ac e is ics o FS, i s need o ea -
men , he sani a ion se ice chain ha in-
ol es a a ie y o s akeholde s, as well as
he ins i u ional amewo k and enabling
en i onmen necessa y o ensu e ha FS
is p ope ly ea ed and doesn’ simply end
up back in he en i onmen . This will p o-
ide he necessa y con ex o unde s and
he challenges ha PPPs a e supposed o
sol e.
Salaam. This illus a es he need o e -
ec i e FSM ha add esses he en i e se -
ice chain, om oile access o p ope
disposal. Cu en ly, he p i a e sec o is
s epping in o y o b idge his gap in se -
ice p o ision h ough he ope a ion o
emp ying and anspo (E&T) and aecal
sludge ea men plan s (FSTPs), howe e
a signi ican gap, especially be ween poo
and nonpoo households, s ill emains
(Jenkins e al., 2015).
2.1 W h a i s Fa e c a l S l ud g e ?
Faecal Sludge (FS) is he mix u e o hu-
man exc e a, wa e and solid was e ( oile
pape , e c.) ha accumula es in OSS like pi
la ines and sep ic anks and is no ans-
po ed h ough a sewe (S ande e al., 2015).
FS is highly a iable in i s consis ency and
depends on die , leng h o ma u a ion, and
ypes o use in e aces as well as he collec-
ion, ea men and s o age pa ame e s (Tay-
le , 2018). Because i is gene ally collec ed a
he sou ce and no mixed wi h s o mwa e
uno and o he pollu an s common in sew-
age, FS has a mo e po en ial o second-
a y uses as e ilize o ene gy eco e y and
wi h p ope FSM, can be a aluable esou ce
o eco e cos s, c ea e jobs and add o he
economy (Bha e al., 2011; Dodane e al.,
2012; Tayle , 2018).
2.2 The Need o T ea men
Wi h he inc easing numbe o OSS
sys ems o make up o he lack o sewe -
age in as uc u e in many low- and mid-
dle-income coun ies, he need o ea -
men o he esul ing FS is only g owing
(Tayle , 2018). Whe e he managemen
o FS is lacking h oughou he en i e
se ice chain, he OSS sys ems o en ill
up o a dange ous le el and he sludge is Figu e 08 Faecal sludge in an unplan ed d ying
bed (sou ce: BORDA, 2021)
J. Young
14
Figu e 09 Shi - low diag am (SFD) o Da es Salaam, 2015 (sou ce: Au ho , adap ed om Eawag/Sandec (2015))
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
15
2.3 Sani a ion Se ice Chain
The sani a ion se ice chain can be
sewe ed o non-sewe ed, and ensu es
ha people a e sepa a ed om con ac
wi h aecal ma e ial all he way om he
cap u e o end-use o euse (Blacke &
Hawkins, 2017). Di e en o ganisa ions
use sligh ly di e en s eps in he chain.
The Wo ld Bank (WB) iden i ies i e links
in he chain: use in e ace/con ain-
men , emp ying/collec ion, con eyance,
ea men , and end-use/disposal. The
Bill & Melinda Ga es Founda ion (BMGF)
“ alue” chain, which emphasises he e-
sou ce po en ial o FS, includes: cap u e,
s o age, anspo , ea men , and euse.
Tayle (2018) poin s ou ha he BMGF
chain is mo e sui able o OSS whe e he e
is gene a ion o FS, and he e o e p o-
poses: Cap u e – S o age – Remo al and
anspo – T ea men – End use/sa e dis-
posal. Fo he pu poses o his esea ch,
he s eps in he se ice chain ha a e o
ele ance a e he emp ying, anspo
and ea men (and o some deg ee e-
use), which in ol e he ac o s ha would
be in ol ed in a pa ne ship model wi h
he go e nmen . Those ac o s a e he pi
emp ie s, who ope a e bo h o mally and
in o mally, acuum uck owne s/ope a-
o s and he owne s/ope a o s o FSTPs.
Figu e 10 Sani a ion se ice chain (sou ce: Wikimedia Commons)
Figu e 11 Vacuum uck se icing a sep ic ank (sou ce: BORDA, 2021)
J. Young
22
ions, majo g oups and o he s s akehold-
e s, which e o s a e con ibu ing o he
implemen a ion o in e -go e nmen ally
ag eed de elopmen goals and commi -
men s.”
These “Mul i-S akeholde ” Pa ne -
ships (MSPs) a e conside ed by he UN
(2021) as “impo an ehicles o mobi-
lizing and sha ing knowledge, expe ise,
echnologies and inancial esou ces o
suppo he achie emen o he sus ain-
able de elopmen goals in all coun ies,
pa icula ly de eloping coun ies.”
Goal 17 o he SDGs aims o
“S eng hen he means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus-
ainable De elopmen ,”
and a ge 17.17 seeks o
“Encou age and p omo e e ec i e public,
public-p i a e and ci il socie y pa ne ships,
building on he expe ience and esou cing
s a egies o pa ne ships.”
The indica o o eaching his goal is
he “Amoun o Uni ed S a es dolla s com-
mi ed o public-p i a e and ci il socie y
pa ne ships” (UN, 2021).
Public-p i a e pa ne ships a e o icial
policy o he UN. So i hey a e measu -
ing his goal by he money being pu in o
hem, wha a e hey exac ly?
3.2 An impossible ask: De ining
Public-P i a e Pa ne ships
“... nobody seems o know p ecisely wha
hey a e, ye e e yone is alking abou
hem,” (Hodge and G e e, 2005).
De ining he e m ‘Public-P i a e Pa -
ne ship’, some imes known as P3 o sim-
In his chap e , I will discuss he a ied
de ini ions o PPPs, hei co e pu pose and
he ange o ypes used o di e en pu -
poses. I will hen ake a look a hei his o-
y and hei g owing demand, wi h a look a
he cu en a gumen s in li e a u e o and
agains hem. Finally, I will look close a
PPPs in he wa e supply and sani a ion sec-
o , hei ends and sec o al and geog aphi-
cal dis ibu ion.
3.1 An ambiguous e m. De ining
Pa ne ships
“... he e is o en li le p ecision in how ‘pa -
ne ship’ is used, and belie ha wha i e e s
o is ‘a good hing’ seems much mo e a ma e
o ai h han o science,” (We enhall, 2003).
To e ec i ely add ess he global issue ha
is clima e change, pa ne ships (despi e he
imp ecision o hei use) be ween socie ies,
businesses, go e nmen s and ins i u ions
a e essen ial. No one ac o can sol e he
p oblem alone, and he SDGs won’ be able
o be me wi hou hem, which is e lec ed
in SDG 17 “Pa ne ships o he goals” (Choi
e al., 2020; UN, 2021). Bu wha is mean by
“pa ne ships”, and wha kind will be he
mos e ec i e in his igh ?
The Ox o d English Dic iona y (2021) de-
ines pa ne ship as “a ela ionship be ween
wo people, o ganiza ions, e c.; he s a e o
ha ing his ela ionship.” While his de ini-
ion cap u es he essen ial na u e o a pa -
ne ship, ha o a ela ionship be ween pa -
ies, i limi s he numbe o ac o s o wo.
B oadening he de ini ion o pa ne ship,
he UN (2021) de ines pa ne ships o sus-
ainable de elopmen as “mul i-s akeholde
ini ia i es olun a ily unde aken by Go -
e nmen s, in e go e nmen al o ganiza-
Chap e 3: PPPs and hei ise o p ominence

B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
23
p oach, he policy app oach, he in a-
s uc u e app oach and he de elopmen
app oach. Wi hin hese s ands he di e -
en quali a i e meanings do no allow o
a logical syn hesis in o a single au ho i a-
i e and comp ehensi e meaning, he e-
o e de ini ions o PPPs should be ele-
ga ed o hei espec i e esea ch s ands
(Weihe, 2009). In o he wo ds, PPPs can’
logically ha e a single de ini ion.
Hodge & G e e (2013; 2016) ake his
beyond he di e en esea ch s ands in
he ques o meaning by poin ing ou
ha de ining PPPs has mo ed beyond jus
a way o implemen a p ojec , bu a he
as a phenomenon in i sel wi h i e le els
o meanings (Figu e 23):
1. p ojec ,
2. o ganiza ional / p ojec deli e y
o m,
3. policy / symbol o p i a e sec o
ole in economy,
4. go e nance ool o s yle, and
5. con ex and cul u e.
PPPs, hey a gue, need o be hough o
in a mo e sophis ica ed way (i.e. he so-
ply PPP, has he inhe en p oblem ound
in de ining any o e ly b oad concep , he
p oblem o pe spec i e. Depending on
whe e one s ands PPPs can look qui e di -
e en . PPPs can be made o sui almos
any con ex in which mo e han one pa y
is in ol ed (Hodge & G e e, 2009). Some
conside any pa ne ship be ween a pub-
lic and p i a e en i y as a PPP. This de i-
ni ion would include hings like adi ion-
al p ocu emen , whe e he public en i y
con ac s a p i a e en i y o design, build
o ope a e in as uc u e. O he s iew
hem mo e igo ously, as con ac ually
igh , bundled, long- e m ag eemen s o
implemen in as uc u e (Hodge e al.,
2018; Weihe, 2009).
This lack o a clea de ini ion o wha
a PPP ac ually is makes hem e en ha d-
e o e alua e, c ea ing an en i e co pus
o li e a u e on how o de ine hem in o -
de o unde s and wha i is ha is being
e alua ed (Hodge & G ee es, 2005; Weihe,
2009; Hayla & We enhall 2010).
Weihe (2009) iden i ied ou di e en
esea ch s ands in he ex an li e a u e
in which he e m PPP akes on di e en
meanings: he u ban egene a ion ap-
Figu e 23 Hodge & G e e’s i e le els o meaning (sou ce: Hodge & G e e, 2016))
J. Young
24
• (c) ecei es a bene i o pe o ming
he con ac ing au ho i y’s unc ion
o om u ilizing he public p ope y,
ei he by way o :
• (i) conside a ion o be paid by he
con ac ing au ho i y which de-
i es om a e enue und o whe e
he con ac ing au ho i y is a cen-
al go e nmen o local go e n-
men au ho i y, om he e enues
o such au ho i y;
• (ii) cha ges o ees o be collec ed by
he p i a e pa y o an agen om
use s o cus ome s; o
• (iii) a combina ion o conside -
a ion and cha ges o ees.
The Wo ld Bank (2021) de ines hem
mo e simply as:
“a long- e m con ac be ween a p i a e
pa y and a go e nmen en i y, o p o-
iding a public asse o se ice, in which
he p i a e pa y bea s signi ican isk and
managemen esponsibili y and emune -
a ion is linked o pe o mance” (Wo ld
Bank PPP Knowledge Lab, 2021).
Acco ding o he Wo ld Bank (2021),
“ he e m should always be long enough
o he p i a e pa y o ha e an incen i e
o in eg a e se ice deli e y cos s consid-
e a ions in o he design phase o he p oj-
ec .” This is o ensu e ha he ade-o s
be ween he ini ial in es men s cos and
u u e main enance and ope a ion cos s
a e op imized, wi h an emphasis on he
“whole-li e” o he p ojec . This should in
heo y maximize he e iciency o se ice
deli e y because he pa y esponsible
o deli e ing he se ice is also espon-
sible o he quali y o he in as uc u e
and has an inhe en in e es in keeping
e e y hing up and unning.
cial-ecological model), wi h di e en
meanings on mul iple le els.
Howe e , while de ini ions abound and
hei undamen al meaning is elusi e, a
e iew o he li e a u e e eals a numbe
o commonali ies in con en ional PPPs.
These include:
1. A con ac ual pa ne ship o some
leng h be ween public and p i a e
pa ne s,
2. a ce ain alloca ion o isks, and
3. a sha ing o he cos s, esou ces
and ewa ds o mu ual coope a ion
( an Ham & Koppenjan, 2001; We -
enhall, 2003; Hodge & G e e, 2007;
Weihe, 2009).
Because his hesis conce ns he Tan-
zanian con ex , he wo de ini ions o p i-
ma y in e es a e hose om he Wo ld
Bank, which is ac i ely p omo ing PPPs
in Tanzania, and he Tanzanian go e n-
men i sel . Because o icial de elopmen
assis ance (ODA) is o en used o und PPP
p ojec s (Ens, 2019; Mudde, 2017), i is
logical o use he de ini ions gi en by he
p o ide and ecipien o ha aid.
Tanzania’s Public-P i a e Pa ne ship
Ac (2015) de ines PPPs as:
“A con ac ual a angemen be ween a
con ac ing au ho i y and a p i a e pa y in
which he p i a e pa y:
• (a) unde akes o pe o m a con ac -
ing au ho i y’s unc ion on behal o
he con ac ing au ho i y o a speci-
ied pe iod;
• (b) assumes subs an ial inancial,
echnical and ope a ional isks in con-
nec ion wi h he pe o mance o he
con ac ing au ho i y’s unc ion o use
o go e nmen p ope y in acco dance
wi h ag eed ou pu speci ica ions;
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
25
a e adap ed om he Wo ld Bank’s PPP
Knowledge Lab. The Wo ld Bank as one
o he majo p oponen s o PPPs, and
hei widely ci ed P i a e Pa icipa ion in
In as uc u e Ad iso y Facili y (PPIAF)
da abase ha acks PPP p ojec s in low-
and middle-income coun ies, helps o
ensu e a leas a consis ency o analysis
o PPP ypes and sub ypes, i no o al ac-
cu acy (see chap e 4.4).
Acco ding o he Wo ld Bank’s PPP
Knowledge Lab (2021):
PPPs can be desc ibed in h ee b oad pa-
ame e s:
1. Asse ype;
2. unc ions o he p i a e pa y; and
3. how he p i a e pa y is paid.
Asse Types: Can be di ided in o con ac -
ing a p i a e en i y o build new p ojec s
(g een ield), o he ehabili a ion o al-
eady buil public in as uc u e (b own-
ield). Examples o g een ield p ojec s in-
clude new FSTPs, hospi als, o was ewa e
ea men plan s. Examples o b own ield
p ojec s include upg ading a sewe age
ne wo k, o aking o e a wa e dis ibu-
ion sys em and adding connec ions.
Func ions o he p i a e pa y: The unc-
ions o he p i a e pa y can a y g ea -
ly, depending on he sec o and cu en
needs o he go e nmen . The ypical
unc ions include:
• Design - in ol es de eloping he
p ojec om ini ial concep and
ou pu equi emen s o cons uc-
ion- eady design speci ica ions.
• Build, o Rehabili a e - when PPPs
a e used o new in as uc u e as-
se s, hey ypically equi e he p i-
a e pa y o cons uc he asse and
ins all all equipmen . Whe e PPPs
Though legally de ined, con usion e-
mains in bo h he p i a e and public sec-
o s in Tanzania (and elsewhe e) abou
wha a PPP eally is. A s udy by Bengesi
(2016) looking a he pe cep ions o PPP
p ojec s in Tanzania iden i ied his dis-
c epancy, s a ing “Some iew PPP as be-
ing applicable only when he e is p i a e
in es men , while o he s con end ha
PPP includes all o ms o in e ac ions
be ween he public sec o and p i a e
sec o ; om consul a ions o policy dia-
logues and collabo a ions o p i a e p o-
ision o asse s and se ices.” I is his
b oad, o e lapping iew o wha PPPs a e
ha con ibu es o much o he con usion
su ounding hem.
3.3 P P P y p e s a n d c l a s s i i c a i o n s
Alongside he di icul y in de ining
PPPs, schola s ha e also had a ha d ime
classi ying hem. A emp s ha e been
made o so PPP p ojec s acco ding o
he pa ne ship s uc u e and he deg ee
o in e ac ion be ween p i a e and public
en i ies; owne ship o asse s; p ojec pu -
pose; policy objec i es; and he deg ee
o ansac ion cos s (Nizko odo , 2017).
Though hese classi ica ions gi e lexibili-
y, hey can also lead o alse compa isons
and inaccu a e gene aliza ions – a unda-
men al issue wi h PPPs.
While he e a e many ypes o PPPs,
his esea ch will ocus on in as uc u e
PPPs, ha is, PPPs ha a e used o design,
build, inance, ope a e and/o main ain
he “basic physical and o ganiza ional
s uc u es” needed o make economic,
social, and go e nmen ac i i y possible
(Ox o d English Dic iona y, 2021). Due
o he ocus o his hesis on he ypes o
PPPs used in he WSS sec o in low-in-
come coun ies, he ollowing de ini ions
J. Young
26
Paymen : The e a e wo ypes o common
paymen schemes in PPPs. The i s is a
“use -pays” sys em, in which he end-us-
e pays a p i a e se ice p o ide o he
se ice, o example, a oll- oad o o
wa e p o ision. These ypes o schemes,
especially in he wa e sec o , a e o en
suppo ed by he go e nmen h ough
subsidies, ei he o ensu e enough p o i
o he p i a e pa ne , o o inc ease se -
ice p o ision in poo e a eas ha would
o he wise be igno ed due o a lack o cus-
ome s who can a o d he se ice (PPP
Knowledge Lab, 2021).
The second ype is a “go e nmen -pays”
sys em, in which he go e nmen is he
sole sou ce o income o he p i a e
se ice p o ide who mee s con ac-
ually ag eed upon s anda ds o a se -
ice ou pu . These can be in he o m o
“a ailabili y paymen s”, in which a PSP is
paid o keeping he asse a ailable and
unc ioning (e.g. a ee highway), o “ ol-
ume-based paymen s”, in which a se ice
is paid o by he amoun p oduced (e.g.
elec ici y o wa e ) (PPP Knowledge Lab,
2021).
Bo h o hese paymen s a e pe o -
mance-based o ensu e ha he PSP has
an incen i e o p o ide high-quali y se -
ice and will incu hea y e mina ion
paymen s i he p ojec is cancelled.
These con ac ypes exis on a con in-
uum o inc easing p i a e sec o pa ici-
pa ion, in which inc easing isks aken on
by he p i a e sec o should lead o g ea -
e ewa ds (Figu e 24).
in ol e exis ing asse s, he p i a e
pa y may be esponsible o eha-
bili a ing o ex ending he asse .
• Finance - when a PPP includes
building o ehabili a ing he asse ,
he p i a e pa y is ypically also e-
qui ed o inance all o pa o he
necessa y capi al expendi u e.
• Main ain - PPPs assign esponsi-
bili y o he p i a e pa y o main-
aining an in as uc u e asse o a
speci ied s anda d o e he li e o
he con ac . This is a undamen al
ea u e o PPP con ac s.
• Ope a e - he ope a ing esponsi-
bili ies o he p i a e pa y o a PPP
can a y widely, depending on he
na u e o he unde lying asse and
associa ed se ice. Fo example, he
p i a e pa y could be esponsible
o :
Ȃ Technical ope a ion o an asse ,
and p o iding a bulk se ice o
a go e nmen o - ake — o ex-
ample, a bulk wa e ea men
plan
Ȃ Technical ope a ion o an asse ,
and p o iding se ices di ec ly
o use s — o example, a PPP o
a wa e dis ibu ion sys em
Ȃ P o iding suppo se ices, wi h
he go e nmen agency emain-
ing esponsible o deli e ing
he public se ice o use s —
o example, a PPP o a school
building ha includes jani o i-
al se ice (PPP Knowledge Lab,
2021).
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
27
The e a e a wide a ay o con ac ual a angemen s ha can be mixed and ma ched
acco ding o need (BOT, BTO, DBO,DBOM, DBOFM, e c.), he e o e he ollowing able
men ions he mos ele an ypes o he WSS sec o (Table 02).
Pa ne ship
Type P i a e Sec o Du ies Con ac leng h Owne ship o asse
Responsibili y
Finance
Design/Build
Main ain/Ope a e
Typical
p o i /paymen
mechanism o
ope a o
Se ice
Ag eemen
Pe o m emp ying &
anspo o FS 0-2 yea s Public
Public
Public
Public
Fee om use o
con ac ing au ho i y
Managemen
Con ac
Supplies managemen
se ices o he u ili y in
e u n o a ee
2-5 yea s Public
Public
Public
P i a e
Fixed ee + bonus usually
co e s manage 's sala ies
and ela ed expenses
Design Build Design & build FSTP 0-5 yea s Public
Public
Public
Public
Fee om con ac ing
au ho i y
Ope a ion and
Main enance
Ag eemen s /
A e mage
Ope a e and Main ain
FSTP 5-15 yea s Public
Public
Public
P i a e
Fee x olume o wa e
sold/ ea ed
Ope a ional
Concession
Runs he business,
inances in es men
10-15 yea s (and
longe ) Public
Public
Public
P i a e
Re enue om use s
minus concession ee
DBFMO and
a ian s
Designs, builds, inances,
main ains and/o
ope a es asse o he
pe iod o he con ac
15-30 yea s (and
longe )
Public (o p i a e
ans e ed o public a
end o con ac )
P i a e
P i a e
P i a e
A ailabili y and
olume ic paymen om
ei he Con ac ing
Au ho i y o end use s
BOT
Builds, ope a es and
ans e s asse back o he
go e nmen a he end o
he con ac
15-30 yea s (and
longe )
Public (o p i a e
ans e ed o public a
end o con ac )
P i a e
P i a e
P i a e
A ailabili y and
olume ic paymen om
ei he Con ac ing
Au ho i y o end use s
BOO Builds, ope a es and owns
he asse in pe pe ui y 15-30 yea s P i a e
P i a e
P i a e
P i a e
A ailabili y and
olume ic paymen om
ei he Con ac ing
Au ho i y o end use s
P i a isa ion Full du ies o unning he
business unlimi ed P i a e
P i a e
P i a e
P i a e
A ailabili y and
olume ic paymen om
ei he Con ac ing
Au ho i y o end use s
Non-PPP PPP Full
p i a isa ion
Figu e 24 Con inuum o p i a e sec o in ol emen and isk (adap ed om Wo ld Bank, 2021)
Table 02 Common con ac ual a angemen s in he WSS sec o (adap ed om GTZ, 2010)
-

J. Young
28
and subsequen c ash o he wo ld’s i-
nancial ma ke s in 2007/8 in a ou o
o he o ms o public adminis a ion (PA)
such as New Public Go e nance (NPG)
and Neo-Webe ian S a e (NWS). These
heo ies o go e nance pu an inc eased
impo ance on he ole o egula , ans-
pa en go e nmen and bu eauc a ic due
p ocesses ha ypically eschew he no-
ion ha p i a isa ion is a cu e-all.
Howe e , many o he ideologies ha
we e inhe en o NPM, such as low-cos ,
e iciency and speed, ha e emained em-
bedded in he o icial policy o banks and
go e nmen s (D echsle , 2005; Fly bje g
2005). While he e icacy o NPM has been
soundly challenged, i s ideology, namely
ea ing he go e nmen like a business,
is s ill ali e and well in he con en ion-
al PPP concep . So how did PPPs ise o
p ominence, su i e mul iple global i-
nancial c ises and make hei way in o
o icial UN policy?
3.5 PPPs, a b ie his o y
Though oday’s PPPs a e a mode n
capi alis phenomenon, pa ne ships
be ween he p i a e sec o and go e n-
men s ha e been in use o cen u ies in
coun ies a ound he wo ld (KS e al.,
2016). Fo ms o PPPs we e implemen ed
in Egyp , F ance, he Uni ed S a es and
elsewhe e o build ail oads, highways,
po s and elec ic g ids (Klein, 2015). The
in ol emen o he p i a e sec o in pub-
lic wo ks can e en be aced back o Ro-
man oll oads, ba hs and ma ke s (Fo e
e al., 2010; KS e al., 2016).
Howe e , he mode n ebi h o PPPs
i s began in he 1970s as a c i ique o
go e nmen ine iciency and he pe -
cei ed poo pe o mance o s a e-owned
Now ha we’ e aken a look a he
b ead h and a ie y o PPPs, le ’s ake a
s ep back and look a he heo e ical con-
ex o PPPs in socie y om a public ad-
minis a ion (PA) pe spec i e.
3.4 PPPs in he Public Adminis a-
ion (PA) con ex
Public-P i a e Pa ne ships ha e had
a ema kable ise in popula i y o e he
las se e al decades. This ise has la gely
coincided wi h, and could e en be con-
side ed a undamen al aspec o , he shi
o go e nmen s and in e na ional inanc-
ing ins i u ions (IFIs) owa d he neo-lib-
e al heo y o New Public Managemen
(NPM) (Rakić & Rađeno ić, 2011). NPM is
cha ac e ised by he ans e o business
managemen and ma ke p inciples om
he p i a e in o he public sec o , anging
om pa ial o ull p i a isa ion o public
se ices (D echsle , 2005). NPM unc ions
unde he assump ion ha all human
beha iou is mo i a ed by sel -in e es
and in pa icula , p o i maximiza ion
(D echsle , 2005; Robe s, 2010).
NPM g ew ou o he same hinking
ha was ou lined in he Washing on Con-
sensus, a e m coined by economis John
Williamson in 1989, ha was a se o p e-
sc ip i e iews abou e ec i e de elop-
men s a egies associa ed wi h he Wash-
ing on-based ins i u ions: he IMF, he
Wo ld Bank, and he US T easu y (Se a
& S igli z, 2008). The main ocus o he
consensus was ha p i a isa ion, ma ke
libe aliza ion and mac oeconomic s abil-
i y, in sho “ he ma ke ” can sol e mos ,
i no all, economic p oblems on i s own
(Se a & S igli z, 2008).
NPM and neolibe alism in gene al has
been widely dispu ed since he mid-2000s
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
29
e m ha claims all o i s ad an ages and
none o i s condemna ions (We enhall,
2003; Klein, 2015).
This “success s o y” hen began o gain
s eam no only in de eloped economies,
bu in he de eloping wo ld as well. In
2015, in pa allel wi h he UN SDGs, he
Addis Ababa Ac ion Agenda (AAAA) o
he Thi d In e na ional Con e ence on Fi-
nancing o De elopmen was launched.
This agenda p omo ed blended inance
(a mix o public and p i a e inancing)
and “p o ides a new global amewo k
o inancing sus ainable de elopmen by
aligning all inancing lows and policies
wi h economic, social and en i onmen al
p io i ies” (UN DESA, 2015).
This agenda, and SDG 17.17, solidi ied
PPPs as o icial UN policy. Thei p omise
o “build capaci y o en e in o public-p i-
a e pa ne ships, including wi h ega d
o planning, con ac nego ia ion, man-
agemen , accoun ing and budge ing o
con ingen liabili ies,” has had a di ec
impac on he numbe o new PPP laws
in de eloping coun ies a ound he wo ld
(Uni ed Na ions, 2015b). Th ough his i-
nancing scheme, he UN hopes o b idge
he massi e unding gaps necessa y o
supply he in as uc u e needed in de-
eloping coun ies.
en e p ises (SOEs), and we e seen as a
means o downsize he ole o he go -
e nmen (KS e al., 2016). In he 1980s he
Ne he lands began o implemen a sla e
o PPP p ojec s (Van Ham & Koppenjan,
2014), and by he 1990s mode n PPPs ha
elied hea ily on p i a e inance came o
ui ion in he Uni ed Kingdom.
In 1992, he conse a i e go e nmen
in he UK led by P ime Minis e John
Majo launched he P i a e Finance Ini-
ia i e (PFI), which aimed o educe he
budge de ici by p omo ing PPPs (We -
enhall, 2003). In his way, up on in es -
men s in in as uc u e we e inanced by
he p i a e a he han he public sec o ,
wi h o he u u e cos s (such as ans e
o asse s o main enance) no pu on he
books (Hall, 2015).
This ype o c ea i e accoun ing has la -
e been condemned and e en banned in
some coun ies (Boa dman e al., 2016).
In 1997, P ime Minis e Tony Blai and
he New Labou Pa y con inued he ex-
pansion o he PFI by c ea ing a dedica ed
semi-independen PPP uni , Pa ne ships
UK, which was ins umen al in making
PPPs bo h he p e e ed e minology and
ool o choice in in as uc u e p ojec s
in he UK (We enhall, 2003), accoun ing
o a ound 12% o o al capi al expendi-
u e h oughou Blai ’s enu e (Bu ge &
Hawkeswo h, 2011).
Once he appa en ly success ul PFI
ook o , o he coun ies a ound he wo ld
ollowed sui , no ably in Aus alia, Sou h
Ko ea, F ance and Ge many (Bu ge &
Hawkeswo h, 2011). The simplici y o he
name, e oking ci il du y and he gene al-
ly posi i e ole o pa ne ships, was a PR
success s o y, a oiding he conno a ion o
cynical sel -in e es and p o i ee ing in-
he en in ‘P i a iza ion’ and shi ing i o a
J. Y o u n g
3 0
o b usi n ess s al es ( R e n s c hl e e al., 2 0 1 9).
F u h e m o e, e q u e n u b a n l o o di n g
c a us e d b y a l a c k o e e c i e d ai n a g e s ys-
e ms d es o ys b o h p u bli c a n d p i a e as-
s e s a n d b i n gs li e o a s a n ds ill, i n c e as-
i n g h e is k o w a e - b o n e dis e as es o m
i n a d e q u a e s a ni a i o n s ys e ms a n d o c-
i n g i ms o i n es i n e x p e nsi e c o pi n g
m e as u es li k e w a e a n ks a n d di es el g e n-
e a o s ( R e n s c hl e e al., 2 0 1 9). A c c o d-
i n g o R e n s c hl e e al. ( 2 0 1 9), “ O e all,
h e l a c k o e e c i e d ai n a g e s ys e ms a n d
eli a bl e a ns p o a n d el e c i ci y s ys e ms
is a d e i ni n g a c o o h e u b a n e c o n o m y,
i n l u e n ci n g h e i n es m e n a n d is k- a k-
i n g b e h a i o s o all”.
I n as u c u e d e el o p m e n h as l o n g
b e e n s e e n as h e m e a ns o a d d essi n g
h es e c h all e n g es a n d a c hi e i n g e c o n o mi c
g o w h ( K o d o n g o & Oj a h, 2 0 1 6). H o w e -
T h e l a c k o n e w a n d eli a bl e i n a-
s u c u e ass e s a n d s e i c es c a n h a m p e
g o w h, es p e ci all y i n d e el o pi n g e gi o ns
i n A i c a ( M o u g u es & Ki n g o m b e, 2 0 1 7).
A c c o di n g o h e W o l d B a n k ( 2 0 1 8 a),
p o o p e o m a n c e o i n as u c u e is
o e n h e es ul o i ns u i ci e n s p e n di n g;
p o o pl a n ni n g, i ns u i ci e n i n e - mi nis e-
i al p oli c y c o o di n a i o n a n d w e a k a n al y-
sis; c o u p i o n a n d h e p u s ui o p oli i c al
g ai n; a n d p o o m ai n e n a n c e – all o w hi c h
c a n b e o bs e e d i n T a n z a ni a.
D u i n g m y es e a c h i n D a es S al a a m,
I e x p e i e n c e d a n a e a g e o 4 p o w e o u -
a g es a w e e k, a n gi n g o m 3 0 mi n u es o
5 h o u s. G e i n g w o k d o n e, es p e ci all y
w h e n s o m u c h o i h as m o e d o nli n e, w as
a c h all e n g e. T a nz a ni a e x p e i e n c es cl os e
o 6 0 h o u s o p o w e o u a g es p e m o n h
w hi c h es ul i n a l oss o a o u n d 1 2 p e c e n
* T h e Gl o b al I n as u c u e H u b is a G 2 0 I ni i a i e h a es i m a es h e n e e d o u n di n g i n 5 6 c o u n i es
a o u n d h e w o l d. I is a n es i m a e o h e g a p i n cl u di n g all h e y e a s o m n o w ( 2 0 2 1) u n il 2 0 4 0.
C h a p e 4: T h e S u p pl y a n d D e m a n d o P P Ps a n d I n as uc u e
T h e d e m a n d o i n as u c u e is e n o m o us, es p e ci all y i n A i c a. T h e c u e n i n a-
s u c u e i n es m e n g a p i n A i c a is $ 3. 3 illi o n U S D, $ 2 5 1 billi o n o w hi c h is h e g a p i n
w a e i n as u c u e ( Gl o b al I n as u c u e H u b, 2 0 2 1)*. T h e u n di n g g a p is e e n l a g e
w h e n a c c o u n i n g o h e c os s ass o ci a e d wi h m e e i n g h e S D Gs ( Fi g u e 2 5).
2007 2012 2017 2022 2027 2032 2037
$ 0
$50 bn
$100 bn
$150 bn
$200 bn
$250 bn
$300 bn
$350 bn
$400 bn
$450 bn
I n a s u c u e i n e s m e n a c u e n e n d s a n d n e e d
�C u e n e n d s
�In es men need
�I n e s m e n n e e d i n c. S D G s
Fi g u e 2 5 I n as u c u e i n es m e n g a p i n A i c a (s o u c e: GI H u b, 2 0 2 1)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
31
ec s on socie y. Howe e , i is c ucial ha
p ojec s a e a ge ed and necessa y, wi h
ealis ic cos /bene i assessmen s ha a e
ee om manipula ion (Fly bje g, 2005;
We enhall, 2003).
4.1 The di e ence be ween PPPs
and adi ional p ocu emen
By now, one may wonde how PPPs a e
any di e en om adi ional p ocu e-
men (TP). A e all, go e nmen s ha e
been wo king wi h he p i a e sec o o
cen u ies o build la ge in as uc u e
p ojec s o en h ough con ac ing ou o
cons uc ion and/o se ices. The e a e
key di e ences, howe e .
PPPs a e usually ocused on ou pu s
a he han inpu s, which a e o en pe -
o mance-based (amoun o FS ea ed
o wa e deli e ed a he han ea men
capaci y o leng h o pipe laid) (Sulse ,
2018). They a e also supposed o ac o
in he whole li e o he p ojec because o
he leng hy na u e o he con ac s. I a
i m in cha ge o designing and building
a FSTP also has o main ain i , hey ha e
mo e incen i e o build wi h be e quali-
y o educe main enance cos s down he
oad. The ac ha he p i a e pa y is
supposed o ake on subs an ial inancial
isk, also gi es an incen i e o educe cos
o e uns and ‘app aisal op imism’ – ha
is, unde es ima ed cos s and ime ame
and o e es ima ed bene i s – which a e a
common p oblem in TP (T ebilcock & Ro-
sens ock, 2015).
The e also exis s a undamen al di e -
ence in he ela ionship s uc u e be ween
he public (p inciple) and p i a e (agen )
pa ies in PPPs and TP. In adi ional p o-
cu emen , a e ical ela ionship akes
place (Figu e 26), in which he p inciple
e , he e ha e been c i ical challenges o
his “my h”, and e idence is mixed i high
le els o in es men in in as uc u e au-
oma ically lead o sus ained economic
g ow h (Ansa e al., 2016). Ansa e al.
(2016) ound ha la ge-scale in as uc-
u e p ojec s ypically don’ b ing a posi-
i e isk-adjus ed e u n and “o e in es -
ing in unp oduc i e p ojec s esul s in he
build-up o deb , mone a y expansion,
ins abili y in inancial ma ke s, and eco-
nomic agili y.”
Using e idence om se e al hund ed
p ojec s in 20 coun ies, Fly bje g (2005)
p oposed ha “in o de o ge an in a-
s uc u e p ojec buil a ‘Machia ellian’
o mula is ollowed:
(unde -es ima e cos s)
+ (o e -es ima e e enues)
+ (unde - alue en i onmen al and so-
cial impac s)
+ (o e - alue wide economic de elop-
men e ec s, o spillo e e ec s)
= (win p ojec app o al).”
Wi h hese s a egies esul ing in a ‘su -
i al o he un i es ’ by which he ‘wo s
in as uc u e ge s buil ’ (Ansa e al.,
2016; Fly bje g, 2005).
The same pi alls ha occu in in a-
s uc u e p ojec s in gene al a e he same
p oblems ha can plague PPPs, which
can go w ong in a numbe o di e en
ways when hey a en’ p ope ly p epa ed
(Boa dman e al., 2016; Rome o, 2018).
These usually occu as a esul o in es o s
‘miscalcula ions’, decep i e echniques o
assessing V M and manipula ions o isk
ans e s (KS e al., 2016; Mou gues & Kin-
gombe, 2017).
The need o in as uc u e is eal, and
in es men in i can ha e e y posi i e e -
J. Young
38
ec s a 36 pe cen , di es i u es a 3.7 pe -
cen and he emaining 3.3 pe cen a e
managemen and lease con ac s (Figu e
33)(PPI Da abase, 2021). Almos a qua -
e (23.3%) o WSS PPPs a e cancelled
o dis essed, he highes o any sec o
(Figu e 34). While b own ield p ojec s
a e he mos common, hey a e also he
mos cancelled and dis essed, wi h o e
a hi d (36.5 pe cen ) no eaching com-
ple ion. This could be due o he di icul-
4.6.2 Dis ibu ion by income g oup
When looking a he u ilisa ion o PPPs
by income le el, i is e iden ha hey
emain a mos ly uppe -middle income
(UMIC) phenomenon, wi h only 2.5 pe -
cen o PPPs coming om low-income
(LIC) coun ies (Figu e 31). Fu he mo e,
only 5 pe cen o PPPs come om he SSA
egion, and 22 pe cen o hose a e om
Sou h A ica, an uppe middle-income
coun y (PPI Da abase, 2021). When look-
ing a he numbe o WSS PPPs in low-in-
come coun ies he numbe is e en small-
e , a less han 1 pe cen .
F om his da a we can see clea ly ha
PPPs a e e y a e in LICs, especially in
SSA, and a as majo i y o PPPs in he
WSS sec o (99%) a e u ilised in middle-
o uppe -income coun ies.
4.6.3 Dis ibu ion o ypes o PPPs
in WSS
Only 33 p ojec s ou o he 1117 PPPs
(3%) in he WSS sec o we e implemen ed
in SSA (Figu e 32) (PPI Da abase, 2021).
These can be u he b oken down by
ype. A majo i y o PPPs a e b own ield
(exis ing asse s) a a ound 57 pe cen ,
ollowed by g een ield (new asse s) p oj-
Figu e 31 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s by income
le el (sou ce:Au ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase,
2021)
Figu e 32 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s in he WSS
sec o in SSA s. he es o he wo ld (sou ce:Au-
ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase, 2021)
Figu e 33 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s in he WSS
sec o by ype (sou ce:Au ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da-
abase, 2021)
Figu e 34 Dis ibu ion o PPP p ojec s in he WSS
sec o in SSA s. he es o he wo ld (sou ce:Au-
ho , 2021; Da a: PPI Da abase, 2021)

B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
39
4.7 PPPs in de eloping coun ies
PPPs ha e played a a smalle ole
han o iginally expec ed by he Wo ld
Bank and o he lending ins i u ions in
deli e ing in as uc u e o low-income
coun ies, amoun ing o somewhe e in
he ange o 15 o 20 pe cen o o al in-
as uc u e (Leigland, 2018). In he coun-
ies whe e he need o in as uc u e is
g ea es , p i a e in ol emen is lowes .
Why is his?
The e a e a numbe o key obs acles
o PPP p omulga ion, especially in A i-
ca, whe e a g owing amoun o e idence
poin s o he impo ance o a a ou able
egula o y en i onmen and a obus
legal amewo k o ensu e sus ainable
and e icien PPPs (The Economis In-
elligence Uni [EIU], 2015). Gi en hei
complex na u e, high cos s and sizeable
isks, a numbe o c i e ia need o be me
be o e enough in es o s, i ms, IFIs and
go e nmen s eel com o able enough
o launch PPPs in de eloping coun ies
whe e he legal and poli ical en i onmen
is o en qui e enuous (Mou gues & Kin-
gombe, 2017).
Acco ding o Kociemska (2019), Lei-
gland (2018), Mou gues & Kingombe
(2017) and o he s, obs acles o PPP imple-
men a ion in de eloping egions include:
• Lack o enabling en i onmen
• Lack o capaci y in cen al and local
go e nmen and public adminis a-
ions
• False pe cep ion o he po en ial o
PPPs and how hey can be used
• Ideological esis ance o p i a isa-
ion
• Lack o commi men by go e n-
men s
y in assessing exis ing WSS ne wo ks, as
p e iously men ioned. Only 10 pe cen
o g een ield p ojec s, on he o he hand,
a e cancelled o dis essed. Managemen
and Lease con ac s seem o be he mos
s able, wi h less han 1 pe cen cancelled
o dis essed. Impo an o no e, howe -
e , is ha less han 5 pe cen (4.92%) ha e
eached comple ion. This can easily be
a ibu ed o he long- e m na u e o WSS
PPP con ac s, usually 20-30 yea s, how-
e e his lea es plen y o ime o eme g-
ing issues such as clima e change, poli -
ical ins abili y, changing demog aphics
o a combina ion o all o hem o u he
inc ease he sha e o cancelled o dis-
essed p ojec s.
PPPs in LICs a e a e. WSS PPPs in
Sub-Saha an A ica a e e en a e . Con-
clusions ha can be easonably d awn
om his a e ha :
1. The WSS sec o in LICs a e less p o -
i able and mo e isky, and a e he e-
o e less a ac i e han o he sec-
o s, such as hose in he Elec ici y,
Po s o ICT sec o ha make up he
bulk o PPPs in LICs.
2. PPPs a e seen as a mo e iable op ion
in middle- and high-income econo-
mies wi h mo e obus enabling en-
i onmen s and legal amewo ks.
3. SSA in pa icula is pe cei ed by
he p i a e sec o as a isky and un-
a ac i e en i onmen o in es -
men , a ac ing less han 5 pe cen
o o al in es men in PPPs, wi h
only he Middle Eas and No h A -
ica (MENA) egion a ac ing less
(3.24 pe cen ). Fu he mo e, a qua -
e o he in es men comes om
mul i-la e al de elopmen banks
(MDBs) a he han he p i a e sec-
o .
J. Young
40
as uc u e p ojec s o be comple ed by
2025 is wo h $2.5 illion, and includes
bo h g een ield and b own ield p ojec s –
a numbe o which will almos ce ainly
be s uc u ed as PPPs (Lakmeeha an e
al., 2020).
This appe i e is especially ue o he
People’s Republic o China (PRC), which
is in es ing hea ily in he in as uc u e
o A ica, o en wi h a ewe condi ions
on policy e o m o good go e nance
han hose imposed by mul ila e al ins i-
u ions like he Wo ld Bank (Head, 2008).
How hese condi ion-less loans will a ec
he u u e o A ica a e ou side he scope
o his hesis, bu i is clea ha no hing
occu s in a acuum and a b oad ange o
geopoli ical o ces a e a play he e.
In i s 2015 In ascope Repo , he Econ-
omis In elligence Uni (EIU) a ed he
PPP enabling en i onmen s o 15 A i-
can coun ies and only one, Sou h A ica,
was a ed as “de eloped” wi h a sco e o
70.7 ou o a 100. The emaining 14 coun-
ies anged om 51.8 (Mo occo) o 20.6
(Democ a ic Republic o he Congo), wi h
common challenges including: a need o
ha monisa ion wi hin he go e nmen s;
dependence on o eign inancing; lack o
s akeholde engagemen ; and slow PPP
p ocesses ha de e in es o s and go -
e nmen o icials alike (EIU, 2015).
I is no wonde hen ha SSA expe i-
ences some o he lowes amoun o PPP
in es men in he wo ld.
• Weak o non-exis en legal ame-
wo ks
• Lack o a ac i eness in he inan-
cial and economic en i onmen
• Co up ion and lack o anspa en-
cy in ende s and p ocu emen
These obs acles can be o e come only
when a p ope enabling en i onmen
is in place, one ha is capable o mee -
ing he basic needs o i s ci izens and is
commi ed o imp o ing hei li es. An
enabling en i onmen ha is conduci e
o p ope FSM is one ha is also condu-
ci e o s a ing a business en u e, as e -
e y hing is in e ela ed and dependen
on ac o s like peace and s abili y, ule o
law, good go e nance wi h accoun abili-
y, anspa ency and clea igh s. A s udy
by Mou gues & Kingombe (2017) ound
ha dec easing co up ion by 10 poin s
can inc ease p i a e pa icipa ion in in-
as uc u e (PPI) by 15% and ha ing one
mo e p ojec going o cou can dec ease
in es men by 4%. Measu able e ec s in-
luenced by he s abili y o poli ical and
economic condi ions.
The global inancial c ises o he las
wo decades ha e also le hei ma k on
he economies o SSA, wi h hei sha e o
global ade alling om 4% in 1970 o 2%
in 2007, wi h only a sligh imp o emen
o 3% since (Kociemska, 2019). Howe e ,
A ica’s abundance o na u al esou ces
and apidly g owing popula ions make
i an a ac i e in es men oppo uni y
none heless. Acco ding o he global con-
sul ing i m Mckinsey, he appe i e o
in es men in A ica’s in as uc u e is
conside able, es ima ing as much as $550
billion in asse s om go e nmen agen-
cies, p i a e-sec o pension unds and
in es men companies (Lakmeeha an
e al., 2021). The cu en pipeline o in-
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
41
Summing up he a gumen s o and agains PPPs
Ad an ages o PPPs
Value o Money By u ilizing p i a e sec o skills and echnology o deli e p ojec s in a mo e e icien manne ,
esul ing in ei he lowe cos s o a supe io p oduc o he same in es men .
Op imiza ion o
design/ope a ion
Using ou pu s based speci ica ion allows oom o and p omo es inno a i e solu ions om he
p i a e sec o on he design, ope a ion and main enance aspec s o he p ojec , wi h he in en ion o
imp o ing e ec i eness whils educing cos s o e he whole li e cycle.
Quicke deli e y o
p ojec
P i a e sec o capaci y and lexibili y a e seen o be supe io o he public sec o , and PPPs he e o e
allow p ojec s o be inished mo e quickly and on schedule han hose a ibu ed o public sec o
p o ision.
Risk ans e
P ojec isks (e.g., inance, ime ame, planning pe mi s, communi y consul a ions) a e ans e ed
o he pa y bes equipped o deal wi h i , bo h in e ms o expe ise and cos s, o he s abili y and
bene i o he p ojec .
Inc eased in es men
in public
in as uc u e
Go e nmen s a e able o implemen p ojec s mo e equen ly and on a la ge scale because he
p i a e sec o inance elemen educes i s need o aise o budge addi ional unds, as is he case in
s anda d p ocu emen .
Inc eased
budge / inancing
ce ain y
The ans e o esponsibili y (and isk) o he p i a e sec o o some o he p ojec elemen s shields
go e nmen s om un o eseen inancial liabili ies ollowing cos o e uns, delays, o ope a ional
di icul ies ha would o he wise impac he budge 's bo om line.
Imp o ed se ice
deli e y
- Allows bo h sec o s o ope a e wi hin hei sphe e o expe ise, he go e nmen in policy and
go e nance, he p i a e sec o in he echnical aspec s o design, cons uc ion, ope a ion, and
managemen .
- Paymen s ha a e linked o pe o mance a ge s o equi emen s p o ide an incen i e o pe o m
ha is oo o en absen in public p o ision o
se ices.
Whole o li e cycle
app oach
- Because he design, cons uc ion and ope a ion a e o en unde aken by one conso ium he e is a
g ea e in eg a ion o he
di e en elemen s and mo e cohe ence o he inal p oduc , unlike s anda d p ocu emen op ions
which may see se e al di e en subcon ac o s ope a ing in
loose coope a ion.
- Mo i a ed by he desi e o p ese e long- e m alue o asse s and o minimize cos s, whole o li e
cycle esponsibili ies encou age he p i a e sec o o choose he mos app op ia e echnology o he
long e m and adequa ely main ain i . This may be in con as o decisions by go e nmen s ha a e
o en guided mo e by sho - e m inancial p essu es and hink in much sho e cycles acco ding o
poli ical e ms and budge cons ain s
Access o addi ional
capi al/o -balance
shee inancing
Because a la ge pe cen age o inance in PPP is p o ided by he p i a e sec o , he go e nmen is no
esponsible o aising unds om wi hin i s own co e s o adjus ing budge s o allow o la ge
in as uc u e spending. This is pa icula ly ad an ageous du ing imes o iscal c isis whe e he
go e nmen is al eady sho o unds o whe e he go e nmen may ha e a poo c edi a ing and is
no able o aise he necessa y inance. In e na ional and na ional accoun ing s anda ds do p o ide
some guidance as o wha and how PPPs a e eco ded on balance shee s, bu he issue is a om
secu e.
P i a e sec o g ow h
and s abili y
PPPs p o ide he p i a e sec o wi h access o educed isk, secu e, long- e m in es men
oppo uni ies ha a e unde w i en by go e nmen con ac s. Such ag eemen s ensu e p i a e
capi al lows, p o ide in es men oppo uni ies, and s imula e local indus y and job ma ke s.
Adapa ed om Col e son & Pe e a (2012)
4.8 Summing up he a gumen s o and agains PPPs
I is clea ha whe he PPPs wo k is highly dependen on hei con ex and enabling
en i onmen . When con on ed wi h he choice o using PPPs o TP, i is hen help ul o
add ess he associa ed ad an ages and disad an ages o de e mine i he ewa ds ou -
weigh he isks. The ollowing ables lis he main ad an ages and disad an ages o PPPs
(Table 03 and Table 04).
Table 03 Ad an ages o PPP o e TP (adap ed om Col e son & Pe e a, 2012)
J. Young
42
Disad an ages o PPPs
Highe cos
- The bo owing a es gi en o he p i a e sec o a e usually highe han hose ypically a ailable o
go e nmen s.
- An expensi e ende and nego ia ion p ocess, including highe con ac ansac ion cos s paid o
legal and accoun ing i ms, can neu alize any sa ings made in design and cons uc ion phases.
- T ans e ing isk om one pa y o ano he has i s p ice, and he p i a e sec o will expec
gua an ees o income p opo iona e o i s isk bu den
Reduced
compe i i eness
- High ende and ansac ion cos s, along wi h complica ed and long- e m con ac s educe he pool
o p i a e sec o companies wi h he capaci y o apply o ce ain p ojec s, educing he go e nmen ʼs
choice and compe i i e ende p ocesses.
- Exclusi i y ag eemen s awa ded o winning companies lock hem in o gua an eed p o i s and, in
eali y, c ea es monopoly ma ke s, educing compe i i e p essu e o educe cos s and enhance
se ices.
Complica ed and
leng hy ende
p ocess
PPP con ac and nego ia ion pe iods a e o en mo e complex and p o ac ed due o he na u e o he
mul i-pa y, inancially in ica e, and long ag eemen e ms inhe en in he ela ionship.
Lack o capaci y
- I is necessa y o bo h he public and p i a e sec o s o possess PPP-speci ic capaci y o an
ag eemen o be signed and adminis e ed success ully. Such capaci y is absen
om many ju isdic ions, bo h a a na ional and egional le el, and i akes bo h ime and expe ience
o es ablish i .
- An o e - eliance on ex e nal consul an s also leads o an expe ise ligh , whe e any knowledge
ga he ed h oughou p ojec s is no e ained by public bodies o p i a e companies, bu a he los o
ex e nal sou ces, making i di icul o build knowledge and lessons o he u u e.
Rigid and in lexible,
long con ac s
- In o de o p o ide s abili y and secu i y o e ime, long con ac s can become igid and in lexible,
e lec ing poin -in- ime ci cums ances and hen locking hem in o e he con ac pe iod.
- I emains di icul o go e nmen s o adequa ely s uc u e con ac s ha ake in o accoun u u e
un o eseen e en s o ci cums ances, and i is o en di icul o adap and change con ac ual
esponsibili ies as he con ex changes.
- Fu u e gene a ions canno espond o hei indi idual ci cums ances bu mus adhe e o ou da ed
ope a ions om p e ious decades.
- Building lexibili y in o con ac s is an expensi e p oposi ion because as he in es men become less
secu e i may become necessa y o u he incen i ize he p i a e sec o .
Delays and holdups
-The p i a e sec o is no impe ious o p ojec s oppages, and he complica ed na u e o he
ag eemen s be ween PPP pa ne s can inc ease delays, as dispu es ake longe o be se led and any
un o eseen e en uali ies ha akes place in u u e yea s in ol e a leng hy enego ia ion o he
con ac .
- The s a o p ojec s is also delayed by complex pa ne nego ia ions, some imes u he
exace ba ed by he poli ical deba e and public opposi ion ha can su ound PPP p ojec s.
Highe consume
p ices
- D i en by a need o co e high le els o cos plus make a e u n on in es men , ma ke -d i en
p icing can see se ices cos he consume mo e han i deli e ed by he public sec o .
- The issues o compe i i eness and monopolies also mean he e is po en ial o abuse in ega ds o
use ees.
"Double axa ion"
- The gene al public may pe cei e use ees as a o m o “double axa ion” whe eby hey a e paying
o se ices hey eel hei axes should be p o iding o al eady ha e paid o . This will be no iceable
in he case o oll ways, o example, whe e olls ha e no exis ed unde p e ious public sec o
p o ision and whe e he e was no angible cos o he use .
Less
accoun abili y/ ansp
a ency
- P ojec anspa ency is weakened unde he PPP model because o he di icul y in accessing p i a e
sec o in o ma ion, now conside ed o comme cial alue o comme cial-in-con idence by he
conso ium.
- Whole o p ojec e alua ion becomes p oblema ic o simila easons, as da a is sp ead o e
nume ous sou ces, compiled di e en ly, and no always a ailable o public sc u iny
Lack o Communi y
In ol emen
Because con ac s a e nego ia ed be ween he public and p i a e pa ne s behind closed doo s, he
communi y is o en le ou o he p ocess comple ely, o only pa ly consul ed in communi y
mee ings. Li le o no decision making powe is in hei hands.
Go e nmen is always
he esidual isk
holde
The e is always he isk ha he i ms in ol ed in he conso ium go bank up , o ha he p ojec
ails. In his case, i is he go e nmen ha is s ill esponsible o se ice p o ision, and hey will ha e
o use he esou ces o do so.
Adapa ed om Col e son & Pe e a (2012), Boa dman e al. (2016)
Table 04 Disad an ages o PPPs o e TP (adap ed om Boa dman e al., 2016; Col e son & Pe e a, 2012)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
43
Mo al haza ds esul om in o ma ion
asymme y and di e ing objec i es. Ex-
amples o mo al haza ds o en a ise in he
case o insu ance, whe e knowing one is
insu ed may lead o aking mo e isks (e.g.
aking a en ed ca o a joy ide). In he
p e iously men ioned example in Tanza-
nia o he G a Tain s Powe Pu chasing
Ag eemen , mo al haza d was p esen in
he o e o ecas ing o demand ha wasn’
me , and didn’ need o be me , because o
he gua an eed capaci y paymen s om
he go e nmen (Fa lam, 2005).
This ype o mo al haza d is known
as he p incipal-agen p oblem (agen-
cy p oblem). Because he agen (p i a e
pa ne ) has mo e in o ma ion (asym-
me ical in o ma ion), he p incipal (go -
e nmen ) canno ensu e ha he agen is
ac ing in hei bes in e es . In ac , he
in e es s a e undamen ally di e en in
PPPs, because he p i a e sec o wan s
o maximise hei p o i , while he public
sec o wan s o p o ide a se ice (o u -
he hei poli ical agenda).
The only majo in e es ha is aligned
is he success ul implemen a ion o he
p ojec i sel , howe e , how his in e es
is ealised can a y g ea ly a di e en
cos s o he communi y. When he p i a e
pa ne ails o make a p o i , leng hy
and cos ly enego ia ions ypically ol-
low (Fa lam, 2005; Loxley, 2013; Ma in,
2009). I he p ojec is success ul and he
p i a e pa ne ge s p o i s, he e is li le
o ensu e ha he p o i s a e ein es ed
o p o ide be e se ice, and ins ead,
PPPs could encou age en -seeking be-
ha iou , ac ing as “ex ac i e” inancial
ins umen s ha unnel money in o he
SPV and ou o he coun y in which hey
ope a e (Hildya d, 2014).
4.9 Conclusion
The e is li le ques ion ha PPPs can,
and some imes do, pe o m be e han
TP. A common e ain when combing
h ough he li e a u e, especially ha o
he Wo ld Bank, UNECE, OECD and o h-
e IFIs, is his: “When designed well and
implemen ed in a balanced egula o y
en i onmen , PPPs can b ing g ea e
e iciency and sus ainabili y o he p o-
ision o public se ices such as ene gy,
anspo , elecommunica ions, wa e ,
heal hca e, and educa ion” (Wo ld Bank,
2021c).
The impo an ca ea he e is he i s
quali ying pa o he sen ence – “When
designed well and implemen ed in a bal-
anced egula o y en i onmen .” This
one sen ence encapsula es he g ea es
challenge when implemen ing PPPs in
de eloping egions wi h li le expe ise
in PPP design, and o en a egula o y
en i onmen ha is a om balanced
(Tshombe & Molokwane, 2016).
Due o a local lack o expe ience (con-
en ional, con ac ually complex PPPs
a e a ela i ely mode n in en ion), o -
eign i ms (usually jus a ew majo play-
e s) a e o en called in o do he p ojec
o con ac “design” (Ki kpa ick e al.,
2006). This small pool o bidde s leads
o ad e se selec ion, which akes he
o m o sub-op imal con ac s om he
beginning, esul ing om oppo unis ic
beha iou o a ange a ou able e ms
o he p i a e pa y (Ki kpa ick e al.,
2006). Fu he mo e, when one pa y has
an incen i e o inc ease i s exposu e o
isk because i won’ ha e o ace he
ull consequences, such as in he case o
go e nmen gua an ees, mo al haza d
can a ise (Fly bje g e al., 2009).

J. Young
44
To hose in a ou o PPPs, hey p om-
ise inc eased pe o mance and e icien-
cy, access o inance and expe ise, be e
isk alloca ion and mo e oppo uni ies o
p o i maximiza ion. Fo o he s, w i es
Hayla & We enhall (2010), he p omises
o PPPs appea o be exagge a ed, down-
igh alse and a wo s , po en ially dam-
aging o he public in e es . In he igh
en i onmen , wi h balanced in o ma ion
and s ong and compe en pa ne s, PPPs
can pe o m well. Bu is Tanzania he
igh en i onmen o PPPs? Pa wo will
a emp o answe his ques ion.
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
45
Pa Two: Me hodological
Analysis and P oposal
De elopmen o a me hodology o a e he eadiness o Da
es Salaam’s PPP en i onmen , a gap analysis o h ee PSPs
and a p oposal o Open Pa ne ships.
Figu e 35 Dog aking a nap in he sludge d ying bed o Kigamboni FSTP (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
J. Young
46
he iew o one pa y may no be deemed
a success by he o he , he e o e suc-
cess c i e ia should be p ope ly de ined
(Meng e al., 2011). Because success can
be iewed h ough he lens o h ee main
pa ies – he p i a e and public pa ies
and he communi y ha is se ed – he e
a e bo h indi idual and collec i e goals
(Ameyaw & Chan, 2016). The p i a e pa y
is in e es ed in achie ing a p o i able en-
u e, he public is in e es ed in p o iding
an e icien and e ec i e public se ice
a educed cos and he communi y is in-
e es ed in a eliable, sa e and a o dable
se ice – and all h ee pa ies mee hei
goals h ough success ul implemen a ion
and comple ion o he p ojec (Ameyaw &
Chan, 2016).
Comple ing he p ojec , p ope ly ac-
coun ing o i , doing i on- ime and on
budge , wi h maximum e iciency and
good go e nance a e all measu es o
success, howe e hey can o en unda-
men ally con lic (G. Hodge e al., 2018).
Fu he mo e, success can be iewed na -
owly (achie emen o ou pu s as ou lined
in he pa ne ship ag eemen ), o mo e
b oadly as he con inua ion o he ela-
ionship be ween he public and p i a e
en i ies and he wide bene i s he p oj-
ec has o i s use s and he communi y a
la ge (Je a es e al., 2013).
A g owing numbe o s udies a e also
showing ha a ia ions in PPP success
and up ake is o en due bo h o he poli -
ical and ins i u ional con ex o di e en
coun ies as well as non-ins i u ional el-
emen s no di ec ly unde he con ol o
go e nmen (Soecip o & Ve hoes , 2018).
A quali a i e compa a i e analysis (QCA)
pe o med by Ve hoes e al. (2015), com-
The li e a u e is mixed on whe he
PPPs wo k be e han adi ional means
o p ocu emen (Fly bje g, 2005; Hall,
2015; G. A. Hodge & G e e, 2017; Mena d,
2011). Fu he mo e, i is no always clea
wha c i e ia should be used o de ine he
‘success’ o a PPP – as hey a e o en o i-
en ed jus as much owa d poli ical and
go e nance aspec s as hey a e owa d
he adi ional u ili a ian iew o p ojec
deli e y o V M (G. A. Hodge & G e e,
2017). Wha is clea , is ha ce ain ac-
o s a e conside ed essen ial o achie ing
he p ojec ’s goal, and hese a e known as
c i ical success ac o s (CSFs) (Ameyaw &
Chan, 2016; G. Hodge e al., 2018; Meng e
al., 2011; Zhang, 2005).
5.1 C i ical Success Fac o s o PPPs
CSFs o iginally came ou o manage-
men li e a u e in he la e 1970s and ha e
been used in a a ie y o ields o a emp
o make explici he key a eas ha equi e
a en ion o success ul p ojec imple-
men a ion (Li e al., 2005).
CSFs ope a e on mul iple le els and can
be in e nal o ex e nal poli ical, econom-
ic, social o p ojec - ela ed cha ac e is ics
ha a e equi ed in o de o maximise he
likelihood o p ojec success (Nizko o-
do , 2017). A wide- ange o CSFs in PPPs
ha e been iden i ied by schola s, usually
h ough su eys o PPP s akeholde s in
he public and p i a e sec o s, wi h some
schola s ocusing on he p ocu emen
s age (Zhang, 2005) and o he s aking a
b oade , p ojec li e-cycle iew o CSFs (Li
e al., 2005; Meng e al., 2011).
Success, howe e , is in he eye o he
beholde , and a success ul p ojec om
Chap e 5: Wha makes p ojec s success ul?
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
47
a u e su ey o syn hesise he mos com-
monly ci ed CSFs speci ic o de eloping
egions and he WSS sec o .
In o de o de e mine i adi ional
PPPs a e i o pu pose in small-scale
FSM, I i s pe o med a comp ehensi e
li e a u e e iew o examine he cu en
esea ch on PPPs, especially hose in
• de eloping economies / egions,
and
• he wa e supply and sani a ion
(WSS) sec o .
Twen y h ee s udies we e selec ed ha
a e ei he speci ic o WSS, de eloping e-
gions, o we e commonly ci ed and hus
ounda ional o a b oad ange o PPPs
(Figu e 36). F om hese 23 s udies, 85
CSFs we e indica ed by he au ho s. Some
o he CSFs iden i ied in he s udies we e
simila enough o combine in o one CSF,
he e o e he ac ual numbe o unique
CSFs was highe . While some s udies ank
he CSFs in o de o impo ance using
me hods such as he uzzy syn he ic e al-
ua ion (FSE) me hod (Ameyaw & Chan,
2016) o signi icance indexes (Zhang,
2005), due o he comp ehensi e na u e
o his s udy as a b oad o e iew o CSFs
wi hou p ima y su ey da a, he mos im-
po an CSFs o de eloping egions and
WSS we e de e mined by he numbe o
imes hey we e men ioned in he selec -
ed li e a u e as was done in s udies such
as Osei-Kyei & Chan (2015). The iden i ied
CSFs, excluding hose ha only appea ed
once, a e in he able below (Table 05, o
ull lis see Appendix A).
pa ed he ins i u ional amewo k o 20
Eu opean coun ies and ound ha ins i-
u ional suppo could be a necessa y, bu
no su icien , ac o in PPP success and a
complex in e ac ion o ac o s all play a
ole in PPP success (Soecip o & Ve hoes ,
2018; Ve hoes e al., 2015).
Because o he mul i-le el, mul i-s ake-
holde na u e o PPPs his esea ch will
use his b oad iew o in e playing ac-
o s o success, and u he mo e, due
o he unique cha ac e is ics o he WSS
sec o , will unde sco e he need o p oj-
ec s o go beyond na ow concep ions o
success (p o i o p ojec comple ion) o
achie e he ul ima e goal o public heal h
and social, economic and ecological sus-
ainabili y.
The ollowing chap e will discuss CSFs
in he de eloping wo ld and he WSS sec-
o , and a emp o inco po a e he hun-
d eds o CSFs iden i ied in he li e a u e
in o a amewo k sui able o assessing
he eadiness o de eloping coun ies o
implemen PPPs in he WSS sec o .
5.2 Building he amewo k: Syn-
hesis o C i ical Success Fac o s in
WSS in De eloping Regions
The e ha e been a numbe o s udies
looking a he CSFs o de eloping coun-
ies (Baba unde e al., 2012; Chileshe e
al., 2020; Chileshe & Ka ishe, 2020; Debe-
la, 2019; Ismail, 2013; Tshombe & Molok-
wane, 2016), and a numbe looking in o
he CSFs o he wa e sec o (Ke emane
& McKay, 2009; Meng e al., 2011; Ta iq
& Zhang, 2020, Tshombe), bu ewe look
in o bo h (Ameyaw & Chan, 2016; Finizola
e Sil a e al., 2020; Wu e al., 2016).
This esea ch will con ibu e o he li -
e a u e by conduc ing an ex ensi e li e -
Figu e 36 Combining he CSFs (sou ce: Au ho )
J. Young
54
e alize ha he e hasn’ been a signi ican
deg ee o change.
Ano he limi a ion is he long his o y o
inaccu a e and missing da a om Tanza-
nia and hei Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics
(Edwa ds, 2014). While o ganiza ions such
as he Wo ld Bank ha e a ious me hods
o compa ison and analysis o y o mi i-
ga e he e ec o poo da a quali y, he e -
ec emains and any conclusions d awn
om such da a equi e an as e isk.
Addi ionally, while I looked in o he
me hodology and speci ic indica o s o
each epo and a ing, he e is ine i a-
bly some amoun o o e lap be ween he
CSFs which equi ed judgemen calls on
which da a poin i bes in o which ca e-
go y. Fo da a poin s ha pe ained o se -
e al CSFs, he same da a poin was used.
In summa y, a “pe ec ly” accu a e eadi-
ness a ing is unlikely due o he di e en
me hodologies used o each epo and
index. Howe e , by a e aging he alues
ac oss he 12 epo s, audi s, indices and
a ings an o e all pic u e eme ges ha is
bo h gene ally accu a e and sui able o
he ask a hand. Fu he mo e, he pu -
pose o his analysis was o a e he eadi-
ness o Tanzania and Da es Salaam o im-
plemen PPPs, no o analyse and equa e
a ious sou ces o da a. I belie e i has
accomplished ha pu pose.
5.3.2 Economis In ascope Repo
The Economis In elligence Uni , he
esea ch a m o The Economis G oup
(publishe o The Economis ), is a key
playe in he wo ld o coun y in elli-
gence (EIU, 2015). Pa ne ing wi h and
unded by The Wo ld Bank G oup and P i-
a e Pa icipa ion in In as uc u e Ad i-
so y Facili y (PPIAF), he EIU publishes a
Ve y low/ e y poo / comple e lack o = 10
Low / poo / lack o = 30
Adequa e / su icien = 50
High = 70
Ve y high = 90
While he e is oom o in e p e a ion in
he in en and meaning o he o iginal au-
ho s, a g ea e numbe o da a sou ces
educes he isk and e ec o misin e -
p e a ion and gi es a mo e obus pic u e
han a single sou ce.
Fo no malising he da a o he scale o
0-100, he ollowing o mula was used:
5.3.1 Limi a ions o his me hod
While he e we e a ela i ely la ge num-
be (12) o s udies, epo s, audi s and
da a sou ces used o de e mine he eadi-
ness a ing ha ed in o he Readiness Ra-
da , he e a e some limi a ions. One such
limi a ion is he na u e o PPP laws and
egula ions which a e in a nea cons an
s a e o lux, wi h i e i e a ions o PPP
policies (2009), ac s (2010) egula ions
(2011, 2020) and amendmen s (2013,2014,
2018) passed since 2009 (PPP Knowledge
Lab, 2021). This makes i di icul o e -
ec i ely assess he o e all quali y, and
ins ead, gi es a pic u e o only a momen
in ime. Howe e , his was pa ially o e -
come wi h he addi ion o ecen (2020)
epo s ha assessed PPP eadiness and
ound many o he same p oblems iden i-
ied in ea lie epo s, leading one o gen-
- deno es he minimum ange
- deno es he maximum ange
- deno es he minimum o he ange o desi ed scale
- deno es he maximum o he ange o desi ed scale
- deno es measu emen o be scaled

B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
55
men ’s abili y o uphold laws and egula-
ions o concessions, as well as he num-
be and success a e o pas p ojec s (EIU,
2015). The indica o s a e:
3.1 Public capaci y o plan and o e see
PPPs
3.2 Me hods and c i e ia o awa ding
p ojec s
3.3 Regula o s’ isk-alloca ion eco d
3.4 Expe ience in anspo , wa e and
elec ici y concessions
3.5 Quali y o anspo , wa e and
elec ici y concessions
4. In es men clima e (weigh ed 15%)
This ca ego y measu es he business,
poli ical and social en i onmen o in-
es men (EIU, 2015). The indica o s a e:
4.1 Poli ical dis o ion
4.2 Business en i onmen
4.3 Poli ical will
5. Financial acili ies (weigh ed 15%)
This ca ego y measu es he inancial
acili ies o unding in as uc u e (EIU,
2015). The indica o s a e:
5.1 Go e nmen paymen isk
5.2 Capi al ma ke : p i a e in as uc-
u e inance
5.3 Ma ke able deb
5.4 Go e nmen suppo and a o d-
abili y o low-income use s
6. Subna ional adjus men ac o (weigh -
ed 10%)
This ca ego y measu es he quali y o
sub-na ional amewo ks and expe ienc-
es in PPPs (EIU, 2015). This ca ego y is no
longe a pa o he newe In ascopes,
and i is also i ele an o his esea ch
egula epo measu ing and anking he
enabling en i onmen o go e nmen s o
“implemen sus ainable and e icien ”
public-p i a e pa ne ships wi h he aim
o “unlock he powe o PPPs” o u he
he de elopmen agenda (EIU, 2015). The
EIU measu es PPP eadiness by indexing
19 indica o s g ouped in o six ca ego ies
ha a e bo h quali a i e and quan i a-
i e, d awing hei da a om a ange o
p ima y sou ces (legal ex s, go e nmen
websi es, p ess epo s and in e iews) as
well as seconda y epo s and da a sou c-
es (EIU, 2015). They a e he ollowing ca -
ego ies:
1. Legal and egula o y amewo k
(weigh ed 25%)
This ca ego y e alua es a coun y’s
legal and egula o y amewo k o p i-
a e pa icipa ion in in as uc u e (EIU,
2015). The indica o s a e:
1.1 Consis ency and quali y o PPP
egula ions
1.2 E ec i e PPP selec ion and deci-
sion-making
1.3 Fai ness/openness o bids, con-
ac changes
1.4 Dispu e- esolu ion mechanisms
2. Ins i u ional amewo k (weigh ed
20%)
This ca ego y measu es he design and
esponsibili ies o ins i u ions ha p e-
pa e, awa d and o e see p ojec s (EIU,
2015). The indica o s a e:
2.1 Quali y o ins i u ional design
2.2 PPP con ac , hold-up and exp o-
p ia ion isk
3. Ope a ional ma u i y (weigh ed 15%)
This ca ego y measu es he go e n-
J. Young
56
The epo commends Tanzania o
passing legisla ion o c ea e a singula
PPP Cen e ha will “p o ide a mo e e -
icien and cen alised sys em o in es-
o s o in e ac wi h” (EIU, 2015). I also
gi es Tanzania high ma ks o hei in-
eg a ion o unsolici ed p oposals in o a
legal amewo k and equi ing he imple-
men a ion o a bidding p ocess o ensu e
compe i i e bidding. Key challenges ha
he epo iden i ies include he “lack o
capaci y and expe ience in go e nmen ,”
inadequa e isk-sha ing mechanisms and
he “pauci y o long- e m local inancing
ins umen s” such as gua an ees and pe -
o mance bonds (EIU, 2015).
While he epo gi es a ai ly com-
p ehensi e o e iew o he enabling en-
i onmen on he poli ical, inancial and
p ojec le els pe aining o PPPs, o he
impo an mac o, meso and mic o ac o s
such as public pe cep ion, echnical ea-
sibili y and accep able a i s a e igno ed.
To ge a mo e comple e pic u e o he en-
and he a ing will no be used. The indi-
ca o is:
6.1 Subna ional adjus men
The 2015 In ascope epo b eaks
down he ca ego ies o PPP eadiness in o
Nascen (0-29.9), Eme ging (30-59.9), Ma-
u e (60-79.9) and De eloped (80-100), and
bo h in he naming o he ca ego ies and
hei anges, one could in e hei p o-
PPP s ance. A nascen o eme ging ead-
iness sounds a lo mo e op imis ic han a
e y low o low eadiness, pe haps gi ing
an indica ion o he ype o audience his
epo is aimed a (in es o s, i ms and
go e nmen s). F om he 15 A ican coun-
ies a ed in his epo , 13 ou o 15 all
in o he “Eme ging” ca ego y, wi h only
Sou h A ica conside ed a ”Ma u e” en-
abling en i onmen (70.7), and he Dem-
oc a ic Republic o Congo conside ed a
“Nascen ” en i onmen (20.6) – wi h Tan-
zania “Eme ging” in o i h a 48.6 (Table
08) (EIU, 2015).
Table 08 Economis In elligence Uni ’s (EIU) anking o A ican economies acco ding o PPP eadiness
(sou ce: EIU, 2015)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
57
public o icials, chambe s o comme ce,
academics and consul an s (Wo ld Bank,
2021a). Regula o y and p ac ice-based
ques ions a e used o de e mine bo h he
enabling amewo k and how PPPs a e
implemen ed in he eal wo ld.
Two key limi a ions o his epo a e:
1. Tha i is su ey-based, meaning he
esul s come om he opinions o a
pool o esponden s ha migh no
always be ep esen a i e, and
2. he egula o y-based ques ions do
no conside he “capaci y o imple-
men ing agencies as demons a ed by
s a ing numbe s, s a compe ence
le els, p o essionalism, and expe i-
ence, and mac oeconomic s abili y
o he p e alence o he co up ion in
each economy” (Wo ld Bank, 2021a).
Needless o say, hese a e impo an
ac o s in any coun y.
abling en i onmen and he abili y o Da
es Salaam o mee he CSFs, he ollowing
epo s and da a we e also ga he ed o
build a mo e obus amewo k o anal-
ysis.
5.3.3 Wo ld Bank Benchma king
In as uc u e Repo
The Wo ld Bank G oup’s Benchma king
In as uc u e De elopmen 2020 “assess-
es he quali y o egula o y amewo ks
wo ldwide o de elop la ge in as uc u e
p ojec s, benchma king hem wi h in-
e na ionally ecognized good p ac ices”
(Wo ld Bank, 2021a; Wo ld Bank 2020b).
The a eas o ocus in he Wo ld Bank’s
epo a e he key cha ac e is ics o he
egula o y en i onmen h oughou he
li ecycle o a PPP – om p epa a ion o
con ac managemen (Table 09).
The Wo ld Bank ga he ed he in o -
ma ion o his assessmen by using
s anda dised ques ionnai es o close o
20,000 con ibu o s - including lawye s,
Table 09 Thema ic a eas su eyed in he Wo ld Banks Benchma king In as uc u e Repo (sou ce:
Wo ld Bank, 2020b)
J. Young
58
limi a ion is he age o he epo , which
is o e en yea s old. They also make a
dis inc ion be ween “classical PPPs” and
c oss-sec o pa ne ships, howe e in
hei analysis hey o en lump he wo o-
ge he , which makes compa isons o pe -
o mance and he challenges hey ace
di icul o sepa a e.
5.3.5 GIZ Gap Analysis
The GIZ Public-P i a e Pa ne ship Op-
e a ional Guidelines o he Wa e Sup-
ply and Sani a ion Sec o : F amewo k
Gap Analysis Repo and Recommenda-
ions (2017), was a collabo a ion be ween
GIZ, Rebelg oup In e na ional and local
consul an and Wo ld Bank PPP expe ,
Ca oline Chema E ic, who was also in-
e iewed in he esea ch s ages o his
hesis. The pu pose o his epo was o
analyse he 2015 PPP Regula ions, ind
he gaps and make ecommenda ions o
add ess hem.
They ound “ he main obs acles o he
implemen a ion o PPPs in he wa e sup-
ply and sani a ion sec o do no de i e
om gaps in he egula o y amewo k,
bu om a lack o capaci y o con ac ing
au ho i ies and po en ial p i a e con ac-
o s” (GIZ, 2017). Fu he mo e,
“... he p ocedu e o he p epa a ion and
app o al o a PPP p ojec se ou in he PPP
Regula ions 2015 is oo complex o small-
scale p ojec s. The cos s o unde aking all
s udy and assessmen ac i i ies equi ed by
he egula ions a e disp opo ionally la ge
compa ed o he con ac alue o small-
scale p ojec s, and subs an ially inc ease
he p ice o he consume o wa e supply
and sani a ion se ices. Consequen ly, he
p ocedu al amewo k discou ages he use
5.3.4 GTZ Pa ne ship Landscape
This epo was commissioned by GTZ
(me ged wi h GIZ since 2010) o assess
he “po en ial o PPPs in Tanzania wi h a
speci ic ocus on he a eas o Heal h, Wa-
e and Local Go e nance” (Gesellscha
ü Technische Zusammena bei [GTZ],
2010). The epo was commissioned by
GTZ o assess he mac o challenges ha
need o be add essed and deba ed by he
go e nmen , p i a e sec o and ci il so-
cie y in o de o mee de elopmen goals
(GTZ, 2010).
The epo ound ha Tanzania has pu
in o place “adequa e policies and egula-
o y amewo k o guide he wa e sec o ,
howe e , mo e has o be done in e ms o
sec o coo dina ion and simpli ica ion o
con lic ing laws which hinde he pe o -
mance o he sec o ” (GTZ, 2010). They
also s essed he need o capaci y build-
ing a he local le el in he wa e and san-
i a ion au ho i ies o ensu e be e pe -
o mance; a need o mo e accu a e da a
(especially in p ojec ions) when conduc -
ing easibili y s udies; he need o mo e
policy cla i y and con ac speci ica ions;
g ea e anspa ency; and he need o
economies o scale o comme cial ia-
bili y in wa e and sani a ion businesses
(GTZ, 2010).
O he challenges ha he epo iden i-
ied include con ac en o cemen , which
hey called “highly bu eauc a ic and
p ocess a he han esul s d i en, o en
wi hou a eal unde s anding o wha he
laws a e designed o achie e” (GTZ, 2010).
They go on o epo ha he judicial p o-
cesses “a e no as anspa en as hey
should be” and a e “ he e o e open o co -
up ion and bu eauc acy” (GTZ, 2010).
While ho ough in i s analysis, a majo
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
59
s udy su eyed PPP p ac i ione s wi hin
he sec o and ele an go e ning bodies
h ough semi-s uc u ed in e iews. They
ound a “lack o awa eness and usage o
PPPs amewo k models du ing he ea-
sibili y and subsequen implemen a ion
p ocess,” which is suppo ed by simila
indings in he GTZ (2010) and GIZ (2017)
epo s (Chileshe & Ka ishe, 2020). Fu -
he mo e, hey ound he main ac o s
in luencing he eadiness o Tanzania o
implemen PPPs we e he “limi ed knowl-
edge and skills equi ed o PPP p ac i-
ione s”; “Poo capaci y building”; “Lack
o engagemen o expe s du ing he ia-
bili y and assessmen p ocess”; and “Poo
selec ion p ocess o p i a e pa ne s gi -
ing ising (sic) o unsolici ed p oposals”
(Chileshe & Ka ishe, 2020).
In o de o s eng hen and op imise he
PPP en i onmen in Da es Salaam, Chil-
eshe & Ka ishe (2020) poin ou ou a eas
in need o s eng hening:
1. p ocu emen p ocesses
2. enabling en i onmen ( egula ions
and policies),
3. in o ganiza ions (i.e. PPP s uc u e,
policies and p ocedu es),
4. and wi hin indi iduals (i.e. skills,
expe ience and knowledge).
In his assessmen o PPP’s in he ans-
po a ion sec o in Tanzania, Bengesi
(2016) u he con i med co up ion and
nepo ism as con ibu ing ac o s inhibi -
ing PPP up ake. Th ough in e iews wi h
he p i a e sec o and public o icials, o-
cus g oup discussions and su eys, hey
ound ha no only was he e a lack o un-
de s anding o wha PPPs we e, bu also
“issues o economic iabili y o p ojec s
in ques ion, good go e nance and adhe -
ence o he code o conduc by he go e n-
o PPP in he case o small-scale p ojec s,
which ep esen he majo i y o p ojec s in
he wa e sec o ” (GIZ, 2017).
They also iden i ied he “weak” echni-
cal and inancial capaci y o he p i a e
sec o o unde ake PPPs in he wa e
sec o , and a lack o expe ience o domes-
ic banks wi h p ojec inancing. Adding
ha high in e es a es o p i a e in es-
o s (10% p.a. eal) also make he cos s o
long- e m inancing “no easible” (GIZ,
2017). This epo was qui e ho ough and
some o he ecommenda ions, such as
lowe ing he benchma k o “small-scale”
PPPs, we e pa ly ollowed in subsequen
legisla ion (e.g. de ining small-scale PPPs
as any hing unde $20 million USD, a he
han $100 million USD, hough o small-
scale FSM his is s ill a much la ge scale
han ypical cos s).
5.3.6 Filling in he gaps – Assess-
men s o PPP eadiness in o he li -
e a u e
While he a o emen ioned epo s a e
he mos comp ehensi e epo s I ound
speci ic o PPPs in Tanzania, o he sou c-
es we e used o ill in he gaps, some e-
la ed o PPPs in Tanzania/Da es Salaam
and some a ing mac o le el indica o s
in Tanzania ha ma ch he selec ed CSFs
o he Readiness Rada . The sou ces and
hei mos ele an indings will be men-
ioned below, and a able wi h o he im-
po an in o ma ion is a he end o his
chap e (Table 10).
A ecen s udy pe o med by Chileshe
& Ka ishe (2020), examined he eadiness
o de eloping coun ies o adop PPPs,
using he case s udy o Tanzania. Focus-
ing on PPPs in he housing sec o , he

J. Young
60
Municipal Council (MC) and he Minis y
o Wa e and I iga ion (MoWI), espec-
i ely.*
O he sou ces used o de e mine he
alue o he eadiness a ing include: The
Co up ion Pe cep ion Index (CPI) om
T anspa ency In e na ional; he Wo ld
De elopmen Indica o s (WDI) om The
Wo ld Bank G oup; The Global Inno a-
ion Index (GII) om Co nell Uni e si y,
Ins i u Eu opéen d’Adminis a ion des
A ai es (INSEAD), and he Wo ld In el-
lec ual P ope y O ganiza ion (WIPO);
The Global Compe i i eness Repo om
he Wo ld Economic Fo um; he T ans-
o ma ion Index (BTI) om Be elsmann
S i ung; and he En i onmen al Pe o -
mance Index (EPI) om Yale Uni e si y.
De ailed in o ma ion on hese and he
o he epo s can be ound in Table 10.
The alues ga he ed om hese ead-
iness assessmen s and da abases we e
hen abula ed and a e aged (Table 11).
The ollowing sec ion will p esen he
indings om his analysis.
men , and an unsuppo i e en i onmen
especially ci ed in weak local capi al ma -
ke s” (Bengesi, 2016).
Du ing my esea ch a emp s we e
made o con ac he PPP node/cen e in
Tanzania, which is he cen al PPP au-
ho i y, howe e he email add esses did
no wo k and he websi e (www.pppnode.
go. z) was only pa ially buil (a he ime
o w i ing - May, 2021). Howe e , he
mo e es ablished (since 2005) p i a e
sec o au ho i y, he Public P ocu emen
Regula o y Au ho i y (PPRA), did ha e a
unc ioning websi e and had published an
audi o p ocu emen s in 2018/2019 ( he
la es epo a ailable). The Annual Pe o -
mance E alua ion Repo o Financial Yea
2018/19 measu es he pe o mance o he
p ocu emen sec o h ough compliance
audi s and V M assessmen s, and is a le-
gal manda e o he Public P ocu emen
Ac (2001, eplaced 2011).
This epo was used o assess co up-
ion wi hin he p ocu emen sec o a a
g ea e deg ee o g anula i y han hose
ound in o he in e na ional co up ion
indices. The PPRA uses a “ ed lag” check-
lis o es ablish he p esence o co up-
ion symp oms in audi ed ende s. When
ed lags ise abo e 20 pe cen , a deepe
pa e n o co up ion may exis . The as-
sessmen conduc ed 104 audi s on public
en e p ises (PEs) and ound 39 PEs (and
a o al o 131 con ac s) o ha e a “high-
e co up ion ed lags in ei he one o
i s phases o on i s o e all assessmen ”
(Public P ocu emen Regula o y Au ho i-
y [PPRA], 2019). O hose ha ing high ed
lags, wo PEs we e assessed o ha e he
o e all ed lags o 20 and 21 – Kigamboni
*To no malise he co up ion a e he e o use in he eadiness ada , he a io o audi s pe o med o
hose wi h co up ion p esen (104/39) was used in he Readiness Ra ing.
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
61
Repo Au ho /O ganiza io
nYea Funding /
Suppo ed by Ta ge Audience Me hodology Focus Sco ing
2015 A ica In ascope Economis
In elligence Uni 2015 The Wo ld Bank
G oup, PPIAF
P i a e Fi ms,
In es o s, Public
Sec o
Quali a i e and
Quan i a i e
legal ex s,
go e nmen
websi es, p ess
epo s and
in e iews) as well
as seconda y epo s
and da a sou ces
Mac o Enabling
En i onmen
PPP eadiness
(0-100)
Benchma king
In as uc u e Repo The Wo ld Bank 2020 The Wo ld Bank
G oup
P i a e i ms,
esea che s,
go e nmen s
Su eys
Regula ing
en i onmen o
PPP li e cycle
PPP eadiness
(0-100)
Pa ne ship Landscape GTZ 2010 GTZ Policymake s Coun y Expe
Assessmen
PPP enabling
en i onmen Quali a i e
F amewo k Gap Analysis
Repo and
Recommenda ions
GIZ, Rebelg oup
In e na ional,
Ca oline Chema E ic
2017 GIZ
EWURA, MoWI
and o he
policymake s
Gap analysis o legal
ex
PPP egula ions
o he wa e
and sani a ion
sec o
Quali a i e
Readiness assessmen o
public–p i a e
pa ne ships
(PPPs) adop ion in
de eloping
coun ies: he case o
Tanzania
Ka ishe, Nicholas;
Chileshe, Neema 2020
Uni e si y o Sou h
Aus alia; A dhi
Uni e si y
Resea che s and
Policymake s
Semi-s uc u ed
in e iews wi h PPP
p ac i ione s in
Tanzania
PPP enabling
en i onmen
and he housing
sec o
Quali a i e
Co up ion Pe cep ion
Index (CPI)
T anspa ency
In e na ional 2020
go e nmen
agencies,
mul ila e al
ins i u ions,
ounda ions, he
p i a e sec o and
indi iduals
Public and
Policymake s
Da a agg ega ion
om pe cep ions o
business people and
coun y expe s
abou co up ion
Co up ion
Le el o
pe cei ed
co up ion (0-
100), 0 is mos
co up , 100 is
leas co up
ANNUAL PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION REPORT
FOR FINANCIAL YEAR
2018/19
Tanzania Public
P ocu emen
Regula o y Au ho i y
(PPRA)
2017/18 Go e nmen o
Tanzania
Public and
Policymake s Audi s Co up ion and
Pe o mance
Pe cen age o
audi ed i ms
wi h highe ed
lags o
co up ion (39
PEs wi h highe
ed lags ou o
104 = 37.5/100)
Wo ld De elopmen
Indica o s
The Wo ld Bank
G oup 2019 The Wo ld Bank
G oup
Public and
Policymake s
Analysis o da a
compiled om
in e na ional and
go e nmen
agencies
Mac o ac o s
in luencing
de elopmen
(1-6) low o high
Global Inno a ion Index
Soumi a Du a,
B uno Lan in, and
Sacha Wunsch-
Vincen
2020
Co nell Uni e si y,
INSEAD, and he
Wo ld In ellec ual
P ope y
O ganiza ion
(WIPO)
Public and
Policymake s Da a anking
Measu ing
inno a ion in
he economy
Sco e (0-100)
and anking (1-
131)
Global Compe i i eness
Repo
Wo ld Economic
Fo um
2017/18/
19
Indus ies,
businesses,
indi iduals
Businesses
analysis o s a is ics
om in e na ional
o ganiza ions and
su eys o
execu i es
Compe i i enes
s o economy a
a na ional le el
Sco e (1-7)
T ans o ma ion Index
(BTI) Be elsmann S i ung 2020 Be elsmann
S i ung - Dono s
Public and
Policymake s
Expe assessmen
o indica o s
h ough su eys
T ans o ma ion
owa d
democ acy and
ma ke
economy and
quali y o
go e nance
Sco e (1-10)
En i onmen al
Pe o mance Index (EPI)
Wendling, Z. A.;
Eme son, J. W.; de
She binin, A.; Es y,
D. C.; e al.
2020
The McCall
MacBain
Founda ion
Public and
Policymake s
Co ela ion analysis
o da a om a ious
sou ces (WB, IMF,
He i age
Founda ion, e c.)
En ionmen al
Pe o mance
Sco e (0-100)
and anking (1-
180)
Table 10 De ailed in o ma ion on he epo s and da abases used o de e mine he alues o he eadiness assessmen (sou ce:
Au ho )
J. Young
62
5.4 The Readiness Rada - Resul s
Now ha we ha e a “Combined CSF” amewo k o assessmen (based on a ho ough
analysis o he li e a u e on de eloping egions, he WSS sec o and commonly ci ed
CSFs) and he alues o popula e i (based on a ious eadiness assessmen s), an analy-
sis o Tanzania’s PPP eadiness can be pe o med.
The sco es based on ma ching a ing ac o s we e en e ed in o he amewo k om
each epo and da abase, and he a e age was calcula ed o gi e i a inal sco e in each
ca ego y. The amewo k and Readiness Rada on he nex page display he esul s.
Using he anges:
0-20 = Ve y Low Readiness
21-40 = Low Readiness
41-60 = Adequa e Readiness
61-80 = High Readiness
81-100 = Ve y High Readiness
Tanzania was ound o ha e an a e age o 39.3, and he e o e a “Low Readiness” o
PPPs. Due o i ’s p oximi y o he “Adequa e” ange, Tanzania could be said o be an
en i onmen ha is almos adequa e o PPPs, howe e only i no able imp o emen
is made ac oss he en i e p ojec le el, compe ency and commi men o pa ne s, isk
sha ing, anspa ency in he p ocu emen p ocess, egula o y quali y, co up ion, i-
nancial ma ke s, public accep ance and in ol emen , and e o s o bene i all s ake-
holde s and no jus he p ojec pa ne s. Fo sake o compa ison, he same amewo k
was used o a e Sou h A ica’s PPP eadiness, a “De eloped” PPP ma ke (Figu e 39).
Figu e 37 Popula ing he CSF amewo k wi h a eadiness a ing o p oduce a eadiness ada (sou ce:
Au ho )
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
63
TANZANIA
Sou ce
EIU (2015)
WB (2020)
GTZ (2010)
GIZ (2017)
Chileshe & Ka ishe (2020)
T anspa ency In l.
PPRA Repo
WDI - Wo ld Bank
Global Inno a ion Index
WEF
BTI
EPI
A e age Sco e
P ojec Le el
Technical Feasabili y 30 30 30 30.0
Financial Viabili y 32 30 30 30.7
Tho ough Cos /Bene i
E alua ion 43.8 32 37.9
Technology T ans e 12.1 42.9 27.5
O ganiza ion
S ong and Compe en
Pa ne s 43.8 30 30 34.6
S ong Commi men and
clea oles 32 32.0
App op ia e Risk Sha ing 43.8 32 30 35.3
Flexible Con ac s 43.8 53 30 42.3
Policy
Poli ical Suppo 58.1 58.1
T anspa en P ocu emen 50 32 30 37.3
Compe i i e Bidding 50 71 30 40 47.8
PPP Uni and policy 50 53 30 44.3
Ins i u ional
S ong legal amewo k 50 71 50 70 40 48.3 54.9
Poli ical S abili y 43.8 40 53.6 40 55.6 31.1 44.0
Regula o y Quali y 40 31.1 35.6
Lack o Co up ion 38 37.5 40 36 44.4 39.2
Good Go e nance 52 33.2 40 38.6 41.0
Mac o
S able Mac oeconomic
condi ions 58.1 70 43.6 74.3 43.7 31.1 53.5
Adequa e Financial Ma ke 38.9 30 40 43.6 35.70 55.60 31.10 39.3
Public
Accep ance/In ol emen 22.2 22.2
Bene i s all S akeholde s 38.9 38.9
O he s
T us
Communica ion
Accep able Ta i
Soundness o Banks
SOUTH AFRICA
Sou ce
Econ
WB
GTZ
Ka ishe
T anspa ency In l.
PPRA Repo
WB Da a
Global Inno a ion Index
WEF
BTI
EPI
A e age Sco e
P ojec Le el
Technical Feasabili y #DIV/0!
Financial Viabili y 76 76.0
Tho ough Cos /Bene i
E alua ion 70 76 73.0
Technology T ans e 32.67 48.6 40.6
O ganiza ion
S ong and Compe en
Pa ne s 70 70.0
S ong Commi men and
clea oles 76 76.0
App op ia e Risk Sha ing 75 76 75.5
Con ac Managemen 70 82 76.0
Policy
Poli ical Suppo 46.1 46.1
T anspa en 75 76 75.5
Compe i i e 70 62 66.0
PPP Uni and policy 70 82 76.0
Ins i u ional
S ong legal amewo k 70 62 66.0
Poli ical S abili y 70 75 72.5
Regula o y Quali y 61.54 61.5
Lack o Co up ion 63.46 63.5
Good Go e nance 58 74.5 66.3
Mac o
S able Mac oeconomic
condi ions 46.4 61.4 53.9
Adequa e Financial Ma ke 91.7 80.00 85.9
Public
Accep ance/In ol emen 76 76.0
Bene i s all S akeholde s 91.7 91.7
Le el CSF
EIU (2015)
WB BID (2020)
GTZ (2010)
GIZ (2017)
Chileshe & Ka ishe (2020)
T anspa ency In l. (2021)
PPRA Repo (2019)
WDI - Wo ld Bank (2019)
GII (2020)
WEF (2017/18/19)
BTI (2020)
EPI (2020)
Sco e
P ojec
Technical Feasabili y 30 30 30 30.0
Financial Viabili y 32 30 30 30.7
Tho ough Cos /Bene i E alua ion 43.8 32 37.9
Technology T ans e 12.1 42.9 27.5
O ganiza ion
S ong and Compe en Pa ne s 43.8 30 30 34.6
S ong Commi men and clea oles 32 32.0
App op ia e Risk Sha ing 43.8 32 30 35.3
Flexible Con ac s 43.8 53 30 42.3
Policy
Poli ical Suppo 58.1 58.1
T anspa en P ocu emen 50 32 30 37.3
Compe i i e Bidding 50 71 30 40 47.8
PPP Uni and policy 50 53 30 44.3
Ins i u ional
S ong legal amewo k 50 71 50 70 40 48.3 54.9
Poli ical S abili y 43.8 40 53.6 40 55.6 31.1 44.0
Regula o y Quali y 40 31.1 35.6
Lack o Co up ion 38 37.5 40 36 44.4 39.2
Good Go e nance 52 33.2 40 38.6 41.0
Mac o
S able Mac oeconomic condi ions 58.1 70 43.6 74.3 43.7 31.1 53.5
Adequa e Financial Ma ke 38.9 30 40 43.6 35.70 55.60 31.10 39.3
Public Accep ance/In ol emen 22.2 22.2
Bene i s all S akeholde s 38.9 38.9
To al A e age 39.3
P ojec Le el
O ganiza ion Le el
Policy Le el
Ins i u ional Le el
Mac o Le el
Figu e 38 Readiness Rada (sou ce: Au ho )
Table 11 A e aged a ings om a ious sou ces o de e mine Tanzania’s PPP eadiness (Sou ce: Au ho )
J. Young
70
6.4 Tanzania: An uncon incing en-
i onmen o PPPs in FSM
The en i onmen in Da es Salaam in
gene al and in he small-scale FSM sec o
mo e b oadly, is no sui able o con en-
ional PPPs as de ined by he Wo ld Bank
and Tanzania’s PPP egula ions. Despi e
he p omises o PPPs – p i a e inancing,
g ea e e iciency and he ans e o isk
– he eco d o hese achie emen s is ew
and a be ween in he de eloping wo ld.
The hope ha p i a e inancing would
b idge he gaps in unding we e la gely
misplaced, due o he high capi al cos s
o epai ing and expanding ne wo ks, he
a iabili y in se ice demand o FSM and
lowe p o i ma gins (Ma in, 2009). Many
p i a e inance s see his sec o (FSM and
WSS in gene al) as oo high o a isk, es-
pecially in SSA, as e idenced by he iny
o al sha e o he wo ld’s PPP ma ke ha
exis s in SSA low-income coun ies (2.2%)
and he high pe cen age o Mul ila e al
De elopmen Bank (MDB) unding (48%)
in hese coun ies as compa ed o unding
o PPPs wo ldwide (18.6% MDB unded)
(Ma in, 2009; PPI Da abase, 2021).
While some epo s ind gains in e i-
ciency in wa e sec o PPPs (Es ache &
Philippe, 2012; Ma in, 2009), due o he na-
u e o SPVs ha educe he isk o each
membe o he conso ium, he eal isk
when PPPs ail mos o en lies wi h he
communi ies ha su e om poo se -
ice p o ision and he go e nmen ha
needs o pick up he pieces a e a ailed
p ojec . I he wa e sec o , which has a
cap i e and s able demand, is deemed oo
isky by in es o s, FSM – wi h i s uns able
demand, small-scale and unp o ed busi-
ness model – is e en iskie .
In summa y, he cu en enabling en-
i onmen in Da es Salaam is no con-
duci e o con en ional PPPs. So wha is?
The ollowing chap e s will discuss h ee
case s udies o FSM a angemen s in Da
es Salaam, iden i y he oppo uni ies o
scaling up, and p opose an “open pa -
ne ship” (OP) s uc u e mo e sui able o
small-scale FSM.
Figu e 44 Resea ch amewo k o analysis o case s udies and he de elopmen o Open Pa ne ships in
Chap e 7 and 8 (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)

B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
71
come s eams a e a ough es ima e based
on da a collec ed in he in e iews, and
may no be ully accu a e as I was unable
o examine eceip s and p o i /loss s a e-
men s.
7.1.1 Kigamboni FSTP/ UMAWA
Was e Managemen Si e
“I ’s a good business, bu you need o be
ough” (M . Milinga, 2021)
Cons uc ed in 2012/13, he Tungi-Ki-
gamboni FSTP was a pa ne ship be-
ween BORDA and Ma hias Milinga. The
i s o i s kind in Tanzania, he FSTP was
designed and unded by BORDA wi h
DEWATS echnology ha ea s aw FS,
p oducing biogas ( o pe sonal cooking),
ea ed e luen (used o a banana plan a-
ion and ish pond) and d ied FS used o
soil condi ione .
In o de o ge a be e unde s anding o he on he g ound si ua ion in Da es Salaam,
I spen six weeks in Feb ua y and Ma ch, 2021, in e iewing a ious s akeholde s, FSTP
ope a o s, acuum uck owne s, go e nmen o icials and egula o s, NGO employees,
legal expe s and o he s. Fi e small-scale FSTPs we e isi ed, wo o which, along wi h
one en ep eneu acuum uck owne , will be discussed in he ollowing sec ions.
As he esea ch ip occu ed wi hin he con ex o he SARS-CoV-2 no el co ona i us
pandemic, some di icul ies a ose in e ms o pe sonal in e iews, and many we e pe -
o med online ia Zoom, some o which occu ed ou side o his six week ime ame.
Howe e , each o hese case s udies was pe sonally isi ed and he owne /ope a o s we e
pe sonally in e iewed. The ollowing in o ma ion came di ec ly om hese semi-s uc-
u ed in e iews unless o he wise ci ed. Fac shee da a and an analysis o each case
s udy’s p ojec and o ganiza ion le el CSFs can be ound in Appendix D.
7.1 O e iew o wo FSTPs and an E&T business in Da es Salaam
The ollowing sub-sec ions will gi e a b ie o e iew o he backg ound, issues aised
du ing he in e iews, and he challenges hey pe sonally men ion in unning hei
businesses. A e hese sub-sec ions, I will pe o m a gap analysis on hese case s ud-
ies o de e mine wha a eas could imp o e o inc ease hei abili y o scale-up. The in-
Chap e 7: Case S udies and business gap analysis
Figu e 45 M . Milinga si ing in his o ice (sou ce:
Au ho , 2021)
J. Young
72
Business Model and Pa ne ship S uc-
u e
M . Milinga has an ag eemen wi h DA-
WASA o se e his communi y in Kigam-
boni (40,000 people) and he men ioned
ha DAWASA has gi en him pe mission
o s a simila businesses in o he ci ies
h oughou Tanzania (Figu e 47). Howe -
e , s a -up capi al is a limi ing ac o . DA-
WASA also se es as he moni o ing eg-
ula o and es s he e luen e e y h ee
mon hs.
M . Milinga has se e al income
s eams and cos a oidance mechanisms.
P io o owning and ope a ing he FSTP,
M . Milinga was in ol ed in solid was e
collec ion and ope a ed a small ans e
s a ion o FS (B emen O e seas Resea ch
and De elopmen Agency [BORDA], 2018).
BORDA pa ne ed wi h M . Milinga by
cons uc ing an FSTP on his p i a e land,
hus enabling him o ea he FS di ec -
ly and inc ease his p o i . Beginning wi h
jus a gulpe and a wheelba ow, M . Mil-
inga began his own business “Uhai wa
Mazingi a na Wa u” UMAWA and also
owns se e al pieces o equipmen , which
include a 1m3 sludge ac o (Sludge-Go,
de eloped by BORDA), wo mo o ised i-
cycles (3m3 each) and a ecen ly acqui ed
used acuum uck (6m3). In addi ion o
he FSTP, a aining cen e was also es ab-
lished in 2016. M . Milinga employs six
ull- ime ope a o s and ou pa - ime op-
e a o s o he busy ainy seasons.
Figu e 46 M . Milinga and I eneo Shinga s anding in on o he Sludge-Go (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
Figu e 47 UMAWA scale-up plan (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
73
majo income s eam seems o come
om he Kigamboni T aining Cen e (Fig-
u e 48), om which he no mally ains 50
o 60 people pe yea , hough 140 people
we e ained he e las yea alone (2020).
Cha ges o aining a y, depending on
whe e hey a e om and hei abili y o
pay, anging om 300,000 o 600,000 TZS
(105-210€) pe pe son.
O he income s eams include selling
he d ied FS as soil condi ione , hough
p ices a e qui e low o his (Figu e 49)
(a ound 1,000 TZS pe 50kg bag). He also
collec s ees om o he ucks ha occa-
sionally dump FS a his FSTP. Fu he -
mo e, as his ope a ion is a well-known
pilo he ecei es 100s o isi o s pe yea ,
and dona ions om hese isi s a e like-
ly o be a conside able side income. I was
o iginally asked o dona e 300,000 TZS
(105€) o my isi , hough ended up do-
na ing 100,000 TZS (35€). I his is a s an-
His p ima y business is ha o emp y-
ing, anspo ing and ea ing FS, om
which he cha ges 30,000 TZS (10.50€) o
2m3, 40,000 TZS (14€) o 3m3, and up o
100,000 TZS (35€) o si es u he away.
F om hese se ices he has an es ima ed
income o 2.5 million TZS/mon h (890€/
mon h), wi h associa ed cos s o 1.2 mil-
lion TZS/mon h (423€/mon h).
While his p ima y business is he emp-
ying, anspo and ea men o FS, his
Figu e 48 Sani a ion T aining Cen e (sou ce: Au-
ho , 2021)
Figu e 49 Unplan ed sludge d ying bed and d ying
FS soil condi ione (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
Figu e 50 E luen ish pond (sou ce: Au ho , 2021) Figu e 51 Banana and Papaya ees ed wa e om
e luen (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
J. Young
74
da d dona ion, a leas ano he 3,500€ is
made h ough dona ions.
Las ly, cos s o cooking uel a e o -
se by he biogas ha is p oduced in he
FSTP, in addi ion o he bananas, papayas
(Figu e 51) and ish (Figu e 50) ha a e
ed om he e luen .
The ollowing is a ough es ima e o his
yea ly income:
• Ne income/yea om E, T, T: 5,500€
• G oss income om aining cen e
in 2020: 14,700€ - 29,400€
• Income om soil condi ione pe
yea : 200 50kg bags/yea a 1k each
= 70€
• Fees om o he ucks: ?
• Dona ions: 3,500€ / yea ?
• Cos a oidance: ?
• Ne Income: 23,770€ - 38,470€ / yea
Figu e 52 T ac o and icycle o accessing un-
planned a eas (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
Figu e 53 Sludge-Go acuum ank (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021)
Figu e 54 M . Milinga showing us his “ loa ing” compos heap in a nea by ield (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
75
• Banks a en’ amilia wi h he busi-
ness model and don’ o e loans
7.1.2 Toangoma FSTP
“Wha we need is mo e educa ion, o p o-
ide mo e jobs and lowe he p ice o pi
emp ying o he local communi y” (Ms.
Mhando, 2021).
Implemen ed by Wa e aid and he
People’s De elopmen Fo um (PDF) in
collabo a ion wi h DAWASA and Temeke
Municipali y in 2018 on land owned by
Mwanahamia Mhando (Figu e 56), he
Toangoma FSTP lies on op o a hill o e -
looking he ou e dis ic o Temeke in Da
es Salaam (Figu e 57). One hou om he
Msasani dis ic whe e I was s aying, and
non-exis en on Google Maps, we eached
ou des ina ion h ough a se ies o phone
calls wi h Ms. Mhando ha led us o a gas
s a ion om which an o ange- es ed bo -
da-bo da mo o bike d i e guided us he
es o he way up he windy, po holed
lanes.
As can be seen, hese es ima es a y
widely and his is only a ough es ima e,
howe e he income is many imes he a -
e age income in Da es Salaam (Tanzania
Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics, 2021).
S a ed key challenges:
• Pi s ull o mixed and solid was e
• Sys em incompa ibili ies wi h he
uck o machines ha a e sen
he e and a e unable o emp y pi
• Beha iou change is necessa y o
he communi y o ecognise he
need o p ope ea men a he
han illegal emp ying
• The acili y was buil 10 yea s ago,
and since hen he communi y has
g own oo la ge o his one small
FSTP o ea all he FS
• Tank emp ying akes ime, and
du ing he busy seasons i is di icul
o se ice e e yone on demand, bu
communi y doesn’ always unde -
s and when hey need he se ice
immedia ely because hei ank is
o e lowing
• F ogmen and illegal emp ying un-
de cu p ices
• The e is no enough capi al in es -
men s o s a hese businesses
Figu e 55 UMAWA acuum uck (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021)
Figu e 56 Ms. Mhando (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)

J. Young
76
indi idual con ac wi h DAWASA bu is
s ill wai ing o a license.
In no mal yea s she ecei es a ound
100 isi o s pe yea , om which she
also collec s dona ions. The dona ion e-
ques ed o me was 30,000 TZS (10.60€).
Howe e , due o he co ona i us, she had
ecei ed e y ew isi o s his pas yea .
She has no o he paid employees, hough
she had a young man who assis ed he in
showing me a ound and she hoped o be
able o one day p o ide him and o he s a
Ms. Mhando, who used o li e in Chica-
go o en yea s, mo ed back o ca e o
he amily es a e and ope a e he FSTP
ha became ope a ional in 2018. She has
a 50/50 pa ne ship wi h DAWASA, whe e-
by hey spli equally he dumping ees
(1,000 TZS pe m3). F om his income she
ecei es an es ima ed 150,000 TZS (53€)
pe mon h, on a e age. He only o he
sou ce o income is selling he d ied FS
as soil condi ione , om which she sells
a ound 200 50kg bags pe yea a 1,000
TZS (0.35€) each. In e ms o cos a oid-
ance, he ea ed e luen is used o wa e
he banana plan a ion and (when unc-
ioning) she uses he biogas o cooking.
When I a i ed, he plan was no in
ope a ion o he las se e al mon hs and
she said hey we e pe o ming yea ly
main enance, which DAWASA is espon-
sible o . She is esponsible o all day o
day and mino main enance. She has an
Figu e 57 Ms. Mhando o e looking Toangoma om he hill op FSTP (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
Figu e 58 Toangoma FSTP pa ne ship wi h Wa -
e aid (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
77
job. Cu en ly, howe e , he FSTP is no
p o i able. She was op imis ic abou he
u u e, hough, and belie es i hey ac-
qui e a holding ank o expand hei ca-
paci y, hey could ge mo e dumping ees
and p oduce mo e soil condi ione . She
would also like o implemen a aining
cen e in o de o inc ease he income
and help educa e he local communi y.
S a ed key challenges:
• Sludge ha is dumped he e is o en
e y wa e y and doesn’ p oduce a
lo o biogas and soil condi ione
• Capaci y is oo low o mee demand
• Loca ion is di icul o access
• Many unplanned se lemen s in he
a ea
• No p o i able enough o hi e addi-
ional wo ke s
Figu e 59 Sludge d ying beds (sou ce: Au ho ,
2021)
Figu e 60 Expansion chambe wi h plas ic was e
(sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
Figu e 61 Plan ed G a el Fil e s (PGF) (sou ce:
Au ho , 2021)
Figu e 62 Biogas se le (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
J. Young
78
7.1.3 Vacuum T uck Business
Godlo e Ngoda is an en ep eneu and
enginee a BORDA who, in his spa e
ime, s a ed an emp ying and anspo
business wi h a pa ne . M . Ngoda and
his pa ne bough a used acuum uck
in 2019 o 32,000,000 (13,800 USD). A e
making some mino epai s and pu chas-
ing new i es, hey decided o expand he
olume o he ank om 3m3 o 4.7m3 in
o de o se ice he mo e luc a i e com-
me cial con ac s ha ha e la ge anks
(Figu e 63-64).
Acco ding o M . Ngoda, he p ocess o
acqui ing he license only ook 1-2 weeks
and was ela i ely s aigh o wa d. While
M . Ngoda and his pa ne own he uck,
hey hi e a d i e and ope a o o pe o m
he emp ying and anspo o he FS. The
d i e hen pays M . Ngoda a la ee o
70,000 TZS (25€) pe day (6 days a week). I
he d i e and ope a o emp y mo e han
Figu e 63 Used acuum uck (sou ce: Godlo e
Ngoda, 2019)
Figu e 64 Vacuum uck wi h expanded capaci y
(sou ce: Godlo e Ngoda, 2019)
Figu e 65 Godlo e Ngoda s anding ou side he BORDA HQ (sou ce: Au ho , 2021)
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
79
o he Wa e Supply and Sani a ion
(P o ision and Managemen o Sew-
age and Was ewa e Se ices) Regula-
ions, 2019, he Ope a o shall no dis-
cha ge gaseous, liquid and solid was e
which con ains any a , g ease, oil,
pe oleum spi i s, aba oi was e, hos-
pi al was e, sand, de i us, chemicals
om mining o simila ma e in o he
ea men plan ;
g) keep a eco d o i s se ices in a
o m speci ied by a WSSA and submi
he epo o he WSSA a in e als as
speci ied by he WSSA; and
h) pay dumping ees.pe mi om he
LGA a e ensu ing ha he essel
mee s he ollowing condi ions:
a) has a con ainmen mechanism o
conceal he con en s excep du ing
loading and unloading;
b) is wa e and ai igh manu ac u ed
o p e en leakage h ough cleaning;
wo pi s, hey gene ally ea n a p o i .
The p ocess o ge ing a TWA license is
as ollows:
a) pay s a u o y paymen s including,
business license ees, TRA income ax
paymen , LATRA and NEMC ees;
b) p o ide necessa y s a , ma e ial
and equipmen o e ec i e se ice
deli e y;
c) comply wi h he a i as app o ed
by EWURA;
d) comply wi h he se ice quali y
s anda ds as issued by he EWURA
om ime o ime;
e) ope a e in acco dance wi h exis -
ing, s anda ds, laws, S anda d Ope a -
ing P ocedu es (SOP)
and egula ions ela ed o he se ices
o be p o ided;
) subjec o egula ion 24 (1) o he
Figu e 66 Expanded and epain ed acuum uck (sou ce: Godlo e Ngoda, 2019)
J. Young
86
segmen s o he se ice chain, e y li le
p o i can be made solely om owning
and ope a ing a single FSTP. By emp y-
ing pi s and anspo ing i di ec ly o he
FSTP, he owne can ensu e he sludge is
o a high enough quali y (no jus he we
supe na an laye ) o alo isa ion in o
soil condi ione .
Da a Ma e s – Two ypes o da a a e
c i ical in he FSM business. Da a on
cus ome s, which includes he size and
loca ion o he ank, ime o las emp y-
ing, accessibili y e c., and inancial da a
ha is c ucial o gene a ing p o i /loss
s a emen s and making a clea business
plan ha could a ac inancing. Scaling
up will be ex emely di icul in de el-
oping egions wi hou a o dable loans
om banks. Ze o in e es loans om aid
agencies, while help ul, a e no easible
beyond he pilo s age, and wi hou he
incen i e o pay back loans on ime, bo -
owe s may become complacen and lack
incen i e o inc ease hei cus ome base
and associa ed p o i s.
Mo e can make i wo k – Once a busi-
ness case is made and inancing is se-
cu ed, ope a ing mo e han one uck
can u n a business ha is jus ge ing by
in o one ha is making a sizable p o i .
One s udy, by Kone & Chowdh y (2012),
analysed da a om 30 ci ies in A ica
and Asia, inding ha businesses wi h
only one uck we e he leas p o i able
by a , and medium (2-4 ucks) and la ge
(5+) made a a g ea e p o i (Figu e 71).
This could be due o less suscep ibili y o
down ime o a single uck, and he p e-
iously men ioned abili y o cap u e com-
me cial con ac s ha ha e la ge anks
and equi e mo e ucks wi h g ea e ca-
paci y. The s udy showed ha medium
sized businesses gained 22% o hei e -
ou his in o ma ion i is di icul o ell i
he business could be mo e p o i able by
cha ging highe ees o he d i e /ope a-
o .
Human Resou ces: The eliance on
hi ing ou he uck o a d i e and ope -
a o no di ec ly employed by M . Ngoda,
makes i di icul o gauge he ull pic u e
o he business. Because he d i e and
ope a o a e no esponsible o main e-
nance, hey also ha e li le incen i e o
ake ca e o he uck and may make isk-
ie decisions in ying o each di icul
pi s, he eby causing mo e wea and ea
on he uck ha will be paid o by M .
Ngoda.
O ganisa ional: The se ice le el con-
ac s (T ade Was e Ag eemen s (TWA))
be ween DAWASA and M . Ngoda and
pa ne a e clea ly de ined. Howe e , he
isk o owning a acuum uck alls mos -
ly on he p i a e pa ne , as DAWASA can
simply ely on hei own lee o ucks o
o he acuum uck ope a o s.
7.3 Lessons Lea n
The business case o o malised FSM
is e y much in i s in ancy, wi h pilo
p ojec s a ound he wo ld sha ing hei
expe iences ha ha e a ely scaled up o
mee he needs o an en i e ci y. Mos cas-
es ha e been hea ily suppo ed by NGOs,
go e nmen s o aid agencies and a e
he e o e di icul o assess in he “wild”
o he open ma ke . Looking a he p e i-
ously men ioned case s udies, a ew les-
sons om he Da es Salaam con ex ha e
eme ged.
Ve ical In eg a ion – While p o i s
can be made when an owne /ope a o
u ilises e ical in eg a ion h ough he
emp ying, anspo , ea men and euse

B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
87
ing a nigh . By gaining he us o he
communi y, he iew o he business can
become mo e posi i e, wi h he bene i s
o he se ice easily isible.
Regula ion is necessa y – P ope egu-
la ion goes hand in hand wi h p o iding
a se ice ha is us ed and demanded
by he communi y, balancing he in e -
es s o all s akeholde s (WSUP & ESAWAS,
2020). One key ou pu o he session “How
can we ensu e ha he sludge eaches
he ea men plan ?” a he global FSM
con e ence, FSM6 session 4 (2021), was
a b ains o ming session o de e mine he
mos impo an aspec s o his opic, and
egula ion was he mos ci ed (Figu e 72).
To imp o e he image o he sec o , egu-
la ion is essen ial o cu ail illegal emp y-
ing and i s ad e se e ec s on heal h and
he en i onmen h ough o malisa ion,
and he p i a e sec o mus be incen i -
ised o p o ide p o-poo se ice. I he
p i a e sec o is le wi hou egula ion,
hey would ha e li le incen i e o se e
di icul o each in o mal neighbou -
hoods. Fu he mo e, Key Pe o mance
Indica o s (KPIs) could be used o mon-
i o o pe o mance and ensu e quali y
s anda ds a e being me (AMCOW, 2021a).
enue om comme cial con ac s whe e-
as single- uck ope a o s only ecei ed
7% om comme cial con ac s (Koné &
Chowdh y, 2012).
Dis ance makes a di e ence – In e y
la ge ci ies like Da es Salaam, dis ance o
he si e and ime spen in a ic is c ucial
o p o i abili y. The same s udy by Kone &
Chowdh y (2012), ound ha 40% o ope -
a ing cos s in A ica we e om uel due o
longe dis ances and he olde age o he
ucks which consume mo e uel. He e,
decen alised ea men and/o ans e
s a ions could help educe dis ances and
ime spen pe ip.
Communi y In ol emen is c ucial –
The us o he communi y is c ucial in
p o iding a se ice ha has adi ionally
been elega ed o illegal ope a o s wo k-
Figu e 71 P o i abili y o acuum uck businesses
based on size o business (sou ce: adap ed om
Kone & Chowdh y, 2012)
Figu e 72 Wo d cloud om FSM6 session 4 - How do we ensu e ha he sludge eaches he ea men
plan ? (Fe back e al., 2021)
J. Young
88
These PPPs a e wha a e used as an
indica o o SDG 17.17. The e o e i is
impo an o d aw a dis inc ion be ween
hese PPPs and p i a e sec o in ol e-
men in gene al.
Tha ’s no o say hese PPPs a e always
a bad idea (e en hough he e is sca ce
da a on hei pe o mance o e TP). Many
coun ies ha e had a numbe o g ea ex-
pe iences wi h PPPs whe e hey li ed up
o hei p omises o maximizing e icien-
cy and minimizing he inancial bu den
on he go e nmen , bu hese ha e gene -
ally been coun ies wi h s ong enabling
en i onmen s and obus legal ame-
wo ks like he UK, Aus alia, Ge many,
F ance, he Ne he lands and he USA.
In coun ies wi h inexpe ienced go e n-
men s and a p opensi y o co up ion,
he in o ma ion asymme y in PPP con-
ac nego ia ion and lack o anspa ency
make PPPs a isky en u e indeed.
So while he success o many small-
scale “PPP”-like a angemen s ge lumped
in wi h PPPs as de ined by he Wo ld
Bank, he e is a muddying o he wa e s.
Do PPPs wo k o FSM (o WSS) o don’
hey? How could we know when we don’
know wha we’ e measu ing.
8.2 A look a non-con en ional
PPPs
The na ow “Wo ld Bank” lens o iew-
ing PPPs as long- e m wi h signi ican
isk bo ne by he p i a e sec o has i s
uses, especially in e ms o la ge-scale,
con ac ually igid in as uc u e p ojec s
ha o en cos hund eds o millions o dol-
la s. Bu his lens is unsui able o small-
C ea ing a success ul FSM business
is di icul , and he conclusion o his
analysis is ha con en ional PPPs will
only make i mo e so. No only a e PPP
con ac s much oo complica ed o he
a e age pe son o unde s and, hey a e
leng hy and exclusiona y. P ope ly unc-
ioning and comp ehensi e FSM equi es
pa ne ships om all co ne s – om in-
o mal ogmen, o en ep eneu s, com-
muni y leade s and he go e nmen . An
open ne wo k o ac o s achie ing a mu u-
ally bene icial goal.
So i pa ne ships a e wha ’s needed,
why no jus call hem PPPs? They a e
pa ne ships be ween he public and p i-
a e sec o s, igh ?
8.1 The need o a eb anding
B oadly speaking, PPPs a e used o de-
sc ibe a wide ange o pa ne ships be-
ween he p i a e and public sec o s. I ’s
in he name. Bu he p oblem is, o hose
wi h he money and powe o a ec go -
e nmen s (The Wo ld Bank, OECD, A DB
e c.), PPPs a e no simply a pa ne ship
be ween he public and p i a e sec o s.
PPPs a e long- e m, con ac ual ag ee-
men s be ween a p i a e pa y o con-
so ium, wi h a dash o isk ans e and
a sligh (legally necessa y) lack o ans-
pa ency ( o p o ec business in e es s).
They a e a ehicle o i ms and in es o s
o make e u ns on de eloping ma ke s.
And hese a e wha IFIs and MDBs like
he Wo ld Bank and A DB a e p omo ing
o go e nmen s, p o iding unding o he
es ablishmen o enabling en i onmen s
o hese ypes o PPPs, comple e wi h
PPP uni s and all (Ens, 2019).
Chap e 8: PPPs by any o he name: A p oposal o Open
Pa ne ships
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
89
and p o ec ing he en i onmen , seem o
be ha dly di e en om ypical PPPs in
ha decision-making powe emains wi h
he public and p i a e pa ne s (UNECE,
2021). In A ns ein’s seminal wo k, A Lad-
de o Ci izen Pa icipa ion (1969), his
ype o s akeholde engagemen would be
in he middle o he ladde , on he consul-
a ion ung, and “i consul ing hem is no
combined wi h o he modes o pa icipa-
ion, his ung o he ladde is s ill a sham
since i o e s no assu ance ha ci izen
conce ns and ideas will be aken in o ac-
coun ” (A ns ein, 1969). She adds
“pa icipa ion wi hou edis ibu ion o
powe is an emp y and us a ing p ocess
o he powe less. I allows he powe - hold-
e s o claim ha all sides we e conside ed,
bu makes i possible o only some o hose
sides o bene i . I main ains he s a us
quo.”
PPCPs on he o he hand, while also
conside ing he bene i s o he wide
communi y as a p ima y de ini ion o
success, also include he communi y as
a pa ne in he planning/design o he
p ojec (Koppenjan, 2015). Acco ding o
he Penabulu Founda ion (2015), an In-
donesian-based non-p o i , he PPCP ap-
p oach
“is a syne gis ically ope a ional model ha
is used o achie e sus ainable de elopmen
in which he h ee pa ies join ly de elop
a business uni /se ice o mu ual bene i
and p o ide maximum bene i o he wide
communi y.”
In his a angemen , he bene i s o a
long- e m inancial ela ionship go o he
p i a e pa ne , he public sec o gains ad-
di ional esou ces and e ains owne ship
o he asse s and he communi y bene i s
om he skills, knowledge, se ices and
new echnologies (Penabulu Founda ion,
scale FSM se ice p o ision ha is o en
in o mally a anged, wi h se ice-based
ag eemen s on an ad-hoc basis (Wa e
& Sani a ion o he U ban Poo [WSUP],
2017). These lexible pa ne ships be-
ween public and p i a e pa ne s, NGOs
and he communi y, o en inaccu a ely
pu unde he “PPP” label, a e essen ial
o he de elopmen o success ul u ban
FSM se ices (B inke ho & B inke ho ,
2011).
Non-con en ional “PPPs” include pub-
lic-p i a e-communi y pa ne ships
(PPCPs), Adminis a ion-Business-Ci -
il socie y (ABC) Pa ne ships ( his e m
ne e seemed o ake o ) and people- i s
public-p i a e pa ne ships (P PPPs),
among o he s. These pa ne ships can
a y g ea ly, bu gene ally aim o ep e-
sen he in e es s o he communi y as
well as he public and p i a e pa ne s
(Adnyana e al., 2015; Koppenjan, 2015;
Mou gues & Kingombe, 2017).
Acco ding o he UNECE’s (2021) In e -
na ional PPP Cen e o Excellence (ICoE)
People- i s PPPs
“ensu e ha ou o all s akeholde s, ‘people’
a e on he op. I s ocus is on imp o ing he
quali y o li e o he communi ies, pa icu-
la ly hose ha a e igh ing po e y, by c e-
a ing local and sus ainable jobs, hose ha
igh hunge and p omo e well-being, p o-
mo e gende equali y, access o wa e , en-
e gy, anspo , and educa ion o all, and
ha p omo e social cohesion, jus ice and
disa ow all o ms o disc imina ion based
on ace, e hnici y, c eed and cul u e.”
How P PPPs “ensu e” ha people a e
on op is h ough s akeholde engage-
men , hough i is unclea wha o m his
akes. These ypes o PPPs, while igh ly
expanding he de ini ion o success om
a pu ely p o i able one o imp o ing li es
J. Young
90
8.3 OPUS: Open Pa ne ships o
U ban Sani a ion
PPPs ha in ol e he communi y as an
equal pa ne a e essen ial o long- e m
sus ainabili y o FSM in as uc u e. The
p e iously men ioned case s udy is a good
example o his, and can se e as a mod-
el o pa ne ships in de eloping egions.
Howe e , i is my opinion ha PPCPs
su e om ying o build o a model o
PPPs ha is undamen ally unsui able o
small-scale FSM in de eloping egions,
and ha a new e m would be e se e
bo h he na u e and pe cep ion o pa -
ne ships be ween he p i a e and public
sec o s: Open Pa ne ships (OP).
OPs in oke an open handed app oach
ha is a ailable o pa ne s and s ake-
holde s on all le els, educa ed o unedu-
ca ed, wi h o wi hou esou ces. Whe e
PPPs a e he handshake deal be ween a
public and p i a e en i y, OPs a e an open
hand ha is a ailable o anyone willing o
be a pa o he solu ion. Some key ec-
ommenda ions o he cha ac e is ics o
an OP a e:
1. Simple, lexible and sho - e m
con ac s
Con ac s o PPPs a e much oo com-
plica ed o an a e age small-scale en e-
p eneu o sani a ion se ice p o ide o
be able o handle wi hou assis ance. Cu -
en ly, T ade Was e Ag eemen s (TWA) a e
in place in Tanzania ha mee his need
o simplici y, while s ill ensu ing ce ain
s anda d ope a ing p ocedu es (SOPs),
se ice quali y, s anda ds, a i s, eco ds
e c. a e kep and main ained (EWURA,
2020). These TWAs howe e a e o he
emp ying and anspo s eps in he se -
ice chain, and could also be ex ended o
small-scale FSTPs and he ea men and
2015). These ypes o PPPs can be ailo ed
o FSM and o en wo k well by o maliz-
ing he in o mal sec o while gi ing go -
e nmen al suppo o ensu e p o-poo
se ice and egula ions o p o ec public
heal h and he en i onmen .
Examples o hese kind o pa ne ships
a e o en seen in he non-p o i sec o ,
whe e an NGO (such as BORDA in Tanza-
nia and elsewhe e) ac s as in e media y
be ween he go e nmen and small-scale
PSPs.
One good example o a non-con en ion-
al PPP can be seen in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
The e, he na ional NGO Dus ha Shas hya
Kend a (DSK) pa ne ed wi h Dhaka Wa-
e Supply and Sewe age Au ho i y (DWA-
SA) and communi y-based o ganiza ions
(CBOs) ha ep esen ed in o mal slum
a eas o expand access o he wa e sup-
ply sys em (Hossain & Ahmed, 2015).
DSK se up wa e poin connec ions
unde hei name while acili a ing he
legi imiza ion o he CBOs in he eyes o
DWASA h ough capaci y building, e en-
ually handing o e he wa e poin s o
be managed and paid o by he CBOs. To
legi imize he ela ionship, CBOs signed
ipa i e “Wa e poin Hando e Ag ee-
men s” wi h DWASA and ensu e ha hei
membe s pay he ees. The in ol emen
o he communi y in he planning, ope a-
ion and main enance o he wa e poin s
was a key ac o o hei success, p o id-
ing a sense o owne ship o e he in a-
s uc u e ha was in u n be e main-
ained and a highe pe cen age o wa e
ees we e collec ed (Hossain & Ahmed,
2015). This PPCP was able o scale-up o
se e 200 slums and p o ide o e 100,000
slum dwelle s legal access o wa e .
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
91
subsidies o less p o i able sec o s such
as FSM h ough ee dumping, main-
enance, ax c edi s, subsidised CapEx
(T ucks, FSTPs), e c.
6. Regula ion
P ope egula ion is essen ial o bal-
ancing he in e es s o all he s akehold-
e s. Regula ion and en o cemen is nec-
essa y o cu ail illegal emp ying and i s
ad e se e ec s on heal h, en i onmen
and legal business models. This can be
done h ough o malising he in o mal
sec o h ough capaci y building, assis-
ance h ough CBOs, NGOs o wo ke s’
unions. Fu he mo e, egula ion is neces-
sa y o ensu e s anda ds and KPIs a e be-
ing me ha a e i al o sus ainable FSM.
8.4 Fu he Resea ch
The pu pose o his hesis was o de e -
mine how sui able PPPs we e o FSM in
Da es Salaam, and subsequen ly o p o-
pose a pa ne ship s uc u e ha would
be mo e sui able han PPPs we e ound o
be. This has been accomplished, howe e
he e a e se e al a eas ha could ecei e
u he esea ch.
1. The eadiness ada could be u -
he de eloped h ough in e iews wi h
s akeholde s wi h expe ience in PPPs in
Da es Salaam, o de e mine a weigh ed
CSF amewo k ha is pe haps mo e ac-
cu a e o assessing PPPs in hei pa icu-
la con ex .
2. The con ac ual amewo k and
pa ne ship s uc u e o an OP could be
u he de eloped o accoun o speci ic-
i ies ega ding isk-sha ing, obliga ions,
paymen s uc u es, dispu e esolu ions,
and he like.
3. Financial a angemen s wi hin he
disposal/ euse s eps in he chain as well.
Fu he mo e, lexible con ac s could
ake ad an age o mul i-sec o al e icien-
cies, such as combining solid was e se -
ice wi h he emp ying and anspo o
FS.
2. T anspa en
T anspa en con ac s, da a collec ion
and se ice ag eemen s would ease ac-
cess in o he ma ke , inc ease compe i-
ion and ul ima ely acili a e be e se -
ice p o ision.
3. Communi y led
Open pa ne ships a e designed o acil-
i a e bo om-up pa icipa ion in he FSM
ma ke , h ough communi y ou each,
oppo uni ies o jobs could be ad e -
ised o locals who know and a e known
by he neighbou hood. This could c ea e
a sense o us and des igma ize he ma -
ke , while inc easing li ing s anda ds and
c ea ing weal h. When he communi y is
a pa o he e o , owne ship o he in-
as uc u e and se ices c ea es mo e in-
cen i e o sus ain hem.
4. Equal powe
In o de o balance he powe be ween
he WSSA (DAWASA) and se ice p o id-
e , i is ecommended o c ea e a CBO, o
wo ke ’s union o ep esen he collec i e
in e es s and needs o sani a ion wo ke s.
5. Financing
Local banks and inance ins i u ions
need o be in ol ed and in o med o
he business case o FSM. The wo ke ’s
union o CBO could acili a e loan appli-
ca ions and c ea ing business plans o
a ac inancing. I p o i able business
cases canno be made due o logis ics o a
lack o ma ke demand, he go e nmen
mus ealloca e esou ces o p o ide

J. Young
92
men and in la ge-scale p ojec s ha jus-
i y he ansac ion cos s associa ed wi h
PPPs (Es ache & Philippe, 2012). Ano he
key inding o his esea ch was he con-
usion su ounding hem, and a lack o a
clea de ini ion which has se e al e ec s:
i s , hose who belie e PPPs can in-
clude a wide spec um o pa ne ships
wi h he p i a e sec o end up seeing PPPs
as ob iously necessa y o add ess gaps in
in as uc u e and se ice deli e y, espe-
cially in de eloping egions wi h go e n-
men s ha a e s uggling o p o ide hese
se ices hemsel es.
The ques ion isn’ i hey a e sui able,
goes hei line o easoning, bu which
kind is sui able.
The p oblem wi h his iew, is ha
while PPPs do in ol e a wide spec um
o a angemen s, he spec um is small-
e han mos hink, and acco ding o he
Wo ld Bank and o he IFIs, only includes
long- e m pa ne ships ha include he
ope a ions, inancing and/o main ain-
ing o asse s o ensu e a en ion is paid o
whole-o -li e cos s. By mis akenly lump-
ing in PPPs wi h se ice le el ag eemen s
o managemen con ac s, holde s o his
iew may be mo e p one o p omo e PPP
legisla ion and PPP as a cu e-all, which is
simply o e -kill in mos cases ha in ol e
small-scale p ojec s and can add inc eas-
ing cos s o ime and money which a e al-
eady in sho supply
The second e ec o a clea de ini ion,
is ha jus like he e a e p oponen s o
p i a e sec o pa icipa ion, he e a e op-
ponen s, who iew PPPs as p i a isa ion,
and p i a isa ion as he co po a e ake-
o e o he public sphe e and he dea h-
knell o democ acy. This a i ude equally
lumps a a ie y o pa ne ship s uc u es
in o he same ca ego y and can c ea e a
go e nmen ega ding ing encing could
be u he explo ed, as inancing om
he go e nmen o subsidize FSM will al-
mos ce ainly be necessa y. The e is one
go e nmen paymen sys em, does mon-
ey ha is collec ed by DAWASA go in o he
same accoun as he uni e si y, o do hey
ha e sepa a e accoun s based on hei
con ol numbe . How do we ensu e he
public and p i a e pa ne s ecei e he
money om se ice p o ision?
8.5 Conclusion
“The p i a e sec o has much o o e , and
in many o ms. To ackle he immense
challenges acing he u ban wa e sec o in
de eloping coun ies, policy make s need
all he help hey can ge . I migh jus be
ime o a b oade concep o pa ne ship,
one ha includes all and excludes none”
(Ma in, 2009).
So a , he ole o he p i a e sec o in
FSM se ice p o ision has been o mee
demand ha is no being me by he pub-
lic sec o – bu i is a om b idging he
gap. Human and en i onmen al heal h,
in he o m o wa e bo ne diseases like
chole a, and en i onmen al h ea s like
eu ophica ion a e he consequences o
his ailu e o p ope ly ea FS. Tap wa-
e ha mus be boiled, and plas ic bo les
illing land ills – women walking long dis-
ances o e ch clean wa e and gi ls d op-
ping ou o school. And as ci ies con inue
o ill, he p oblem is only ge ing wo se.
Pa one o his hesis discussed his
gap in FSM and i PPPs we e a sui able
ins umen o b idging i . The li e a u e
is mixed on PPPs, and while his esea ch
ound ha hey a e unsui able o small-
scale FSM, PPPs su ely ha e hei uses in
con ex s wi h a s ong enabling en i on-
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
93
1. Capaci y building o inancial plan-
ning and a ac ing loans
2. Da a keeping and collec ion is nec-
essa y o businesses o g ow
3. Ve ical in eg a ion be ween mul-
iple s eps o he se ice chain has
clea ad an ages
4. P o i abili y equi es a minimum
scale
5. Regula ion and en o cemen o
s anda ds and KPIs is necessa y o
p o ec he in e es s o all s ake-
holde s
Finally, due o he unsui abili y o PPPs
o b idge his gap in se ice p o ision, I
p oposed an open pa ne ship s uc u e
ha is mo e sui able o he wide ange
o ac o s in ol ed in se ice p o ision.
Open Pa ne ships a e communi y-led,
lexible, less complex and open o all ac-
o s ac oss he sani a ion se ice chain in
o de o mee he g owing needs o quick-
ly g owing ci ies like Da es Salaam.
I is clea ha lis ing wha is needed
o sus ainable FSM is no enough, and
ha pu ing hese p o isions in o place
is whe e he ha d wo k lies. A i s s ep
owa d his p ocess, howe e , is simply
engaging wi h he p i a e sec o , bo h
o mal and in o mal, ha a e al eady in-
ol ed in FSM se ice p o ision and in-
s ead o compe ing wi h hem and limi -
ing hei in ol emen wi h unnecessa y
legal hu dles, gi ing hem space and op-
po uni ies o build hei businesses, p o-
ide jobs and weal h, and se e hei own
communi ies. As Julius Nye e e pu i ,
“I eal de elopmen is o ake place, he
people ha e o be in ol ed.” The people,
i seems, a e he missing ‘P’ in public-p i-
a e pa ne ships.
nega i e public a i ude owa d p i a e
pa icipa ion which is coun e p oduc i e
o sol ing p oblems ha can’ be sol ed by
he public sec o alone. Wi hou commu-
ni y suppo , p omising p ojec s can ail.
The hi d e ec due o a lack o a clea
de ini ion, is ha i is inc easingly di i-
cul o compa e hei e icacy. How can
one compa e a $500 million hyd opowe
p ojec wi h a small-scale FSTP ha cos
a ound $50,000? This inabili y o anal-
yse hei e icacy is ce ainly e ec i e in
keeping schola s busy ca ego ising hem,
bu i muddies he wa e s o sensible pub-
lic policy.
This akes us o pa wo o his hesis,
which analysed he PPP eadiness o Tan-
zania, wi h a speci ic look a Da es Sa-
laam. The indings om he analysis we e
ha he e is a low eadiness o PPPs due
o se e al easons:
1. Lack o knowledge and capaci y
conce ning PPPs
2. Lack o inancial ma ke s
3. P esence o co up ion and a lack
o anspa ency in many s ages o
he PPP p ocess (bidding, p ocu e-
men , nego ia ions, con ac ual ob-
liga ions, echnology)
4. P ocedu al hea y PPP p ocess ha
discou ages p i a e-sec o pa ici-
pa ion (especially small-scale)
5. Unce ain legal and egula o y en i-
onmen
A e looking a he PPP eadiness, I
ook a close look a h ee case s udies
o PSP in he FSM se ice chain – emp y-
ing, anspo and ea men (and euse
po en ial). The gap analysis o hese PSPs
iden i ied se e al a eas ha need a en-
ion in o de o scale-up se ices o ully
b idge ha gap in se ice p o ision in Da
es Salaam. These included:
J. Young
94
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Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies
Ca oline Chema E ic Pe sonal In e iew - Summa y Repo
Da e: 27.01.2021
Time: 1 h . 15 min.
Place: Online ia Zoom
Ca oline Chema E ic is a PPP ope a ions o ice a he Wo ld Bank, who, in collabo-
a ion wi h GIZ and Rebelg oup In e na ional in 2017, pe o med a gap analysis epo
on he PPP legisla ion in Tanzania. The epo , i led F amewo k Gap Analysis Repo
and Recommenda ions was a key esou ce in my esea ch. Ms. E ic ag eed o hold a
semi-s uc u ed in e iew wi h Tim Fe back and I on he 27 h o Janua y, 2021.
Exce p s and key poin s:
• Minis y o Finance and he PPP Cen e a e he cus odians o all PPPs, ega dless
o wha sec o
• To s a a PPP, mus be app o ed by Dawasa, hen app o ed by MOWI, hen sen
o he PPP Cen e
• “You see how i is p ocedu ally hea y. And ano he p oblem ha we see, is ha
he e is no ma ying o echnical (wa e ) and echnical (PPPs) so you ind you
ha e people si ing a Dawasa wi h knowledge o PPP, and no people a MOW wi h
knowledge o sani a ion.”
• “Now o e e y p ojec he e is a p ojec managemen commi ee, whe eby he e
will be eps om bo h con ac ing au ho i y (DAWASA), MOW and PPP Cen e, ha
join commi ee is mean o in o m each o he o he echnical aspec s o he wa e
sec o and PPPs.”
• “All hese decen alized sys ems de eloped in he pe iphe als o Da es Salaam,
ha a e no connec ed o he main sys em.”
• “A d i e o p i a e sec o pa icipa ion would be, hey need suppo o hese
new echnologies, which a e mo e sus ainable and scalable. Ano he d i e is he
inancing side. These decen alized sys ems a e e icien bu hey don’ ha e bud-
ge s. These a e he wo main d i e s.”
• “DAWASA p e e s DBT and would p e e ha ope a ions a e done by he wa e
u ili y and no by a p i a e company” and doesn' like p i a e ope a o s due o pas
expe iences wi h Ci y Wa e and la e DAWASCO.
• Ano he challenge ha you see in pa icula in he wa e sec o , i is di icul o
b ing in an in e na ional in es o , especially o hese small scale communi y
based p ojec s. So we need o wo k ou a mechanism o p epa ing hese p ojec s,
5-10 yea s is jus oo sho a ime o a company o ge all he in o ma ion and ex-

B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
103
pe ise o managing hese DEWATS.
• Can we s anda dize se ice ag eemen s? So we always ge he same p ocess-
es, clauses, same p o isions. The e is po en ial and MoW is looking o models
ha a e mo e sus ainable, en i onmen ally iendly, and can inc ease access o
planned and unplanned se lemen s.
• IGA - cen alized go e nmen paymen sys em
• All he money goes in o one go e nmen accoun , wi h pe haps sub accoun s o
di e en depa men s. Li le ing encing o ea ma king o unds.
• Can hey ensu e ha he money om a PPP goes back o i ?
• How gua an eed is he p i a e ope a o ha he will ge he money back?
• “A he momen his money si s in one po , and he go e nmen is a libe y o in-
es in educa ion, o you know. I is di icul o ing ence, so ing encing is key o
a ac inancing.”
• This a ec s all SOEs
• “The e is s ill hope, hey a e ying o open an accoun wi hin he accoun s o he
easu y, o be o he whole u al sec o . I his goes h ough, we ha e disco e ed
an ins i u ional a angemen o inancial a angemen s o PPPs. So we will y o
pilo his and see how i goes.”
• “To hem, se ice p o ision is abou collec ing e enue, hey don’ wan he p i-
a e sec o o ge ich on public p ojec s, so le ’s see how i goes. They need o ge
on one o wo PPP p ojec s o in ol emen wi h he p i a e sec o o see o su e
i hey s ill wan o ope a e.”
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .
J. Young
104
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .
Eng. Romanus A. Mwang’ingo and Eng. Mu aekulwa Mu egeki Pe sonal In e iew -
Summa y Repo
Da e: 16.03.2021
Time: 1 h . 3 min.
Place: Online ia Zoom
Eng. Mwang’ingo was he ac ing CEO o DAWASA un il 2018, and cu en ly se es as
a consul an and ad iso . Toge he wi h Eng. Mu egeki, hey w o e he Guidelines o
Onsi e Sani a ion and Faecal Sludge Managemen o Wa e and Sani a ion Au ho i ies,
2020. This publica ion is he la es s ep in p o iding guidance o he in eg a ion and
egula ion o he p i a e sec o in FSM.
Exce p s and key poin s:
• Mu egeki: “We don’ ha e a s uc u ed PPP o sani a ion in Tanzania, which is
s uc u ed acco ding o he PPP guideline as gi en by he minis y. The e a e some
PPP in e en ions which a e somehow managed, bu we didn’ go a in o how
hese people a e wo king.”
• “They seem o be e y complex, ha is why EWURA is p epa ing one speci ically
o u ili ies o wa e supply and sani a ion. Bu ye , o implemen i no one has
ied, because he p ocedu es - concep no e, p e easibili y, easibili y, app o ed,
hen MoW and easu y - so p ocedu es seem o be leng hy and cumbe some, so
hey a e eluc an o pu sue”
• Rega ding Toangoma FSTP:
• “The PPP model which hey op ed o , I hink i wo ked, because when we in e -
iewed he ope a o , she said he p ojec is p o i able, and he e is demand. Bu
wha happened in ha scheme, DAWASA p o ided he asse s, he ope a o p o id-
ed he land. DAWASA is no eco e ing any cos s. The ope a o was complaining
no enough capaci y.”
• Financing - Romanus was o p ope y ax collec ed h ough LGAs, “We need also
o see how hey manage hese unds. Some imes he e is expe ience o misapp o-
p ia ion o misuse o hese unds. You migh ind he unds a e collec ed bu hey
a e used o o he se ices wi hin he LGAs.
• Mu egeki is in a ou o a sani a ion le y - bo h a e op imis ic ha i is easible and
has ad an ages.
• Only abou 50% o DAR a e connec ed o wa e supply (800,000 p ope ies and
400,000 connec ions) so i migh no be e y ai .
• Da a: NSMIS - LGA o WASH, mo e ocused on supe s uc u e, no con ainmen ,
annual Audi epo s should be a ailable, bu no including much da a, mos /all
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
105
o he da a collec ion is no ye implemen ed o FSM.
• Scheduled emp ying is app ecia ed o p o iding a consis en e enue s eam o
se ice ope a o s.
• DAWASA mainly keeps eco d o dumping ees, because whoe e wan s o dump
in ponds has o pay. So his in o ma ion is a ailable, bu he de ails on he ucks,
hey ha e jus s a ed. They jus p ocu ed hem las yea . All he ponds also ecei e
sewage om he ne wo k, so i ’s ha d o sepa a e FSM.
• How bes o in eg a e he p i a e sec o ?
• Romanus - “The in es men cos is on he high side, so p i a e sec o is no keen
o in es in his because hey can’ se hei own a i o eco e cos . So you see
mos o he ime he in es men is done by he go e nmen … In Da es Salaam you
canno ha e di e en a i s o di e en pa o he ci ies, so his is a challenge.
Fo ope a ions his migh be possible because in es men s a e no oo much and
hey can eco e cos s.
• “No p i a e ope a o has a b and new uck, new ucks a e qui e expensi e. As
o now he a es o emp ying a e no egula ed, especially he emp ying. so he
people wi h cheap ucks, hey can o e a low a e, so i you ha e p i a e ucks
you need o compe e. This a challenge. The in es men cos is less, so hey can
su i e.”
• Mu ugeki - in oduc ion o sani a ion le y. I hey can in oduce his in Da es Sa-
laam and scheduled emp ying, his would ensu e income o he u ili y and hey
can as well pay he p i a e sec o . Then hey don’ ha e o wo y i acili y ge s ull
o ank is o e lowing. I hink his could wo k o Da es Salaam i EWURA could
in oduce he sani a ion le y. The plan o EWURA is o ing ence ha le y, and
used jus o sani a ion, because sani a ion has been neglec ed and people would
like o see imp o emen .
• The le y Mu egeki p omo es would be one bill o he wa e supply and sani a ion.
Fo hose no connec ed o he wa e supply, le y‘s would be collec ed a wa e
kiosks (indi ec ly also o e he wa e bill, as he wa e kiosk pays o he wa e
supply)
• Zambia is an example which can be ollowed. Ring - encing o unds om le y
is possible, and accep able, as sani a ion has been a much neglec ed sec o and
needs mo e a en ion.
• “Make i one bill, hese hings belong oge he , ha is he way we can ake his
o wa d.”
• Household Income Su ey could be used o es ima e cos o le y - a ound 5-6 pe -
cen
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .
J. Young
106
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .
Pe e Hawkins In e iew Summa y Repo
Da e: 21.05.2021
Time: 1 h . 3 min.
Loca ion: Online Via Zoom
Pe e Hawkins is pa o he Wo ld Bank’s global u ban sani a ion eam, speci ically
ocusing on p ojec suppo in A ica. He has wo ked in Mozambique, Tanzania, Ghana
and a ious La in Ame ican coun ies, S i Lanka and Indonesia. F om 2007 o 2016, he
headed he WSP eam in Mozambique, and he is cu en ly se ing in a global consul an
ole o he Wo ld Bank and o he o ganiza ions, based in he UK. He has w i en many
a icles and books on FSM and sani a ion, including FSM Inno a ion Case S udies - Case
S udies on he Business, Policy and Technology o Faecal Sludge Managemen (second
edi ion).
Exce p s and key poin s:
• “O e he yea s he u ban de elopmen has made hings much wo se. Whe e you
could once each places wi h acuum ucks, ha ’s no longe he case.”
• “The p i a e sec o is making a p o i , ha ’s why hey’ e he e, bu i ’s no a e y
luc a i e business. You don’ see oo many uck ope a o s d i ing a ound in ancy
ca s.”
• DAWASA is ge ing hei own ucks and now compe ing wi h he p i a e sec o .
• “Scheduled emp ying model has a lo going o i . Bu i ’s challenging. You ge o
he house and no one’s he e. The whole hing has o be eliable and well o ga-
nized. The idea o paying a egula ee, especially o poo people, is a ac i e.
Paying a ew dolla s a mon h is mo e easible o hem. I ’s a blun ool, bu i ’s less
wo se han he o he ones.”
• “Sou h A ica is in e es ing because i ’s abou he only coun y in A ica whe e
he go e nmen has he commi men o p o ide ee basic se ices o e e ybody,
whe e in some ways hey leas need he p i a e sec o .”
• “I ’s no so much i PPPs a e sui able, bu wha kind o PPP is sui able. I ’s almos
con en ional wisdom now ha we need he p i a e sec o he e.”
• “We had an inciden in Mozambique whe e hey passed some e y hea y handed
PPP legisla ion, whe e i was basically o deal wi h somebody building hyd opowe
o a majo mine als p ojec , and suddenly i u ned ou ha unde his legisla ion
ha some li le wa e company in a small own se ing a own o 10,000 people
had o hi e a ba e y o lawye s. I was clea ly nonsense, i ac ually caused a lo o
p oblems.”
• Rega ding he size, complexi y and scale o PPP con ac s: “Some hing ha is sui -
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
107
able o 100 million is clea ly no sui able o a guy wi h a couple o gulpe s and a
mo o cycle.”
• “Regula ion is an impo an pa o i . You’ e dealing wi h in o mal businesses o
mic o-en e p ises ha a e jus abou o mal, maybe ha e a business license om
he ci y council, and pa icula ly in he FS business hey’ e no qui e su e wha
is legal o no because o he public heal h legisla ion. I ’s a bi o a mine ield o
hem. A numbe o ope a o s I spoke o a e ac ually qui e in a ou o legisla ion.
They know wha he goalpos s a e, and ha e an en i onmen in which hey a e
willing o in es . We’ e no p epa ed o in es ou money now because we don’
know wha ’s going o be illegal.”
• “You see he same hing in his massi e la ge scale PPP legisla ion. They can be
doing some hing pe ec ly good and innocen and suddenly ind ha i s illegal. So
ha ing clea legisla ion abou wha is supposed o be done and no done is use ul
o bo h sides.”
• I p ope ly managed, egula ion ha is no oo hea y can be a use ul ool in ha
en i onmen .
• Recommended o us o alk o Felix Ngamgosi, he old head o EWURA conce n-
ing egula ion.
• Wo king wi h he local inancial sec o - “They may ha e a pe ec ly iable busi-
ness p oposi ion bu hey don’ know how o go o he bank.. Jus gi ing some
business skills o hese guys, and in o ming he inance people abou wha so o
business his is, looking a app op ia e inancial ins umen s - ways o secu i izing
he business. So ha banks ha e mo e willingness o lend. Pe haps a gua an ee
und ha le e ages he inancial sys em. Then hese small businesses ha e he
means o ge beyond he one uck kind o en e p ise.”
• Men ioned he impo ance o euse - looking a local ma ke s
• “Some imes he e's a lo o oman ic hinking abou euse ha needs o be ho -
oughly examined.”
• Men ioned he impo ance o scalabili y
• Rega ding egula ion - a i se ing: “I i ’s a monopoly si ua ion, a i capping
is o cou se necessa y, bu i you ha e 30-40 di e en businesses, you can ely on
compe i ion o keep he p ices easonable.”
• Whe e should he p i a e sec o be in ol ed? (E&T & T, o jus E&T)
• “I could be ei he way. The e a e echnical ad an ages o combining i . One ad-
an age o ha ing e ically in eg a ed sys ems, hey’ e no going o allow ha
(chemical dumping) o happen.”
• The sensible way o do i is o wo k wi h he se ice p o ide s. They’ e he guys
ha know wha ’s easible and wha isn’ .
• Whe e does he inancing come om? “Sani a ion le y is a good way o wa d.”
• Rega ding he analysis I p esen ed o him. “I seems like you’ e doing a p e y sen-
sible piece o wo k.”
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .

J. Young
108
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .
Kigamboni FSTP si e isi and M . Milinga In e iew Summa y Repo
Da e: 15.02.2021
Time: 12-3 PM
Loca ion: Kigamboni
Took he e y and hopped on a back o a mo o bike axi o ge o he si e. They we e
su p ised o see me by mysel wi hou a BORDA ehicle.
Fac s and Figu es:
• M . Milinga owns he si e and he equipmen . He go a new 60 m3 acuum uck.
Also has wo icycles (3 m3) and a sludge ac o (1m3).
• Se es 40,000 people - said his was he only si e in Kigamboni.
• Cha ges 30,000 o 2 m3, 40,000 o 3m3 - 100,000 o si es ha a e u he away.
• Has a con ac wi h Dawasa who es he e luen e e y h ee mon hs. DAWASA
also ga e him pe mission o s a business in o he ci ies h oughou Tanzania.
• T ained 140 ope a o s las yea - ees a y depending on whe e hey a e om -
300,000-600,000.
• Has six ull- ime employees and 4 pa ime.
• Income: 2.5 million/mon h (890 Eu o) o emp ying business, excluding income
om euse, aining, dona ions e c.
• Cos s: 1.2 million/mon h
• O he income s eams: aining cen e , e ilize and compos , ui and ish, loa -
ing ga den, solid was e managemen , o he ucks dumping he e
• “I ’s a good business. I s a ed wi h he gulpe , ook loans and paid back no p ob-
lem.”
CHALLENGES:
• Pi s ull o mixed and solid was e. Sys em incompa ibili ies wi h he uck o ma-
chines ha a e sen he e and a e unable o emp y pi . Beha io change is neces-
sa y.
• The acili y was buil by esea che s 10 yea s ago, he communica ion and people
included in numbe is oo low o numbe o people ha a e now li ing in he
wa d.
• As a business model - anke is expensi e, bu communi y doesn’ always unde -
s and. Oh is i ull now why don’ you come…
• F ogmen and illegal emp ying
• P oblem wi h unding. No enough capi al in es men s o s a hese businesses
al hough he e is a clea business case o hem.
• Banks a en’ amilia wi h he business model and don’ o e loans.
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
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CCBRT, Mbu aha i, Kigamboni FSTP si e isi s and Godlo e Ngoda In e iew Sum-
ma y Repo
Da e: 17.02.2021
Time: 08:00 - 2 PM
Loca ion: Da es Salaam
• Fi s si e a he CCBCR Hospi al - The DEWATs was in good condi ion - owned and
ope a ed by he hospi al.
• Cu en ly hey bu n he gas because he cooks don’ like i . No ho enough/comes
om aeces.
• They had a la ge DEWAT and a smalle one ha led o he same ea men pond
and PGF.
• Mbu aha i: DEWATs o DAR, now owned and ope a ed by DAWASA. F eshly pain -
ed, e y clean, no so busy. Se e al gua ds we e si ing a ound, bu no one o op-
e a e he icycle.
• One uck, which was gone.
• Godlo e: ‘Do you hink icycle would be si ing he e i i we e p i a ely ope a ed?
This is subsidized, hey ge paid no ma e wha by he go e nmen .’
• Li le incen i e o ge mo e business.
Challenges acco ding o Godlo e:
• Now we ha e he in as uc u e bu s ill 90% isn’ being ea ed. I mus no be he
unding o he in as uc u e hen.
• Could be he willingness o pay
• Some places a e oo ha d o each
• He belie es beha io change is one o he bigges challenges.
• T ucks don’ illegally dump because o big ine (250$ he es ima ed). En o cemen
o his is widesp ead and d i e s could lose hei license. Jus akes someone ak-
ing a pic u e and sending i in o hem illegally dumping.
• Howe e , some ha d o each places ha e no o he op ion han o illegally emp y
hei sep ic. No one can each hem and hey ha e no money.
• DAWASA didn’ ake new d i e s because o bu eauc acy, no deg ee.
• The e is a lack o expe ience and desi e om plan manage s a DAWASA o wo k
in FSM.
• he e is enough legisla ion, bu en o cing he a e age poo pe son o ogman is
a e. This is whe e a majo i y o he was e low goes.
• on Maga uli: No one’s pe ec , he’s a human being. Bu you see esul s wi h all his
new in as uc u e.
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .
J. Young
110
Appendix B - In e iew Summa ies con .
Toangoma FSTP si e isi and Ms. Mhando In e iew Summa y Repo
Da e: 17.03.2021
Time: 2-4 PM
Loca ion: Toangoma
Founded in 2018 - now a 50/50 pa ne ship wi h DAWASA - spli ing he ea nings om
he dumping ees collec ed. Mwanahama keeps he p o i s om ui s and ege ables,
e ilize and uses he biogas. DAWASA pays o he la ge main enance cos s - such as
cleaning and equipmen b eakage (es ima ed 1 million TZS/Yea ), she pays o mino
hings (500k/yea ).
They ha e a con ac - bu no a o mal PPP. Cu en ly wai ing o a license.
The si e was clean, bu cu en ly ou o commission because o a b oken mixe ? in he
holding ank. Had a big clean a ew mon hs ago wi h desludging, now emp y excep o
wa e .
Specs:
• 20,000 L Holding ank
• 50,000 L Biogas ixed dome
Can ea up o 20,000 L/day, bu be e 10,000 L. So abou 1 anke pe day. (la ge one).
200 50kg bags o e ilize pe yea . Sold a 1k each. 200k p o i . No p ope ly es ed o
pos ea ed. Sludge is sho eled igh in o bag. DAWASA checks quali y o wa e e luen
hough once a mon h, also he bananas.
300k pe mon h income, 150k each o DAWASA and he .
She is sa is ied wi h he pa ne ship, bu would like a bigge holding ank (30,000 L
ank is in discussion wi h DAWASA). She has a lo o demand bu no he capaci y o mee
i o u n a p o i . The FSTP is no p o i able. She is he only employee. Would like o
acqui e oyo uck o ge p ope sludge, and no he mos ly wa e ha he ucks dump
he e. Would like o hi e employees and p o ide wo k and se ice o he communi y.
She is op imis ic o he u u e and belie es his could be a p o i able business. Belie es
educa ion is equi ed o in o m people abou he impo ance o DEWATS. She would like
o also ha e a aining cen e like M . Milinga o supplemen he income and p o ide
mo e jobs.
Bigges challenges:
• no enough capaci y
• oo much wa e in ucks, no enough sludge
• no equipmen ( oyo o emp ying ucks)
• unplanned na u e o neighbo hoods
B idging he Gap? An analysis o PPPs as an ins umen o es ablish sus ainable models o FSM in Da es Salaam
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Appendix C - PPP p ocu emen and app o al p ocess acco ding o 2020 Regula ions