Re iew A icle
Jou nal o In elligen Ma e ial Sys ems
and S uc u es
2022, Vol. 33(3) 379–399
ÓThe Au ho (s) 2021
A icle euse guidelines:
sagepub.com/jou nals-pe missions
DOI: 10.1177/1045389X211027954
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Sma ma e ials in a chi ec u e o
ac ua o and senso applica ions:
A e iew
Ma in Sobczyk
1
, Sebas ian Wiesenhu
¨ e
2
,
Jo
¨ g Raine Noennig
2
and Thomas Wallme spe ge
1
Abs ac
Se e e challenges such as deple ion o na u al esou ces, na u al ca as ophes, ex eme wea he condi ions, o o e po-
pula ion equi e in elligen solu ions especially in a chi ec u e. Buil en i onmen s ha a e concei ed om sma ma e i-
als based on ac ua o and senso unc ionali y p o ide a p omising app oach in o de o add ess his demand. The
p esen pape e iews sma ma e ials-based echnologies which a e cu en ly applied o de eloped o applica ion in
ci il s uc u es, ocusing on sma ma e ial applica ions o ac ua ion o sensing. A e gi ing a de ini ion and ca ego iza-
ion o sma ma e ials, applica ions o he in es iga ed ma e ials (i.e. shape memo y ma e ials, elec o- and magne os-
ic i e ma e ials, piezoelec ic ma e ials, ionic polyme -me al composi es, dielec ical elas ome s, polyelec oly e gels as
well as magne o- and elec o heological luids) a e p esen ed o he ields o a chi ec u e and ci il enginee ing. While
some ma e ials a e al eady highly ad an ageous in he applica ion con ex , o he s s ill need u he esea ch in o de o
become applicable in eal-wo ld cons uc ions. None heless his e iew indica es hei la ge inno a ion po en ial which
should be consolida ed by sys ema ic esea ch e o s in he nea u u e.
Keywo ds
Sma ma e ials, a chi ec u e, senso s, ac ua o s, design, ci il enginee ing
1. In oduc ion
Since mankind has u ned om nomadism o se le-
men li e, he cons uc ion o pe manen buildings has
e ol ed as a p o ec i e measu e agains ex eme cli-
ma es, na u al disas e s, human and animal h ea , and
o he en i onmen al impac s. Ye , he design o houses
changed cons an ly in eac ion o di e en en i onmen-
al and social needs. Fo example, houses on s il s
eme ged as p o ec i e measu e agains loods.
Demanding s one and b ick buildings we e ca ied ou
o ensu e longe i y o cons uc ions. Today mankind
aces challenges like he deple ion o na u al esou ces,
ex eme wea he condi ions and na u al disas e s, bu
also ho ough demog aphic and socie al changes like
u ban o e popula ion ha di ec ly impac how people
li e in houses and ci ies. These challenges equi e in el-
ligen solu ions. Fo his, an adequa e key esponse
s a egy may be he implemen a ion o sma ma e ials
in o buil cons uc ions. Sma ma e ials a e ma e ials
which can sense en i onmen al changes o ac upon
hem. A la ge a ie y o hese ma e ials a e al eady
well-known and applied in a mul i ude o ields includ-
ing ae ospace, au omo i e, heal hca e, consume
goods, elec onic de ices, ci il enginee ing, e c.
In oducing sma ma e ials as an in eg al pa o ci il
s uc u es as ac i e o sensible cons uc ion elemen s
opens up a wide ange o possibili ies. In he con ex o
building cons uc ion, a ious sma ma e ial echnolo-
gies a e al eady a ailable and commonly used, o
example, piezoelec ic ansduce s o s uc u al heal h
managemen . O he s a e s ill in he s a e o undamen-
al esea ch like sel -ac ua ing acxade elemen s u ilizing
shape memo y alloys.
The aim o he p esen pape is o p o ide a comp e-
hensi e e iew o ele an echnologies and app oaches
1
P o essu u¨ Mechanik Mul i unk ionale S uk u en, Ins i u u¨
Fes ko
¨ pe mechanik, Technische Uni e si a
¨ D esden, D esden,
Ge many
2
Wissensa chi ek u - Labo a o y o Knowledge A chi ec u e, Ins i u u¨
Geba
¨udeleh e und En we en, Technische Uni e si a
¨ D esden,
D esden, Ge many
Co esponding au ho :
Thomas Wallme spe ge , P o essu u¨ Mechanik Mul i unk ionale
S uk u en, Ins i u u¨ Fes ko
¨ pe mechanik, Technische Uni e si a
¨
D esden, Geo ge-Ba
¨h -S aße 3c, 01069 D esden, Ge many.
Email: Thomas.Wallme spe ge @ u-d esden.de
comp ising sma ma e ials in ac ua o ic and senso ic
applica ions in a chi ec u e and ci il enginee ing.
A schema ic explana ion o sma ma e ials in ega d
o de ining senso ic and ac ua o ic con igu a ions is
gi en in Figu e 1.
In he ollowing chap e s, a de ini ion o sma
a chi ec u e and sma ma e ials is p oposed i s .
The ea e , a ca ego iza ion o he mos a icula e
sma ma e ials is gi en. In o de o e iew he s a e-o -
he-a o sma ma e ials in a chi ec u e and ci il engi-
nee ing, espec i e applica ions a e p esen ed o each
conside ed sma ma e ial. The concluding sec ion
highligh s majo ends in his ield and iden i ies whi e
spo s o be u he in es iga ed.
2. Sma a chi ec u e
The ancien discipline o a chi ec u e which designs
and builds cons uc ions especially o he accommo-
da ion o human ac i i ies has ecei ed signi ican
concep ual ex ension in he pas ew yea s by he new
a ibu e ‘‘sma .’’ Seman ically connec ed o no ions
like con ex awa eness, en i onmen al sensi i i y,
s uc u al esponsi eness and adap i i y, ac i e build-
ing, he comp ehensi e e m ‘‘Sma A chi ec u e’’
indica es a new le el in design and cons uc ion
ela ed o in elligen in o ma ion, and communica ion
echnologies (Cla k e al., 1998; Janocha, 2007; Sobek
and Teu el, 2001).
A second main d i e o he apid e olu ion o
sma solu ions in he cons uc ion sec o is he neces-
si y o eac o inc easingly ola ile condi ions in he
physical and social en i onmen (Kasa da e al., 2007).
Clima e change poses new demands in ega ds o build-
ing physics and acili y managemen . Resou ce e i-
ciency and sus ainabili y ha e eme ged as new a ge
c i e ia in (i) design, (ii) cons uc ion, and (iii) acili y
ope a ions o e he pas decades, implying a close mon-
i o ing o ene gy and ma e ial consump ion (Che y
e al., 2008). Socie al and demog aphic changes in u n
dic a e new li e and wo k pa e ns, new demands o
usage and occupancy, on which cons uc o s, eal es a e
de elope s, and ope a o s need o espond wi h lexible
and adap able buil s uc u es (F ohlich and K au ,
2006).
The key bene i o sma o cybe ne ic sys ems a ises
om hei capaci y o p o ide app op ia e communica-
ion and eedback s uc u es which a e able (a) o sense
as -changing condi ions o he spa ial en i onmen s
and (b) o igge and con ol hei adequa e esponse
(Klein and Kae e , 2008). This has esul ed in key appli-
ca ions, o example, o ene gy moni o ing and clima e
con ol, home su eillance and secu i y, p oduc ion
au oma ion and logis ics, e c. The sma ness o he
majo i y o he es ablished solu ions, howe e , un olds
on he le el o echnical appliances. Concei ed and
p oduced independen ly o he buildings’ design and
usage p og am, sma componen s a e me ely a ached
o applied as ( e o) i ings o he basic spa ial and
s uc u al componen s (Akyu
¨ ek, 2018).
Few solu ions exis in a chi ec u e and ci il engi-
nee ing which unde s and sma ness as an inhe en ,
in eg a ed p ope y o physical s uc u es and compo-
nen s. This pape he e o e pu s ocus on solu ions and
app oaches ha go beyond he appliance le el. I exclu-
si ely uses he e m sma a chi ec u e o building
s uc u es o componen s in which sma ness is deeply
implemen ed on he ma e ial s uc u e le el, ha is,
ma e ials ha ing ei he ac ua o ic o senso ic elemen s
which enable he ac i e and as con ol o a chi ec u al
key a ge pa ame e s such as shape, isual appea ance,
o load bea ing capaci ies.
2.1. Sma ma e ials
De ining sma ma e ials is challenging. The e exis a
a ie y o de ini ions on sma ma e ials in he a ailable
li e a u e, which a e ambiguous and some imes con a-
dic i e. Despi e di e ences in de ail, he e is a gene al
consen in he scien i ic communi y ha sma ma e i-
als a e ma e ials o de i ed p oduc s ha a e able o
e e sibly change hei physical o chemical p ope ies
in eac ion o an ex e nal s imulus (Adding on and
Schodek, 2005; Leo, 2007; Mohamed, 2017; Ri e ,
2007; Sobczyk and Wallme spe ge , 2016; Vazquez
e al., 2019). A p oblem wi h his de ini ion is he ac
ha i applies o almos e e y exis ing ma e ial: S eel
e e sibly changes i s dimension o wa e will e e sible
change i s densi y in esponse o ex e nal empe a u e
change, ye hese ma e ials a e no conside ed as
sma ma e ials. So he de ini ion o sma ma e ials
should only apply o non-con en ional p og ammable
ma e ials wi h ou s anding ma e ial p ope ies. Fo
(a)
(b)
Figu e 1. (a) A sma ma e ial in a senso ic con igu a ion will
change i s non-mechanical p ope ies (e.g. chemical o pyhsical
p ope ies) in esponse o a mechanical load and (b) in an
ac ua o ic con igu a ion, he sma ma e ial will de o m in
esponse o a non-mechanical s imulus (e.g. empe a u e change
o ligh exposu e).
380 Jou nal o In elligen Ma e ial Sys ems and S uc u es 33(3)
cla i ica ion we will gi e a b ie ca ego iza ion o ma e-
ials which a e o en e e ed o as sma o ac i e
ma e ials.
2.2. Ca ego izing sma ma e ials
The e is a wide ange o ma e ials which a e conside ed
sma ma e ials. These ma e ials can be ca ego ized as
ma e ials (i) ha eac o a non-mechanical (e.g. elec i-
cal, magne ic, o he mal) s imulus by a mechanical
eply (de o ma ion o mechanical s ess) o (ii) ha
gi e a non-mechanical answe on a mechanical s imu-
lus. So hey can be used as (i) ac ua o s o (ii) senso s
(see Figu e 1).
The e also exis sma ma e ials ha (iii) eac on a
non-mechanical s imulus wi h ano he non-mechanical
eply. In o de o ge an o e iew o exis ing sma
ma e ials a ca ego iza ion o some o he mos p omi-
nen sma ma e ials is gi en in he ollowing lis :
Shape-changing sma ma e ials:
– The mos ic i e ma e ials
* The mal expansion ma e ials
* Shape memo y alloys
* Shape memo y polyme s
* Shape memo y oams
* Shape memo y ce amics
* Shape memo y hyb ids
* Biological sys ems wi h shape memo y
e ec
– Elec os ic i e sma ma e ials
* Elec os ic i e pape s
* Elec os ic i e ce amics
* Elec os ic i e g a elas ome s
– Magne os ic i e/magne oelas ic sma ma e ials
* Magne os ic i es
* Magne oelas ic ma e ials
* Me allic glasses
– Piezoelec ic sma ma e ials
* Piezoelec ic ce amics
* Piezoelec ic polyme s
* Piezoelec ic single-c ys als
* Piezoelec ic ilms
– Elec oac i e polyme s
* Ionic polyme -me al composi es (IPMCs)
* Conduc i e polyme s
* Polyelec oly e gels
* Dielec ic elas ome s (DEs)
– Elec o/magne o heological luids
* Elec o heological luids
* Magne o heological luids
Sma ma e ials wi h changing op ical p ope ies
– Pho och omic sma ma e ials
* Pho och omic pigmen s
* Pho och omic glasses
* Pho och omic plas ics
– The moch omic and he mo opic sma
ma e ials
* The moch omic pigmen s
* The moch omic glasses
* The mo opic glasses
* The moch omic plas ics
– Elec och omic and elec oop ical sma
ma e ials
* Polyme s wi h elec oop ical p ope ies
* Dispe sed liquid c ys als
* Suspended pa icle de ices
Adhesion-changing sma ma e ials
– Pho oadhesi e sma ma e ials
Ligh -emi ing sma ma e ials
– Pho oluminescen sma ma e ials
* Fluo escen ma e ials
* Phospho escen ma e ials
– Elec oluminescen sma ma e ials
* Ligh -emi ing diodes (LED)
* O ganic ligh -emi ing diodes (OLED)
* Thick ilm elec oluminescence
* Thin ilm elec oluminescence
3. Scope o his e iew
As can be concluded om he as numbe o di e -
en sma ma e ials, a comp ehensi e e iew o sma
ma e ial applica ions in a chi ec u e and ci il engi-
nee ing is beyond easibili y. In his e iew pape we
will ocus on applica ions in he ield o a chi ec u e
which include he mechanical manipula ion o a gi en
s uc u e o he senso ic moni o ing o he o e all
s uc u e using sma ma e ials. We will no discuss
sma ma e ials wi h changing op ical p ope ies,
adhesion-changing, ene gy abso p ion p ope ies, and
ligh -emi ing sma ma e ials. This also excludes
nanoma e ials o he mal pe o mance enhancemen ,
which is e iewed o example by Olia e al. (2019).
We ocus on ma e ials which migh be seen as no el
o inno a i e in he ield o cons uc ion and a chi ec-
u e. This excludes well-known ma e ials like he mal
expansion ma e ials, wood (Kim e al., 2006, 2008;
Reiche e al., 2015; Ugole , 2014), o bime als. As a
esul , he ma e ials o in e es a e p ima ily shape-
changing and can be lis ed as
Shape memo y ma e ials
Elec os ic i e sma ma e ials
Magne os ic i e sma ma e ials
Piezoelec ic sma ma e ials
Ionic polyme -me al composi es
Polyelec oly e gels
Dielec ic elas ome s
Magne o- and elec o heological luids
Sobczyk e al. 381
4. S a e-o - he-a o sma ma e ials in
a chi ec u e
The e a e nume ous examples o applica ions in a chi-
ec u e and ci il enginee ing inco po a ing sma ma e-
ials. In he pas , he la ges in es men s in sma
ma e ials o a chi ec u e we e alloca ed o sma win-
dows and acxades (Adding on and Schodek, 2005). Bu
also en ila ion sys ems, s uc u al heal h moni o ing,
and he p o ec ion agains seismic e en s a e p omising
applica ions. Be o e going in o de ail wi h he applica-
ion examples o sma ma e ials in a chi ec u e, he
gene al cha ac e is ics o he in es iga ed sma ma e i-
als a e lis ed in Table 1 and depic ed in Figu es 2 and 3.
4.1. Shape memo y ma e ials
Shape memo y ma e ials a e ma e ials which a e able
o eco e hei o iginal shape upon being se e ely and
quasi-plas ically dis o ed, a e a sui able s imulus was
applied o he ma e ial (Huang e al., 2010a). This abil-
i y o eco e y is called shape memo y e ec . Also,
some shape memo y alloys (SMAs) show supe elas ic
p ope ies. The supe elas ic e ec desc ibes he capabil-
i y o a ma e ial o eco e i s o iginal shape a e being
subjec ed o la ge s ains (Ma and Cho, 2008).
The shape memo y e ec in SMAs was disco e ed
as ea ly as 1932 in an AuCd alloy. Bu only a e he
disco e y o he shape memo y e ec in NiTi alloy, a
b oade in e es in he ma e ial came up in he scien i ic
communi y. Today, he e is a wide ange o shape
memo y based sys ems in he o m o solid, oam, and
ilm shapes. The SMAs o la ge comme cial in e es
a e NiTi-based, Cu-based (CuAlNi and CuZnAl), and
Fe-based (Huang e al., 2010a; Ozbulu e al., 2011).
NiTi-based SMAs exhibi an excellen co osion esis-
ance and a e biocompa ible (Ozbulu e al., 2011). The
equency esponse o NiTi-based ac ua o s anges
om 0.1–100 Hz wi h a no mal wo king s ain o 4%–
8% (Ozbulu e al., 2011; Teh and Fea he s one, 2007).
O he han SMAs, he e is a huge a ie y o di e en
shape memo y polyme s (Ma he e al., 2009;
Rousseau, 2008). No mally, shape memo y polyme s
(SMPs) a e less expensi e han shape memo y alloys
(Huang e al., 2010a). In compa ison o SMAs, SMPs
exhibi a smalle mass densi y (Wage maie e al.,
Table 1. O e iew o key cha ac e is ics o he in es iga ed sma ma e ials.
Sma ma e ial Common ma e ial Young’s modulus S ain (%) F equency Re e ence
Piezoelec ics PZT-5H 60–93 GPa 0:2 1 MHz Lu e al. (2020)
Elec os ic i es (VDF-T FE-CTFE) 0:4 GPa 0:1 10 kHz Lu e al. (2020)
G ohmann e al. (2000)
Piezopolyme s PVDF 3:2 GPa 10 100 kHz Lu e al. (2020)
Magne os ic i es Te enol D 25–35 GPa ’0:2 ’1 MHz Chop a and Jayan (2013)
G ohmann e al. (2000)
Shape memo y alloys NiTi (ma ensi e) 25–41 GPa 4–8 10 kHz Ozbulu e al. (2011)
NiTi (aus eni e) 80 GPa 4–8 10 kHz Ozbulu e al. (2011)
IPMCs Na ion (K+) 80–130 MPa 10 30 Hz Akle e al. (2005)
Na ion (Na+) 25–40 MPa 25 30 Hz Akle e al. (2005)
Flemion 15–25 MPa 40 20 Hz Bhanda i e al. (2012)
Dielec ic elas ome s Silicone 10–100 MPa 100–2200 1 kHz Lu e al. (2020)
Polyelec oly e gels PNIPAAm 0:3–100 kPa 100 ’1 mHz Ma zelle e al. (2003)
MRF and ERF ’1 kHz G ohmann e al. (2000)
Figu e 2. Classi ica ion o selec ed sma ma e ials: ac i e
s ain e sus s i ness.
Figu e 3. Classi ica ion o selec ed sma ma e ials: ac i e
s ain e sus equency.
382 Jou nal o In elligen Ma e ial Sys ems and S uc u es 33(3)
2009) and hei shape memo y e ec can be igge ed
by a a ie y o s imuli o e en by mul iple s imuli such
as empe a u e and humidi y (Huang e al., 2010b).
Ou o he conside ed ma e ials, shape memo y
ma e ials a e by a he mos p onounced sma ma e-
ial in he domain o cons uc ion and a chi ec u e.
Fo he a chi ec u al ield, Doumpio i e al. (2010)
ha e desc ibed a p o o ype acxade o he Pi aeus
Towe in A hens, G eece. Fo his he openings in he
modeled acxade a e con olled using SMAs wi h an
ac i a ion empe a u e o 35°C–40°C. Using his
acxade, he ai low and he ligh exposu e is egula ed.
The acxade is depic ed in Figu e 4(a). U ilizing ac ua-
o s based on SMA sp ings and join s, Khoo e al.
(2011), and Khoo (2013) manu ac u ed h ee modula
p o o ype sys ems o applica ions as second skin o
shading de ice. The p o o ypes, namely a en , a blind,
and a cu ain, we e also showcases o he use o digi al
and physical compu a ion o design a chi ec u al
mo phing skins. A nume ical in es iga ion using com-
pu a ional luid dynamics (CFD) in Ligna olo e al.
(2011) demons a es, how SMAs o SMPs could be
used o al e he su ace oughness o high- ise build-
ings. This could be used o op imise he wind low and
he e o e he na u al en ila ion and he hea exchange
due o he wind con ec ion. A physical p o o ype o
he used SMA acxade elemen s is depic ed in Figu e
4(b). Liu e al. (2018) compa e he use o SMPs and
SMAs as en i onmen ally-ac ua ed hinges in olded
shee sys ems. The p oposed ki igami s uc u es could
Figu e 4. (a) Facxade p o o ype wi h ellip ical opening ac ua ed wi h SMA wi es. On he le , he sli s a e almos closed, on he igh
hey a e opened (Doumpio i e al., 2010),
1
(b) scheme and physical p o o ype o sma composi e as an ai -bending acxade elemen ,
adop ed om Ligna olo e al. (2011),
2
and (c) p o o ype o an SMA-based Miu a-o igami pa e n as kine ic acxade elemen , adop ed
om Albag e al. (2020).
3
The wood skin is ab ica ed wi h plywood o 1 mm hickness.
1
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The o iginal ile can be downloaded om h p://pape s.cumincad.o g/cgi-bin/wo ks/pape /acadia10258.
2
Published unde C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License, see h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/, no changes we e made.
The o iginal ile can be downloaded om h p:// esol e . udel .nl/uuid:be165d55-9acb-4 1a-9cc1-5685d33676 1.
3
Published unde C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License, see h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/, no changes we e made.
The o iginal ile can be downloaded om h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-33570-019.
Sobczyk e al. 383

adap o ex e nal inpu s, such as hea , ligh , and human
in e ac ion. Liu e al. (2018) alida ed he use o SMPs
as e e sible wo-way-hinges in p oo -o -concep p o o-
ypes. Coelho and Maes (2009) p oposed a sys em o
SMA ac ua ed lou e s o con olling dayligh and en-
ila ion. Tashako i (2014) p oposed a modula acxade
sys em ac ua ed by SMA wi es o sun- acking and
p o iding ene gy h ough pho o ol aic. Loonen (2015)
in es iga ed he use o s ips o shape-memo y alloy o
en ila ion ha espond o ca bon dioxide
concen a ion.
In 2011, Lienha d e al. (2011) published a pa en ed
mechanism called Flec o in
Ò
. This SMA-d i en shading
de ice is inspi ed by he kinema ics ound in he bi d-
o -pa adise lowe and combines high ensile s eng h
wi h low bending s i ness in o de o ge a wide ange
o con ollable mo emen .
In an in es iga ion in 2014, Sha aidin (2014)
designed a kine ic acxade, d i en by SMAs which
allows a empe a u e-dependen shading o he housing
in e io .
In he Li ing Glass p o o ype o he yea 2007,
Benjamin and Soo-in Yang se up a cas silicone mem-
b ane in which sli s we e ac ua ed u ilizing shape-
memo y alloy wi e (Flexinol). When he ca bon dioxide
concen a ion in he ai is exceeding a h eshold, he
SMA wi e is ac i a ed o open he s uc u e o en ila-
ion (Kola e ic, 2015).
Using O igami olding echniques, Pesen i e al.
(2015) s udied ways o achie e a ious deployable shad-
ing sys ems using SMA ac ua o s. Inco po a ing kine-
ma ics and kine ic cons ain s o he digi al model,
geome y, and wi e linea de o ma ion we e success-
ully con olled. Felb ich e al. (2014b), Wiesenhue e
e al. (2016), and Felb ich e al. (2014a) also in es i-
ga ed he usage o o igami-like olding echniques o
a chi ec u al needs which could easily be ex ended by
he implemen a ion o SMA wi es. Wi h his app oach,
he gene a ion o a a ge shape using simple igid old-
ings by a ini e numbe o collabo a i e agen s was
demons a ed.
In o de o c ea e an adap i e shading sys em,
Abdelmohsen e al. (2016) designed a kine ic building
acxade using ligh weigh ma e ials d i en by SMA
wi es. Wi h he adop ion o enseg i y and olding
mechanisms he mechanism is able o c ea e di e en
pa e ns as a eac ion o di e en le els o dayligh
measu ed by op ical senso s.
The concep o sel -shading is widely ound in cac i
and o he plan s subjec ed o high sola exposu e in
o de o lowe he mal ansmission. In he p oo -o -
concep p ojec o Cli o d e al. (2017), i is shown, ha
sel -shading o s uc u es like building acxades could be
achie ed using sma ma e ials. Fo his, sma iles
based on he mal- esponsi e SMA a e designed which
a e able o w inkle and eposi ion hemsel es.
In o de o c ea e adap i e s uc u es like walls,
oo s, o o he kine ic s uc u es d i en by sma ma e-
ials, Jun e al. (2017) c ea ed he p ojec Rememb ane.
The s uc u e is based on he p inciples o ligh weigh
pan og aphs (c issc ossing s icks) and enseg i y (s uc-
u al in eg i y by ension), whe e he Ni inol sp ings a e
ac ua ed using ol age inpu con olled by an A duino
boa d. S ill in he s age o p o o ype, his p ojec ’s goal
is o be applied on a chi ec u al scale.
In 2018, Fo men ini and Lenci (2018) concep ua-
lized a kine ic acxade consis ing on an Ni inol-ac ua ed
aluminum panel. Due o he la ge o ces exe ed by he
SMA, he acxade opens a empe a u es abo e an ac i-
a ion empe a u e a ound 30°C. Analyzing he
mechanical s ess in he SMA wi es using nume ical
simula ions, abou 10
5
unc ioning cycles a e expec ed.
In Wang e al. (2018), a SMA-based join mechan-
ism is p esen ed, which is able o une i s s i ness. The
change in s i ness is achie ed by swi ching be ween a
locked and a eleased s a e. By uning he s i ness in a
con olled manne , an e ec i e ib a ion con ol is pos-
sible o a oid esonance condi ions, which migh ha m
he s uc u e. O he esea ch in he ield o ac i e ib a-
ion con ol s a egies has been published in Shahin
e al. (1997), McGa in and Gue in (2002).
Mo e dominan ly, a passi e ib a ion con ol o
buildings using SMAs we e conduc ed, based on hei
supe eleas ic e ec : Wang e al. (2020) designed sel -
cen e ing supe leas ic SMA de ices o ea hquake esi-
lience o buildings. Ma and Cho (2008) demons a ed
he easibili y o building SMA dampe s o buildings
in ea hquake scena ios. Speiche e al. (2009) de el-
oped a ension/comp ession module o a seismic e o-
i o building. Fo his, NiTi helical sp ings and NiTi
Belle ille washe s we e adap ed. An analysis o load
cases sugges ed ha Belle ille washe a e bene icial o
damping, whe eas helical sp ings a e he p e e ed
choice o ecen e ing and damping pu poses.
The supe elas ici y o SMAs can be u ilized o he
design o b acing sys ems ha a e able o minimize
ea hquake damage on modula s eel buildings. Sul ana
and Yousse (2018) used inc emen al dynamic analysis
o in es iga e he bene i s and d awbacks o such sys-
ems and ound ha hey can signi ican ly imp o e he
esis ance o buildings du ing ea hquakes. Ozbulu
e al. (2010) in es iga ed he po en ial o SMA b aces in
all buildings, op imizing he s uc u e o minimum
displacemen s and accele a ions. The esul s we e
adop ed in a ull-scale shake able es . To a e al.
(2007) did an expe imen al and nume ical analysis o
SMAs as solid s a e dampe s o a p o o ype amily
house, demons a ing ha he SMA b aces we e able o
cu accele a ions by hal in an ‘‘El Cen o’’ ea hquake
scena io. The used SMA-based dampe wi es a e
depic ed in Figu e 5. Se e al o he s udies in es iga ed
he bene i s o SMA b aces in a chi ec u e du ing
384 Jou nal o In elligen Ma e ial Sys ems and S uc u es 33(3)
ea hquake e en s including Shi e al. (2020), La o une
e al. (2007), Au icchio e al. (2006), and Zhu and
Zhang (2007). Re-cen e ing o s uc u es a e la ge
de o ma ion can be achie ed by in eg a ion o shape-
memo y alloys in a b acing sys em (A aki e al., 2014;
Hu e al., 2013; Massah and Do a , 2014).
A mul i ude o esea ch in he ield o beam-column
connec ions was published in which he applica ion o
supe elas ic SMA bol s we e p oposed. Ma e al. (2007)
in es iga ed he bene i s o using SMA bol s e sus a-
di ional connec o s. I was demons a ed, ha SMA
connec o s we e able o bea highe loads wi hou dam-
age, whe eas no mal connec ions showed local buck-
ling, which is e y expensi e o epai in pos -disas e
econs uc ion.
Mo adi and Alam (2015) analyzed momen - esis ing
s eel ames unde ea hquake condi ions and ound
ha he amoun o plas ic de o ma ions can be signi i-
can ly educed by implemen ing SMA pla es in o beam-
columns connec ions. Using nume ical simula ions, i
was shown, ha his me hod o e s la ge ene gy dissipa-
ion capabili ies. Yu dakul e al. (2018) in es iga ed he
use o SMA ba s o ein o ce beam-column join s in a
e o i manne . The e o i cons uc ion was able o
wi hs and quasi-s a ic cyclic loading up o 8% d i
a io, whe eas he e e ence sys em exhibi ed b i le
shea ailu e. DesRoches e al. (2010) and Ellingwood
e al. (2010) e alua ed he seismic pe o mance o
momen - esis ing s eel ames wi h supe elas ic and
ma ensi ic SMAs elemen s using nume ical analysis as
well as ull-scale expe imen al es ings. They demon-
s a ed ha ma ensi ic SMA elemen s wi h la ge
ene gy dissipa ion capabili ies we e sui ed bes o high
le els o seismic ac i i y. On he o he hand i was
shown, ha supe elas ic SMAs wi h sel -cen e ing cap-
abili ies we e bes in o de o educe esidual de o ma-
ions in he s uc u e.
SMAs a e also in es iga ed as base isola ion sys ems
o he p o ec ion o ci il s uc u es du ing ea h-
quakes. Huang e al. (2014) and Jalali e al. (2011) used
a design o base isola ion comp ising supe elas ic
SMA sp ings and a linea sliding mechanism. Fo his,
a phenomenological model was u ilized as well as an
expe imen al wo-s o y s eel ame building. Using his
app oach, he shea o ces, he maximum in e -s o y
d i s and he occu ing accele a ions we e educed o
12.5% o he ones a he e e ence building wi hou
base isola ion. Ozbulu and Hu lebaus (2010) in es i-
ga ed a simila base isola ion de ice, bu included en i-
onmen al empe a u e e ec s on he de ice and
implemen ed a neu o- uzzy model cap u ing he ma e-
ial p ope ies o he used SMA a he di e en es
case scena ios. In o de o e alua e he p o ec ion o
in e nal equipmen o o he seconda y sys ems du ing
ea hquakes by di e en base isola ion s a egies,
Dolce and Ca done (2003) ca ied ou shake able es s
wi h base isola ion sys ems based on ubbe , s eel-
hys e e ic and ecen e ing SMA dampe s. I was clea ly
con i med, ha all base isola ion sys ems we e able o
conside ably educe accele a ions compa ed o ixed-
base s uc u es. Also i has been demons a ed, ha
each isola ion sys em is bes sui ed only in speci ic e-
quency anges. Shook e al. (2008) designed a hyb id
base isola ion sys em comp ising o SMA wi es, mag-
ne o heological dampe s, ubbe , and ic ion-
pendulum bea ings in o de o add ess di e en asks
du ing an ea hquake e en . Using his base isola ion
s a egy, i was shown, ha base d i could be educed
by 18% and main aining s uc u al in eg i y e en du -
ing s ong seismic ac i i y. Dez uli and Alam (2016)
in es iga ed he pe o mance o di e en SMA wi e-
based ubbe bea ings o p o ec a h ee-span s eel-gi -
de highway b idges om b eakdown due o seismic
e en s. The inc eased s i ness o a SMA-na u al ub-
be bea ing esul ed in a highe seismic accele a ion
and he e o e in a mo e agile sys em.
The sys em which was leas ulne able o ea hquake
ela ed collapse was a bea ing sys em based on SMA high
damping ubbe bea ing. Cascia i e al. (2007) p oposed a
di e en design o SMA base isola ion sys ems consis -
ing o wo disks, a e ical cylinde and h ee inclined
aus eni e SMA ba s connec ed o a sliding sys em.
Mainly due o he high p ice o SMA, hei applica-
ion in a chi ec u e and cons uc ion is no widely
es ablished ye . One ac ual eal-wo ld implemen a ion
o SMA wi es in a ci il s uc u e is epo ed by Indi li
e al. (2001): Du ing an ea hquake in 1996, he S.
Gio gio Chu ch Bell-Towe in I aly was se iously dam-
aged. Du ing i s ehabili a ion, SMA de ices we e
applied o he s uc u e. When he nex ea hquake wi h
a simila Rich e magni ude occu ed in 2000, he owe
showed no damage o any kind. Fu he examples o
ein o cemen o cul u al he i age si es damaged by
ea hquakes a e he Basilica o S . F ancis o Assisi and
he San Se a ino chu ch in I aly (C oci, 2001; Indi li
and Cas ellano, 2008; Ma elli, 2008). As one o he
i s cases o pos - ensioning o a conc e e s uc u e, a
highway b idge in Michigan was epai ed by ein o ce-
men wi h SMA ods (So oushian e al., 2001) esul ing
in a educ ion o he c ack wid h by 40%. Se e al o he
in es iga ions we e conduc ed o analyze he easibili y
Figu e 5. SMA-based dampe wi es, ep in ed om To a e
al. (2007).
1
1
Rep in ed om Enginee ing S uc u es, Vol 29(8), To a V, Isalgue A,
Ma o ell F, Te iaul P and Lo ey FC, ‘‘Buil in dampe s o amily homes
ia SMA: An ANSYS compu a ion scheme based on mesoscopic and
mic oscopic expe imen al analyses,’’ Pages No. 1889–1902, Copy igh
(2007), wi h pe mission om Else ie .
Sobczyk e al. 385
and e iciency o SMA base isola ion de ices on build-
ings by Qiu and Tian (2018), Huang e al. (2014),
Ca done e al. (2006), and Yamashi a e al. (2004) and
on b idges by Johnson e al. (2008), Ozbulu and
Hu lebaus (2011), Dolce e al. (2001), and Alam e al.
(2012). Albag e al. (2020) designed a dynamic shading
sys em based on a Miu a-O i pa e n which is con-
olled by SMA-join s in o de o ob ain a empe a u e-
adap i e shell mechanism (see Figu e 4(c)). The p ojec
is si ua ed in sou he n Sibe ia wi h ambien empe a-
u e o –40°C+30°C, which allows a con ol o he
SMA ansi ion only by na u al empe a u e a ia ion.
Using human-con olled hea ing and cooling de ices,
he dynamic shading de ices can also be manipula ed
manually.
Yoon (2021) used shape memo y polyme s (SMP)
wi h a glass ansi ion a 35°C in o de o de elop shad-
ing de ices by exploi ing en i onmen al empe a u e
changes. Fo his, a numbe o 3D p in ing ab ica ion
es s we e conduc ed ollowing a esea ch- h ough-
design app oach. As a esul , basic elemen s o
he mo- esponsi e building skins we e p o o yped
including hinges, sp ings, i is, olding, and wis ing ele-
men s. A comp ehensi e e iew on sola shadings
implemen ing SMA, SMP, and SMH is gi en in Fio i o
e al. (2016). Since Ni inol wi e is cos ly, i s la ge-scale
applica ion is o en es ic ed by economical con-
s ain s. Ano he d awback o his ma e ial is he ela-
i ely low wo king equency, which is de e mined by
he ime o cooling a e ac ua ion. The e o e, SMAs
a e mos ly sui able o quasi-s a ic asks (Musol ,
2005). Also, SMAs su e om a highe a igue com-
pa ed wi h classical cons uc ion ma e ial like s eel
(Wilkes e al., 2000).
4.2. Elec os ic i e sma ma e ials
The elec os ic i e e ec desc ibes he de o ma ion o
a dielec ic in he p esence o an elec ic ield.
Elec os ic ion is he quad a ic dependency o he
s ain o he elec ic ield, whe eas he linea depen-
dency is desc ibed by he piezoelec ic e ec . The mos
p onounced ma e ial wi h elec os ic i e e ec is he
solid solu ion o lead magnesium nioba e and lead i a-
na e called PMN-PT. I shows a maximum s ain in he
o de o 0.1% induced by an elec ic ield. Also hey
exhibi almos no hys e esis e ec . Due o he quad a ic
ela ionship o he s ain o he elec ic ield, he
induced s ain is always o he same di ec ion, indepen-
den o on he sign o he elec ic ield. A majo d aw-
back o hese ma e ials is ha a speci ic empe a u e
ange needs o be p esen o he elec os ic i e e ec
o be la ge. Main ad an ages o his class o ma e ial
a e s abili y and he absence o ageing e ec s (Chop a
and Jayan , 2013).
Despi e o hei a o able p ope ies, du ing he li e -
a u e e iew p ocess, no ele an applica ions o in es-
iga ions o elec os ic i e ma e ials in he ield o
a chi ec u e we e ound.
4.3. Magne os ic i e sma ma e ials
Fe omagne ic ma e ials a e mechanically de o med,
when a magne ic ield is applied on hem. This is due o
he o a ion o he domains o uni o m magne ic pola -
iza ion in he ma e ial. Con e sely, i he magne ic
induc ion o he ma e ial is al e ed due o a mechanical
de o ma ion i is called he in e se magne os ic i e o
Villa i e ec . P ominen examples o magne os ic i e
ma e ials a e Te enol-D, Gal enol, Al enol, Cobal e -
i e, o Me glas 2605SC.
Te enol-D as he mos p onounced magne os ic-
i e ma e ial exhibi s a maximum s ain o 0.2% unde
applica ion o a magne ic ield (Chop a and Jayan ,
2013). I is widely known as a ma e ial o non-con ac
o que senso s, posi ion senso s, s ess senso s, and
magne ic ield senso s (Calkins e al., 2007).
Magne os ic i e sma ma e ials a e equen ly he
ma e ial o choice o be used as magne os ic i e ags
in non-magne ic composi es o s uc u al heal h-moni-
o ing. Measu emen s o he magne ic lux nea he
ma e ial can be e alua ed o ga he in o ma ions on
he damage occu ing in he ma e ial (Adding on and
Schodek, 2005). Khazem e al. (2001) used magne os-
ic i e senso s o he moni o ing o suspende opes
o Geo ge Washing on B idge in New Yo k. U ilizing
longi udinal guided wa es a eling along he s uc u e,
de ec s, and c acks can be de ec ed by he pa ial e lec-
ion o he signal. Wi h his app oach, la ge s uc u es
can be moni o ed e y cos - and ime-e ec i ely. Na
and Kundu (2002) p oposed a combina ion o PZT
ansduce and elec omagne ic acous ic ansduce
(EMAT) o non-des uc i e s uc u al heal h moni o -
ing o he in e ace be ween s eel ba and conc e e. The
combina ion o PZT and EMAT ci cum en s he sho -
coming o EMATs, which can only ansmi ela i ely
low ul asonic ene gy— he PZT ansduce is he e o e
u ilized o signal gene a ion du ing he inspec ion.
Also magne os ic i es could po en ially be applied o
seismic ib a ion con ol. Fuji a e al. (1998) concep-
ualized an ac i e ib a ion con ol sys em o buildings
in Japan. Fo his, he bending momen o he columns
o a ame s uc u e was con olled ia magne os ic-
i e ac ua o s inside o hem. La ge-scale ib a ion es s
on a h ee-s o y house wi h a mass o 1.6 we e con-
duc ed wi h in o al 32 magne os ici e de ices, achie -
ing 15% o ib a ion educ ion up o he hi d mode.
Ohma a e al. (1997) in es iga ed he usabili y o a
h ee-link a m ib a ion con ol de ice, o seismic p o-
ec ion. Fo his a gian magne os ic i e ac ua o was
made and es ed o i s e ec i eness in ib a ion
386 Jou nal o In elligen Ma e ial Sys ems and S uc u es 33(3)
con ol. I was shown, ha wo- and h ee-dimensional
ib a ion we e e ec i ely supp essed in a simple sys em
comp ising a mass and ou sp ings. The wo king p in-
ciple o his de ice is gi en in Figu e 6. Zhou e al.
(2006) in es iga ed a simila sys em showing ha o
eal-wo ld usage o such ib a ion con ol sys em, he
inhe en ma e ial non-linea i ies mus be conside ed in
he design o he ib a ion con ol sys em. Monaco
e al. (2000) ca ied ou expe imen s on damage de ec-
ion using magne os ic i e ac ua o s and pe o ming a
s a is ical analysis. Ha o i e al. (2001) we e able o
measu e he dis ibu ion o c acks in conc e e s uc-
u es h ough low equency elas ic wa es gene a ed by
magne os ic i e de ices.
4.4. Piezoelec ic ma e ials
The piezoelec ic e ec desc ibes he linea ela ionship
be ween he s ain and he de eloped elec ic cha ge on
he su ace o he ma e ial. The e ec o cha ge gene a-
ion due o s ain o p essu e is called di ec e ec ,
which can be u ilized o senso applica ions o ene gy
ha es ing (E u k and Inman, 2011). I a de o ma ion
is induced on he ma e ial due o an applied elec ic
ield, i is called in e se o con e se e ec , which can
be used o ac ua o applica ions (Chop a and Jayan ,
2013). Piezoelec ic ce amics wi h i s mos p ominen
membe lead zi cona e i ana e (PZT) exhibi some
cha ac e is ics which a e desi eable o applica ions in
he ield o a chi ec u e and cons uc ion: Thei p ope -
ies comp ise a s i ness in he ange o 65–80 GPa, an
ac i e s ain o 0.1% and an ac i e equency up o
1 MHz. By using displacemen ampli ica ion mechan-
isms, he s ain can be inc eased up o 10%.
Poly inylidene luo ide (PVDF) is a semi-c ys alline
ma e ial wi h a s ong piezoelec ic e ec and, because
o i s so ness, no mally adop ed o senso
applica ions.
Due o hei well-known mechanical and elec ical
cha ac e is ics, piezoelec ic ma e ials can be used o a
a ie y o applica ions also in he ield o a chi ec u e.
Using piezoelec ic wi es in eg a ed in he su ace
o an elas ic building skin, a en ila ion mechanism
o buildings, also called b ea hing skin was de el-
oped by Bada nah and Knaack (2007). Using a dis-
inc lung-like shape, ai can be ei he b ea hed in o
ou , depending on he ac ua ion by he piezoelec ic
wi es (see Figu e 7(c)). The a e o he esul ing ai -
exchange can be con olled by he eloci y o he
b ea hing mo ion.
Implemen ing s acks o piezo ac ua o s, Gaul e al.
(2008) designed semi-ac i e ic ion join s as dampe s in
la ge ligh weigh space uss s uc u es. In o de o op i-
mize he placemen o hese join s, a nume ical model
was de eloped and es ed on a 10-bay uss s uc u e.
A majo app oach o s uc u al heal h moni o ing
is based on he implemen a ion o piezoelec ic ma e i-
als in ci il s uc u es, since hese can be used as s ain
indica o s o s a ic, as well as o dynamic phenomena.
Also piezoelec ic ma e ials can be used o he ga he -
ing o s ain da a occu ing in he building using a se
o dis ibu ed piezoelec ic s ain senso s (Chen and
Xue, 2018; Fukuda and Kosaka, 2002).
In s uc u al heal h moni o ing (SHM), poly inyli-
dene luo ide (PVDF) is a widely used ma e ial applied
in piezoelec ic ansduce s o ex e nal applica ion.
A anged in a wide ma ix, hese ansduce s a e hen
used o moni o impedance signals o heal h moni o -
ing o he mechanical s uc u e (Song e al., 2004). A
d awback o piezoelec ic ansduce s like hese is, ha
empe a u e and humidi y a ia ions as well as noise
e ec s a e ac o s diminishing he pe o mance o hese
senso s (Chen and Xue, 2018). By he pionee ing wo k
o Song e al. (2008) he SHM inside o conc e e s uc-
u es wi h piezoce amic-based sma agg ega es has
become possible. These a e wa e p oo ed piezoelec ic
pa ches wi h lead wi es which a e moun ed in o he
conc e e s uc u e. They allow he assessmen o ea ly-
age conc e e s eng h, impac de ec ion as well as SHM.
Due o hei small dimensions, PZT sma agg ega es
ha e almos no in luence on he in eg i y o he o e all
s uc u e o be moni o ed, e en i hey a e embedded
in o he bulk ma e ial (Chen and Xue, 2018). A PZT
sma agg ega e is depic ed in Figu e 7(a) and (b).
Inside he s uc u e, measu emen s o damage a e
assessed mo e accu a ely and he inclusion o he sen-
so s in o he s uc u e has he ad an age o p o ec ing
he senso om en i onmen al in luences (Song e al.,
2007).
In di e en in es iga ions i was shown, ha sma
agg ega es can be used o moni o ein o ced conc e e
(Song e al., 2007), ci cula ein o ced conc e e columns
Figu e 6. Ac i e ib a ion con ol de ice using gian
magne os ic i e ac ua o s. The de ice is capable o p oduce
con ollable ic ion o ces and o ques in h ee di ec ions.
Sou ce: Figu e ep in ed om Ohma a e al. (1997).
1
1
Rep in ed om Jou nal o Alloys and Compounds, 258(1–2), Ohma a
K, Zaike M and Koh T, ‘‘A h ee-link a m ype using magne os ic i e
ac ua o s,’’ Pages 74–78, Copy igh (1997), wi h pe mission om
Else ie .
Sobczyk e al. 387
eliable p oduc ion p ocess. Also a igue is an impo an
issue, ha has o be add essed be o e a po en ial long-
e m applica ion in ci il enginee ing becomes ealis ic.
Polyelec oly e gels espond o many ex e nal s i-
muli, which migh become a game change o indoo
moni o ing one day. Bu o his, a lo o esea ch s ill
has o be done: The syn hesis o polyelec oly e gels is
s ill challenging wi h espec o ep oducibili y o he
esul s. Also he size-dependence o hei esponse ime
is a majo d awback, which has o be add essed in o de
o use polyelec oly e gels o ac ua o ic applica ions.
DEAs a e also s ill a he s age o de elopmen and
he e o e he e a e no s anda d componen s a ailable
o simply buy and use.
Fo magne o- and elec o heological luids, an appli-
ca ion in he ield o ib a ion con ol seems o be mos
p omising. He e u he conside a ions on he economic
ad an ages o such de ices a e equi ed.
6. Conclusion and ou look
This pape e iewed key ends o he applica ion o
sma ma e ials in a chi ec u e and ci il enginee ing.
As has been shown, piezoelec ic echnologies a e by
a he mos ma u e class o sma ma e ials used in
his ield, especially o senso ic applica ions as well as
in cases when as eac ion is desi ed. Shape memo y
ma e ials also showed a s ong p og ess in he
ecen yea s, especially when used o ac ua o echnol-
ogy by which la ge displacemen s a e ealized.
Magne o heological luids a e al eady being used in he
ield o ci il enginee ing, especially in he ield o seis-
mic and ib a ion con ol due o hei a iable s i ness.
Bu also magne os ic i es a e es ablished ma e ials o
senso ic applica ions especially in he ield o s uc u al
heal h moni o ing and po en ially also o seismic con-
ol. The pape has shown ha on he basis o ex ensi e
undamen al esea ch on sma ma e ials and echnolo-
gies a ious success ul applica ions could be implemen-
ed in he a chi ec u al and enginee ing con ex
al eady. Being on di e en le el o echnical eadiness
and ma u i y, howe e , he p esen ed app oaches and
solu ions indica e a s ong po en ial o an al e na i e
u u e a chi ec u e whose in elligence no only esul s
om e o i ing wi h in o ma ion and communica ions
echnology appliances, bu om sma ness deeply
embedded in he physical s uc u es o i s s uc u al
componen s and ma e ials. To explo e hese a -
eaching p ospec s, comp ehensi e in e - and ansdis-
ciplina y esea ch e o s a e necessa y. In addi ion o
u he in es iga ions o he applica ion po en ial o
sma ma e ials, also new design app oaches in a chi-
ec u e and ci il enginee ing become necessa y. The
new iew on buil en i onmen s as ac i e, dynamic,
and esponsi e s uc u es also demands inno a i e con-
cep ual me hodologies ha e ec i ely b idge be ween
ma e ials science on he one hand, and en i onmen al
and sociological esea ch, a chi ec u al and s uc u al
design on he o he . Demands and equi emen s need
o be sys ema ically de i ed om conc e e challenges
and applica ion scena ios (e.g. as clima e adap a ion
o ligh weigh s uc u es in dese en i onmen s), o be
adequa ely ansla ed in o asks o esea che s in he
ield o s uc u e and ma e ials science. Vice e sa, he
immense oppo uni ies a ising om he inno a i e
applica ion o sma ma e ials (e.g. la ge shape ans-
o ma ion wi h minimal ene gy e o ) need o be
boldly explo ed in he ields o design and cons uc ion.
The in e sec ion and in eg a ion o hese app oaches
p omise g ea bene i s, especially o he pu pose ul
design and p og aming o new beha io s o spa ial
s uc u es. Buildings and spaces equipped wi h such
ac i e p og ams will be mo e esponsi e and adap i e
o new unc ions and uses, and mo e esilien o ola ile
changes o en i onmen al and social condi ions.
Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s
The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h
espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his
a icle.
Funding
The au ho (s) ecei ed no inancial suppo o he esea ch,
au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle.
ORCID iDs
Jo
¨ g Raine Noennig h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-1681-
7635
Thomas Wallme spe ge h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-
4720-5260
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