Professional success and satisfaction in the career development: gender patterns

31 RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 Sánchez-García, M.F y Suárez-Ortega, M. (2021). Professional success and satisfaction in the career development: Gender patterns. Revista de Investigación Educativa, 39(1), 31-48. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/rie.374121 Professional success and satisfaction in the career development: Gender patterns Éxito profesional y satisfacción en el desarrollo de la carrera: Patrones de género María Fe Sánchez-García* y Magdalena Suárez-Ortega** *Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, España **Universidad de Sevilla, España Resumen En este artículo se estudia una serie de variables vinculadas al desarrollo profesional de trabajadores jóvenes y adultos desde un enfoque de género. Se analizan las percepciones de mujeres y hombres trabajadores respecto al éxito profesional subjetivo de sus carreras, dentro del contexto español, atendiendo a la satisfacción e identificación de patrones de género. Se combina una metodología cuantitativa y cualitativa (enfoque mixto), aplicando un cuestionario a una muestra de 205 trabajadores, así como entrevistas a una submuestra de 32 personas. Los resultados permiten describir una marcada dualidad en la percepción de la progresión de la carrera, la satisfacción laboral y las expectativas de logro, en relación con el género, pero también con la edad. Las barreras percibidas en el desarrollo profesional presentan igualmente patrones diferenciados. Se derivan implicaciones prácticas, a fin de mejorar las estrategias de orientación de las carreras de trabajadoras y trabajadores tomando en cuenta esta realidad. Palabras clave: orientación para la carrera; género; satisfacción laboral; expectativas profesionales. Correspondencia: María Fe Sánchez-García, [email protected], Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Facultad de Educación. Calle Juan del Rosal, 14, despacho 2.12, 28040 Madrid, España. Phone 0034 913 988 275, fax +34 913 987 288 32 María Fe Sánchez-García y Magdalena Suárez-Ortega RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 Abstract This paper examines a series of variables related to the profesional development of young and adult workers from a gender perspective. It analyses, within the Spanish context, how working women and men subjectively perceive their professional success, paying attention to the identification and following of gender patterns. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies are combined in a mixed approach that uses a questionnaire (given to a sample of 205 workers) and interviews (with a subsample of 32 individuals). Their results enable us to describe a marked duality in the perception of career progression, job satisfaction and achievement expectations in relation to gender but also age. The barriers perceived in professional development also present differentiated patterns. Practical implications are derived with a view to improve career guidance strategies for working women and men, taking this reality into account. Keywords: career guidance; gender; job satisfaction; professional expectations. Introduction For decades, scientific literature has been pointing to the existence of gender differences in the configuration of identity. This research (e.g. Betz, 2005; Fitzgerald, & Crites, 1980) has led gender to be considered a barrier in the professional ambitions of women and in the progression of their careers. Although there have been improvements since the end of the last century (Susak, Filipovic, & Podrug (2019), attitudes regarding equality are still not very promising. The distribution of types of employment for women in Spain and in the European Union as a whole is still very much focused on certain activities. Some examples are the caring professions (education, health, care of the sick and elderly), trade and services. The difficulties increase in times of crisis (Organisation for Economy Co-operation and Development, 2013), and Spain today has one of the highest unemployment rates in the EU (Eurostat, 2019). In the field of career guidance, the gender perspective has been slowly but progressively incorporated since the 1950s in studies on career development patterns (Patton, & McMahon, 2006; Saavedra, Araújo, Taveira, & Vieira, 2013). In the context of the industrial era, the studies by authors such as Super (1992) and Super & Knasel (1981) showed that the stages of career development were established by age groups, delimiting few stages of career development based on different sections of expected age groups. Although subsequent studies (Helwing, 2009) continue to reflect this important relationship between age and career stages, changes occurred in the post-industrial and globalized society leading individuals to develop more complex patterns and variations in the progression of their careers (Lent, 2012; Savickas, 2013). At the same time, women incorporate new barriers and strategies when designing their life plans (Evers, & Sieverding, 2014; Haile, Emmanuel, Dzathor, 2016; Pheko, 2014). Gender is therefore considered to be a powerful determinant of career decisionmaking that interacts with other contextual variables (Tyler, 2011). For the most part, studies have focused on populations with access to educational resources and opportunities for vocational structure, and largely on high and medium-high qualification 33 Professional success and satisfaction in the career development: Gender patterns RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 levels (Saavedra, 2013). As such, studies on managerial careers are common (e.g. Grodent, & Peere, 2013; Haile, Emmanuel &, Dzathor, 2016; Moreno Calvo, 2016), or on qualified professionals (e.g. Reimer, 2016; Tugend, 2017). However, it is evident that the segments of occupations with medium or low qualification levels, despite their demographic weight, have been studied to a lesser extent (e.g. Agostinho, & Ralph, 2011). Current approaches to career development emphasize more holistic, systemic and ecological perspectives, focusing on the relational, emotional meaning-centered character that individuals attach to their professional development (McMahon, 2011). Overall, other studies (Kenny, & Donnelly, 2019; Saavedra et al., 2013) show that: (a) women’s careers have different characteristics compared to men’s, they are more complex, slower and irregular, taking fewer risks in decisions; (b) their identity is not necessarily determined by occupation; and (c) their decisions are mediated by various social and contextual barriers of a complex nature. The analysis of the literature on managerial careers conducted by Grodent & Peere (2013) highlights (a) that career perception varies according to age and life cycles, and (b) that what men and women think with respect to social gender roles changes over time, despite some recurring intergenerational patterns. Regarding objective career success, numerous studies confirm clear gender differences associated with factors such as promotion, salary, remuneration or work-life balance (e.g. Llorente Heras, Maroto Sánchez, Martín-Román, & Moral de Blas, 2018; OECD, 2018). Analysis of the positions of men and women in the labour market shows a gender-based dichotomy manifested in the horizontal distribution (in the structure of occupations and sectors) and vertical distribution (hierarchical levels). These studies have shown the barriers and the negative effects of working conditions in women’s careers (Chinyamurindi, 2016), and in their quality of life affecting satisfaction (Nirosha, & Sri Ranga, 2019), particularly the feminization of the lowest positions (Guillaume, & Pochic, 2009; Cebrián, & Moreno, 2018; Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC, 2017; OECD, 2018). In this sense, Pons, Calvet, Tura, & Muñoz (2013) warn of the large amount of knowledge, skills and talents that women possess and that are underutilized by institutions, companies and society in general. The effect of parenthood and role conflict in professional careers has also been a core concern in relation to women’s careers. It has been found that the dual-role lacks the same impact for women compared to men, and does not affect the development of their careers in the same way (Emslie, & Hunt, 2009; Gregory, & Milner, 2009). The longitudinal study by Abele & Spurk (2011) shows that, for women, motherhood has a negative influence on career success, while in the case of men, professional success is independent of fatherhood. In short, the studies confirm that a very traditional view of masculinity is present regarding the concept of work, and of femininity regarding the importance of family and care (Salinas, & Bagni, 2017). Among the indicators of subjective career success, we found relevant dimensions such as the perception that individuals have about the progression of their careers and job satisfaction (Mauno, Cheng & Lim, 2017). Personal valuations seem to be conditioned by gender, together with variables such as age, the dual-career dilemma or their own professional expectations, goals and ambitions. In that sense, we see that 34 María Fe Sánchez-García y Magdalena Suárez-Ortega RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 career preferences are marked by gender stereotypes and affect the job satisfaction experienced by working men and women (Benschop, Halsema, & Schreurs, 2008). In general, women perceive their professional careers more negatively than men regarding their own success and work values. Women’s careers are generally less developed than those of men because they are affected not only by external (social/ labour) factors but also by their own self-imposed limitations and psychological factors. While women express lower expectations and less confidence in reaching their goals, men focus more on achieving promotion and progress at work, even if this involves risks. Women are keener to achieve work stability as a means of achieving work-life balance (Guillaume, & Pochic, 2009; Mauno et al., 2017). Patterns of career progression also show a strong correlation with age and professional levels. Intensive work is required between the ages of 25 to 35, when women are likely to have children and family obligations. The work by Abele, Volmer, & Spurk (2012) discusses career stagnation for women as a phenomenon caused by multiple factors that have not yet been sufficiently studied. The results show this is linked to the dual-career dilemma. Along these lines, Eugeneli, Ilsev, & Karapinar (2010) conclude that satisfaction in the workplace seems to be determined largely by the opportunities to achieve work-life balance. The phenomenon of career stagnation also seems to be related to goals and expectations, in the sense that ambitious career advancement goals reduce the likelihood of stagnation, though they also limit career satisfaction (Abele, Volmer, & Spurk, 2012). Some works show that people develop expectations and values connected to their careers differently according to gender (Damaske, 2011). It seems that the ambitions, expectations and preferences are built on various factors, including the perception of opportunities and obstacles (Patton, & McMahon, 2006). Thus, the study by Guillaume & Pochic (2009) finds that women report lower expectations of achievement, lower confidence in achieving their goals, and aspire to achieve job security as a means to reconcile work and family life; while men opt for further promotion and career advancement, despite the associated risks. They perceive their careers as being less developed than those of men because they are affected not only by external factors (both social and work-related) but also by their self-imposed limitations and psychological factors (Guillaume, & Pochic, 2009). The work by Dolan, Bejarano, & Tzafrir (2011) on engineering workers revealed that in the case of men there is a link between ambitions and career success, but not among women, to the extent that the latter seek greater job security in their careers, and professional success is more related to achieving work-family balance. In this framework, we have pondered on the impact of gender on the subjective success of women’s and men’s careers within the Spanish context. In particular, regarding job satisfaction in the workplace, the way they perceive the progression of their careers, and how much self-confidence they show to make their professional ambitions come true in the future. 35 Professional success and satisfaction in the career development: Gender patterns RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 Method Goals This study explores the characteristics and aspects that differentiate the careers of working men and women, as well as satisfaction in the workplace. We start from the hypothesis that there are gender differences among Spanish workers regarding their career development, the stage of their careers, their long-term expectations and satisfaction with their careers. The aim of the study is to describe and contrast the distinguishing aspects of women and men in their subjective career success. Specifically, with respect to (a) job satisfaction, (b) the perception of the progression of their careers and perceived barriers, and also (c) expectations for future achievement. Sample The sample comprised 205 persons aged between 16 and 65 (58.5% women and 41.5% men). Selection was guided by incidental sampling, depending on the opportunities to access the different workplaces, though ensuring the following criteria: geographical representation within Spain, and several levels of professional qualification. 85.4% work in the tertiary sector (services) and 14.6% in the secondary and primary sectors (industry, agriculture, and livestock farming). The participants live in seven Spanish regions: Andalusia, Canaries, Castile-León, Castile-La Mancha, Madrid, Murcia and the Basque Country. Regarding their professional categories, 9.5% are managers and middle managers, 25.7% are technical staff and professionals, 23% are skilled workers and assistants, and 41.9% work in nonskilled jobs. During the second stage of the study, 32 semi-structured interviews were carried out on a subsample (15.6% of main sample) of workers in order to determine in further depth, from a qualitative point of view, the characteristics and conditioning factors for professional development and satisfaction in the workplace. The following dimensions were studied: (a) job satisfaction, (b) perception of the progression of their careers and perceived barriers, and also (c) expectations for future achievement. This subsample was selected randomly from among the respondents who stated their willingness in the questionnaire: 17 women and 15 men, aged between 24 and 55 years, 65.6% with family responsibilities. By occupational category, 2 are middle managers; 3 technical or professional staff; 4 skilled or specialists workers; 5 aides or assistants; and 18 unskilled workers. Instrument An ad hoc questionnaire was used to collect the data. It comprised 19 items structured in five areas - stage of development, career progression, linearity-discontinuity, expected achievements and job satisfaction, together with 7 identification items - gender, age, area of residence and professional category. The content validity was studied 36 María Fe Sánchez-García y Magdalena Suárez-Ortega RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 by 17 experts in professional guidance with diverse profiles, including counsellors, teachers and researchers in the area. The results showed (on a scale from 1 to 5) high averages (4.3) in: pertinence of the items regarding the goals, sufficiency, and clarity and presentation format (See Table 1). Table 1 Content validity. Ratings by experts Aspects Num. items Pertinence* Sufficiency* Clarity* Presentation format* Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Sex 14.83 .389 4.45 1.036 4.83 .389 4.92 .289 Age 14.92 .289 4.42 .996 4.83 .389 4.92 .289 Area of residence 14.58 .669 4.08 1.084 4.42 .669 4.45 .688 Professional category 14.50 .522 4.33 .651 3.67 1.115 3.83 1.267 Stage of development 14.67 .492 4.42 .669 4.00 .853 4.42 .669 Job satisfaction 15 4.92 .227 4.15 .899 3.23 1.235 3.15 1.463 Progression and linearit of career 24.75 .662 4.25 .754 4.00 .739 4.33 .651 Expected achievements 14.58 .669 4.36 .924 4.00 .853 3.92 .996 * Scale: 0-5 For the reliability study, the internal consistency was analysed using Cronbach’s alpha, giving a result of 0.973 for the 19 elements. Analysis using the split-half method gave coefficients of 0.984 (Spearman-Brown test) and .951 (Guttman test). The semi-structured interviews followed an ad hoc protocol, based on the following dimensions and categories: stages in career development, career evaluation and planning, decision-making, determinants, job satisfaction, expected achievements, work values, gender influence in career, and work-life balance. This technique was applied in order to explore the subject matter of social context-dependent manner and work (Tanggaard, 2009; Denzin, 2014). The methodological approach considered scientific criteria such as triangulation of topics (career development, gender and mixed methods) (Denzin, 2010), and testing the information with the informants themselves (Polkinghorne, 2007). 37 Professional success and satisfaction in the career development: Gender patterns RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 Data collection and analysis procedure The data collection through the questionnaire was done online, while the interviews were conducted by telephone. Attending to ethical criteria, the anonymity of the participants was guaranteed at all times. The data analysis adopted mixed methods (Flick, 2011). For the quantitative analysis, descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used as well as correlational techniques (questionnaire reliability) based on the SPSS 22 program. For qualitative data, a critical analysis of the discourse content was carried out using the NVivo 11 program as methodological support for data categorization and reduction. Regarding the general process of data analysis, the first step was to record the data using a recorder, and then transcribe the information. Subsequently we proceeded to the analysis, coding and categorizing the data, doing an exploratory analysis. Then, the data was analyzed in greater depth, through an analysis of the content and taking into account the importance of the system’s categories. This allowed us to create and revise a system of categories, - the main analytical technique used-, and elaborate text matrices. An example of the coding and elaboration process of the category system is provided (see Table 2). Table 2 System of categories for content analysis Core categories for analysis Codes Examples of discourse Job satisfaction JOBSATI The path has been very good and I have gained much experience and dedication (Male informant 6); My work has been steady, has gone well, the company has valued it... (Male informant 18) Homogeneity and progression in professional career PROGRE I feel my professional development was positive until I had to take care of my parents (Female informant 2); My career has progressed since its inception (Male informant 10) Career conditioning factors Facilitators FACILIT My persistence in pursuing my goals, my perseverance has been essential (Male informant 21) Barriers/ obstacles LIMITAT Motherhood was wonderful, but it had a negative effect on my career, on my professional progression… (Female informant 17) 38 María Fe Sánchez-García y Magdalena Suárez-Ortega RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 Core categories for analysis Codes Examples of discourse Expectations of achievement EXPECT One never stops learning (Male informant 29). I have studied to become a clinical assistant (Female informant 3). Professional success SUCCES Overall, I am satisfied with my career (Female informant 8) I am satisfied with my career, but I aspire to more (Male informant 12) Results Job satisfaction in the workplace The surveys show that, overall, participants did not feel very satisfied with their jobs, since almost no aspect valued as satisfactory reached 50% of frequency (except proximity to home). The elements of greater satisfaction are, in descending order, closeness to home (51.1%), salary (40.8%), the stability of the contract (34.8%), the number of working hours (34.2%), and the interest of the job (33.2 %). By contrast, the informants expressed clear dissatisfaction about the workload (only 4.9% satisfied), conditions of job security (9.3%), promotion opportunities (9.3%), and the physical environment (14.7%). By comparing the averages, significant differences were obtained in all the dimensions analysed, and the importance assigned to each category allows us to identify different profiles of satisfaction by gender in 9 of the 15 issues considered (Table 3). Table 3 Job satisfaction aspects. Descriptive statistics and gender differences N=205 Gender differences Response options Freq SD Freq Women Freq Men Chi square Remuneration Yes 75 .493 38 37 NS Not 109 67 42 Closeness to home Yes 94 .501 51 43 NS Not 90 54 36 Working hours Yes 63 .476 33 30 NS Not 121 72 49 Flexible working hours Yes 39 .410 19 20 NS Not 145 86 59 39 Professional success and satisfaction in the career development: Gender patterns RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 N=205 Gender differences Response options Freq SD Freq Women Freq Men Chi square Contract stability Yes 64 .478 22 42 20.621*** Not 120 83 37 Degree of responsibility Yes 42 .421 14 28 12.510*** Not 142 91 51 Job security conditions Yes 21 .319 615 7.865** Not 163 99 64 Workload Yes 9.216 0 9 12.577*** Not 175 105 70 Interesting work Yes 61 .472 25 36 9.632** Not 123 80 43 Social security and health care Yes 43 .424 23 20 NS Not 141 82 59 Physical environment Yes 27 .356 13 14 NS Not 156 91 65 Recognition by superiors and colleagues Yes 34 .389 11 23 10.396** Not 150 94 56 Link to their training Yes 65 .479 30 35 4.884* Not 119 75 44 Working atmosphere with colleagues Yes 63 .476 27 36 7.893* Not 121 78 43 Promotion opportunities Yes 21 .319 516 10.700** Not 163 100 63 Statiscally significant differences (Chi square): *** p≤.000, p≤.005**, p≤.05*, NS=Not significant The women show levels of demand that focus on more instrumental or basic needs, particularly on job stability and security; while the men have achieved more developed levels of demand, of a more social and personal nature. The qualitative analysis shows that the majority of male discourses on job satisfaction reflect a positive balance (80%). This idea about self-confidence and job satisfaction is added to the perception on expectations of progress: “The path has been very good and I have gained much experience and dedication” (Male informant); “My work has been steady, has gone well, the company has valued it ...” (Male informant). The discourses expressing overall dissatisfaction are not dominant, and refer mostly to job insecurity (lack of job security, lack of professional stability). In contrast, 60.0% of female discourses express an unsatisfactory view of their professional development, coupled with the lack of job security (like the men). To this reason they add emphatically the need to care for 46 María Fe Sánchez-García y Magdalena Suárez-Ortega RIE, 2021, 39(1), 31-48 Eugeneli, A., Ilsev, A., & Karapinar, P.B. (2010). 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