Recei ed: 28 No embe 2024
Re ised: 23 Decembe 2024
Accep ed: 27 Decembe 2024
Published: 30 Decembe 2024
Ci a ion: Fa iña-Sánchez, M., &
Gu ié ez-San ius e, E. (2025). Gende
and Digi al Righ s: An Empi ical
S udy Among Young En ep eneu s.
Adminis a i e Sciences,15(1), 12.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci15010012
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A icle
Gende and Digi al Righ s: An Empi ical S udy Among
Young En ep eneu s
Ma isa Fa iña-Sánchez 1,* and Elba Gu ié ez-San ius e 2
1Depa men o Resea ch Me hodology and Diagnosis in Educa ion, Facul y o Educa ion Sciences,
Uni e si y o Se ille, 41013 Se ille, Spain
2Depa men o Pedagogy, Theo y and His o y o Educa ion, Facul y o Educa ion Sciences,
Uni e si y o G anada, 18081 G anada, Spain; egu ie ez@ug .es
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Digi al igh s ha e been li le s udied om a gende pe spec i e un il now. This
esea ch analyses, om a gende pe spec i e, he cha ac e is ics o young en ep eneu s,
he use o social media in hei en ep eneu ial p ojec s, and hei obse ance o digi al
igh s. I uses a desc ip i e me hodology based on he analysis o 144 success ul cases
o you h en ep eneu ship. Pe cen age analysis and Chi-Squa e es s we e ca ied ou o
de e mine gende di e ences. The esul s e eal ha mos o he en ep eneu ial p ojec s
a e led by men. The sec o s o choice o emale en ep eneu s seem o be, among o he s,
he manu ac u ing indus y and heal h ac i i ies. The mos used social media a e websi es
and Facebook. O e all, no s a is ically signi ican gende di e ences we e ound in e ms
o espec o digi al igh s. The esul s o his s udy poin o he need o design and
de elop aining ac ions aimed a gende equi y in you h en ep eneu ship and aining
in he obse ance and espec o digi al igh s. The esul s o his s udy ha e social
implica ions inso a as hey highligh he di e ences be ween gende s in he de elopmen
o en ep eneu ial p ojec s and he impo ance o p o ec ing and espec ing digi al igh s in
social media, as es ablished by in e na ional s anda ds.
Keywo ds: en ep eneu s; gende ; digi al igh s; in o ma ion communica ion echnology;
social media
1. In oduc ion
In ecen decades, a numbe o changes ha e been aking place, esul ing in majo
epe cussions in a eas such as poli ics, economy and socie y, among o he s. The COVID-19
pandemic had se ious consequences, mainly in e ms o human losses. Mo eo e , wi h
he con lic in Uk aine, he ci izens ha e wi nessed he dis up ion o he supply chain and
an ene gy c isis wi h se e e epe cussions. The in e play o all hese e en s is p e en ing
a e u n o he ela i e s abili y (in e ms o economy, employmen , g ow h, e c.) which
exis ed in he p e-pandemic e a (Ionescu-Some s & Shay,2022). Ano he aspec ha has
been ad e sely a ec ed by he abo e-men ioned e en s has been he labou ma ke . Socie y
has wi nessed ising unemploymen igu es in many social g oups, bu mainly in ulne able
popula ions such as women and young people.
Unemploymen in he eu o a ea, acco ding o Eu os a (2023) da a om July 2022 o
2023, has dec eased om 6.7% o 6.4%. Howe e , among young people, unemploymen
has isen om 13.8% o 14.5%, while, among women, al hough i has allen om 7.1% o
6.8%, i is s ill highe han among men—in which i has allen om 6.3% o 6.2%. In o he
wo ds, we ind, on he one hand, ha you h unemploymen wo sened in 2023, despi e he
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15010012
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 2 o 18
ac ha i was al eady double he gene al a e, and, on he o he hand, we obse e ha
unemploymen among women is highe han bo h he gene al a e and he a e o men.
Acco ding o he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (O ganisa ion
o Economic Co-Ope a ion and De elopmen [OECD] & Eu opean Union,2020), Spain
is, among he analyzed na ions, he i s coun y in e ms o unemploymen a e in all
age g oups. Acco ding o da a om he Spanish go e nmen (Public Se ice o S a e
Employmen [SEPE], 2023), Andalusia is he au onomous communi y wi h he highes
unemploymen a e (26%). Spanish emale unemploymen in July 2023 is he second highes
in Eu ope a e G eece, a 14.9% and 14.8%, espec i ely (Eu os a ,2023). In he case o
Andalusia, he pe cen age o unemployed women is highe han ha o men (454,286 people
compa ed o 293,859) and is highe in all Andalusian p o inces (
SEPE,2023
). Conside ing
he employmen sec o s whe e women mainly de elop hei ac i i ies, i can be obse ed
ha he se ice sec o is a he head o emale unemploymen , bo h a he Spanish na ional
le el and a he Andalusian egional le el (SEPE,2023).
In his con ex , en ep eneu ship is p esen ed as a way o people o c ea e hei own
p o essional p ospec s h ough he de elopmen o an en ep eneu ial p ojec . The e m en-
ep eneu has been s udied om di e en heo e ical pe spec i es which ha e in luenced
i s di e en concep ions. Zhao e al. (2021) no ed ha he concep has been in luenced
by h ee schools o hough : Aus ian, Ge man and neoclassical. These in luences ha e
shi ed he concep o en ep eneu ship om being unde s ood as he abili y o esis in
unce ain en i onmen s o being concei ed as he abili y o ake isks, o iden i y and seize
oppo uni ies and o be able o inno a e. These au ho s also poin ou ha he e seems o
be some ag eemen ha en ep eneu ship is he abili y o he indi idual o disco e and
use iden i ied oppo uni ies o achie e obse able ewa ds.
Social media (SM), in he o m o social ne wo ks (e.g., Facebook, Ins ag am o Twi e ),
blogs and websi es, a e inc easingly occupying an ou s anding place in he de elopmen o
en ep eneu ship. People who begin wi h he use o hese echnologies ha e he possibili y
o widening hei ange o ac ion o each di e en ma ke s, hus making hei b and, hei
alues and quali ies known (Naudin & Pa el,2017). Thus, en ep eneu ship becomes a
key elemen o encou age economic de elopmen and employmen c ea ion (Ca alho
e al.,2021). In his sense, he gende pe spec i e canno be igno ed as a c ucial ac o
in en ep eneu ial ini ia i e, as i has a g ea e in luence han age (Vodă& Flo ea,2019).
Women’s en ep eneu ship makes use o SM and allows hei p ojec s o be made isible
ac oss bo de s.
Howe e , he eme gence o hese in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies (ICTs),
he in e ne and social ne wo ks also e lec he so-called digi al di ide in e ms o access
and use as well as he ep oduc ion o exis ing inequali ies in socie y, including gende and
age (He anz e al.,2017). ICT and gende inequali ies in en ep eneu ship a e cu en ly
unde - esea ched, as Gawel and Minska-S uzik (2023) s a e.
2. Theo e ical F amewo k
2.1. You h En ep eneu ship, Gende and In e sec ionali y
Scien i ic li e a u e ocusing on you h en ep eneu ship and gende is sca ce. Aljuwaibe
(2021) e iewed 271 a icles published be ween 2009 and 2019 and ound ha gende
and en ep eneu ship (69 a icles) and you h en ep eneu ship (41 a icles) a e ele an
opics. Howe e , no s udies we e ound which combine bo h opics. The e is li le p e ious
li e a u e ocusing on you h en ep eneu ship in ela ion o gende .
In e ms o he subjec ma e o hese a icles, Ilynkh (2015) in es iga es you h en-
ep eneu ship om economic, social and psychological pe spec i es. S ough (2016) con-
duc s an analysis o esea ch on en ep eneu ship and economic de elopmen whe e he
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 3 o 18
conside s aspec s such as you h en ep eneu ship and gende . Sha ma (2018) in es iga es
he ole o gende and cul u e in young people’s in en ions and pe cep ions o ba ie s o en-
ep eneu ship. Finally, Weiss e al. (2023) analyze in a-g oup suppo and embeddedness
in he de elopmen o women’s you h en ep eneu ship.
Wi h ega d o esea ch on you h en ep eneu ship, i should be no ed ha esea ch
on you h en ep eneu ship is ele an , as s a ed by he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-
Ope a ion and De elopmen [OECD] and Eu opean Union (2020) and he Eu opean Union
(Duell,2018), because o he need o add ess high le els o you h unemploymen h ough
he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial p ojec s. This si ua ion, and he economic and social
condi ions, pose new challenges o young people (Wasilczuk & Ka yy,2022). They a e
dis inguished by being de e mined and adap i e, which makes hem a subjec o s udy.
Howe e , unemploymen igu es, as desc ibed abo e, no only a ec young people and
make hem a a ge o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial p ojec s, bu women also equi e
special a en ion (S ough,2016).
Resea ch by Hamdani e al. (2023) poin s o he impo ance o women and emale
en ep eneu ship in bo h social and economic de elopmen in many coun ies. Women
ha e shown ha hey a e capable o ecognising and aking ad an age o he di e en
oppo uni ies ha he cu en c isis si ua ion o e s and, hus, o u he con ibu ing o
he economic g ow h o hei a ea, egion o coun y. Rega ding sec o s o ac i i y whe e
hese women a e en ep eneu s, almos hal o hem wo k in he wholesale and e ail
ade. In addi ion, one in i e women de elop hei p ojec s in he public sec o , in heal h,
educa ion and social se ices (Global En ep eneu ship Moni o , GEM,2022). Ne e heless,
he p opo ion o women in echnology- ela ed sec o s is 2.7% as compa ed o 4.7% o men.
Howe e , he e a e ce ain ba ie s, bo h in e nal and ex e nal, ha women ace when
i comes o en ep eneu ship. Al hough nowadays he numbe o women en ep eneu s is
s ill inc easing, he suppo gi en o hem by go e nmen s and ins i u ions is no enough
(Ionescu-Some s & Shay,2022). Acco ding o he Global En ep eneu ship Moni o Repo
2021/2022 (GEM,2022), women a e less ac i e han men on a global le el. Ou o e e y
i e en ep eneu s, wo a e women, in he case o p ojec s in he ea ly s ages o de elop-
men . In u n, acco ding o his epo , a a global le el, women accoun o one in h ee
en ep eneu s in high-g ow h and inno a i e p ojec s.
The concep o in e sec ionali y (C enshaw,1989) shows ha a ious mo i es o
ac o s in e ac wi h each o he , gi ing ise o o he sou ces o inequali y. In ou case, we
a e alking abou gende and age. Bigno i and Le Roux (2018) highligh he impo ance
o en ep eneu ship spi i and en ep eneu ship as a solu ion o you h unemploymen as
ela ed o gende . These au ho s poin ou ha women seconda y school s uden s ha e
a g ea e need o achie emen han hei male pee s, and ha hey ely mo e on hei
men o s and con ac ne wo ks o o e come ce ain di icul ies, e.g., access o unding.
Sha ma (2018) in es iga es whe he gende has a signi ican in luence on young people’s
en ep eneu ial in en ions, inding ha emale s uden s ha e less en ep eneu ial in en ions
han males. Meanwhile, A ias e al. (2021) poin ou he demog aphic ac o s which a ec
u al en ep eneu ship in young people, concluding ha gende and age a e in e ac ing
ac o s ha in luence p ojec de elopmen . Acco ding o hese au ho s, women a e less
en ep eneu ial and hose unde 24 yea s o age a e mo e likely o epo a desi e no o be
en ep eneu ial. Finally, Hamdani e al. (2023) poin ou in hei esea ch ha women’s
pe cep ions o gende s e eo ypes and pe cei ed social suppo media e hei sel -e icacy
in e ms o en ep eneu ial in en ion.
In ligh o he abo e, i seems ha he e is scien i ic e idence o he ole ha age
and gende play as an in e sec ion in he in en ion and subsequen de elopmen o en-
ep eneu ial p ojec s. This makes hem opics o scien i ic in e es .
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 4 o 18
2.2. Social Media (SM) and En ep eneu ship
Social media, social ne wo ks (Facebook, Ins ag am, Twi e ), blogs and websi es,
among o he s, ha e become an essen ial elemen o en ep eneu s (Secundo e al.,2020).
Thanks o hese echnologies, people can each di e en ma ke s, p omo e hei b ands
(Naudin & Pa el,2017) and in luence hei inno a ion (López-Lemus e al.,2024). In he e-
iew ca ied ou by Secundo e al. (2020) on he impac o social media on en ep eneu ship
and i s p ocess, hese au ho s highligh , i s ly, ha he e is sca ce li e a u e on his impac .
Secondly, i ocuses on ou lines: he use o social media in en ep eneu ial lea ning and
sel -employmen ; he use o social media as a ool o p ojec p omo ion (pu pose o his
esea ch); social media in i sel as a po en ial en ep eneu ial oppo uni y; and, inally,
social media as an enable when c ea ing en ep eneu ial ne wo ks.
Rega ding he ela ionship be ween SM, young people and en ep eneu ship, Shi e al.
(2022) a gue ha bo h he use o SM and e-comme ce p o ide key oppo uni ies o young
people o become en ep eneu s.
Naudin and Pa el (2017) no e ha he public na u e o SM allows, in he case o
women, o he p esen a ion o en ep eneu ial expe ience, alues and quali ies. In his
line, Manolo a e al. (2020) claims ha women en ep eneu s ha e aken ad an age o he
oppo uni ies o e ed by he pandemic o digi ise hei business models, a ac ha o se s
he assump ion ha women use echnology less (Raman e al.,2022).
In addi ion, S eel (2021) poin s ou ha , inc easingly, educa ed women a e s a ing hei
p ojec s by using digi al de ices and social ne wo ks. Th ough hese online media, women
o e hei p oduc s and a e able o c oss bo de s. They o e hei p oduc s o in e na ional
ma ke s, ob ain in e na ional p oduc s o u he de elop hei p ojec and can b ing a ie y
and o iginali y o hei p oduc s. Nicolescu e al. (2022) add ha he use o hese pla o ms
allows global inequali ies o be educed by enabling he mos disad an aged people o be
inco po a ed in o global economic lows. Speci ically, in hei esea ch—con ex ualised in
small businessmen and women in Chile, I aly and India— hey highligh he ad an ages o
using hese pla o ms.
Women posi i ely alue he use o echnology in hei en ep eneu ial p ojec s, as hey
see i as a complemen a y job and alue he ad an ages o he lexibili y and wo k–li e
balance ha his ype o wo k o e s hem, enhancing hei con ibu ion o he communi y.
B ydges and H acs (2019) also poin ou he ad an ages ha websi es and social media
ha e had o he ashion indus y and indica e ha Ins ag am is he mos widely used
channel o p omo ing b ands and in e ac ing wi h he public. Social ne wo ks also ha e
he ad an age o hei low cos and he possibili y o di ec sales. In sho , he e is e idence
o he ad an ages ha he use o SM o e s women en ep eneu s when selling hei b and
and p oduc s. Howe e , he ela ionship be ween he use o social media and emale
en ep eneu ship needs u he esea ch. In he e iew o Raman e al. (2022) on emale
en ep eneu ship be ween 1991 and 2021, he au ho s iden i y he h ee mos ou s anding
hemes: ba ie s and ca alys s o emale en ep eneu ship; cul u al and social p ac ices,
such as childca e; economic de elopmen and emale en ep eneu ship.
2.3. Digi al Di ide and Gende
As shown in he p e ious subsec ion, ICTs ha e b ough abou a g ea change in many
a eas and ac i i ies, including en ep eneu ship, bu hey also se e o ep oduce social and
poli ical inequali ies (He anz e al.,2017). Among hese inequali ies, he in e sec ionali y
be ween gende and age appea s again.
The di e ences ha occu be ween indi iduals, social g oups and e en coun ies
when i comes o accessing and knowing how o use ICTs a e e e ed o as he digi al
di ide (Acos a-Velázquez & Ped aza-Amado ,2020). Bokha i and Awuni (2023) a gue
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 5 o 18
ha digi isa ion e lec s o exace ba es p e-exis ing inequali ies, and ha gende , age,
educa ion and socio-economic s a us signi ican ly in luence digi al inclusion, indica ing
pe sis en inequali ies and ba ie s. Saa ed a-Ga cía(2023) s a es ha his gap is among
he ba ie s aced by women when i comes o en ep eneu ship. A ba ie ha hinde s he
digi alisa ion o women’s en ep eneu ial p ojec s and, he e o e, access o new ma ke s,
he abili y o di e si y hei o e and expand he ma ke and sales channels, wea e new
ne wo ks, access go e nmen aining and unding p og ammes o e en access and c ea e
women’s ne wo ks, among o he s.
The e o e, as s a ed by Dini e al. (2021), educing his gap is essen ial o young
women’s SMEs o add alue and become mo e p oduc i e. The elimina ion o his ba ie
equi es he in e en ion o go e nmen s o c ea e public policies and p og ammes ha
educe his gap and a ou he digi isa ion p ocesses o women en ep eneu s. In ac , Goal
5.b o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals [SDGs] al eady seeks o ‘Imp o e he use o
enabling echnology, in pa icula in o ma ion and communica ions echnology, o p omo e
he empowe men o women’ (Uni ed Na ions,n.d.-a, pa a. 6) and, in e ms o educing
in e sec ional disc imina ion, Goal 10.2, whe e ‘By 2030, empowe and p omo e he social,
economic and poli ical inclusion o all people, ega dless o age, gende , disabili y, ace,
e hnici y, o igin, eligion o economic o o he s a us’ (Uni ed Na ions,n.d.-b, pa a. 7).
I is wo h conside ing ha , i gende and age a e a iables ha in luence his digi al
di ide, hinde ing he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial p ojec s, hey may also be in e e ing
wi h he knowledge and applica ion o digi al igh and p inciples in hei p ojec s on
social ne wo ks.
2.4. Digi al Righ s and P inciples
The Eu opean Decla a ion on Digi al Righ s and P inciples o he Digi al Decade
(Eu opean Commission,2023) says ha digi al echnologies a e changing e e y a ea o
ou li es, as well as opening up new and unp eceden ed oppo uni ies. The COVID-
19 pandemic has undoub edly has ened he ole and pe cep ion o digi aliza ion in ou
socie ies and economies.
The pace o digi al ans o ma ion has b ough wi h i inno a ions and ools ha
allow us o be e add ess social challenges. A he same ime, digi al ans o ma ion has
p o ided easie access o educa ion, aining and in o ma ion and has opened up new
spaces o public discou se. The sp ead o digi al echnologies has enhanced eedom by
allowing people o connec wi h each o he e en in he emo es pa s o he wo ld, bu i
has also opened up new oppo uni ies o ci izens, wo ke s and consume s. The sp ead o
digi al echnologies has enabled he c ea ion and g ow h o businesses while allowing o
he inclusion o disad an aged g oups and he p og ess o socie y as a whole (Eu opean
Commission,2023).
Howe e , he a ailabili y o and access o hese digi al echnologies and he da a hey
p oduce has gi en ise o new isks wi h se ious consequences o ci izens, hei secu i y
and e en he ounda ion o socie ies. These isks conce n p i acy, secu i y o pe sonal
da a, ha m ul and unsa e con en , cybe c ime and abuse, among o he s. Nei he ci izens
no businesses should ha e ewe igh s because hey wo k in digi al en i onmen s. To
gua an ee hese undamen al igh s and o ensu e ha people can ake ad an age o hei
oppo uni ies in hese en i onmen s, he Eu opean Union has aken p e en i e measu es,
al hough his is no an easy ask gi en he complex na u e o he use o hese echnologies
and hei solu ions. Fo hei pa , s a -ups and en ep eneu ial companies ace new
challenges in e nally and ex e nally o social media in o de o make hei business ideas
isible and ma ke able (Oppong e al.,2020).

Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 6 o 18
In he Decla a ion on Digi al Righ s and P inciples, he Eu opean Union also p esen s
i s commi men o ensu e ha his digi al ans o ma ion p o ec s ci izens and is sa e and
sus ainable. A ans o ma ion whe e people a e a he cen e o all ac ions and measu es.
All o his is in line wi h he undamen al alues and igh s es ablished by he Eu opean
Union. Among he p inciples se ou in his Decla a ion (Eu opean Commission,2023) a e
he ollowing:
•
Digi al echnologies mus p o ec people’s igh s, suppo democ acy and ensu e ha
all hose in ol ed in he digi al a ea ac esponsibly and sa ely.
•
Technology should b ing people oge he , no di ide hem. E e yone should ha e
access o he In e ne , digi al skills, digi al public se ices and ai wo king condi ions.
•
People should bene i om a ai online en i onmen , be sa e om illegal and ha m ul
con en , and be empowe ed when engaging wi h new and e ol ing echnologies, such
as a i icial in elligence.
•
Ci izens should ha e he oppo uni y o pa icipa e in he democ a ic p ocess a all
le els and o ha e con ol o e hei own da a.
•
The digi al en i onmen mus be sa e and p o ec ed. All use s, ega dless o age and
condi ion, mus be empowe ed and p o ec ed.
•
Digi al de ices mus accoun o sus ainabili y and he ecological ansi ion. Ci -
izens need o be awa e o he en i onmen al impac and ene gy consump ion o
hei de ices.
As a esponse o he abo e, some Eu opean coun ies ha e d a ed hei own Cha e
o Digi al Righ s. This is he case o Po ugal, wi h he Po uguese Cha e o Human
Righ s in he Digi al E a (Lopes & Nunes,2021), and I aly, a pionee wi h i s In e ne Bill
o Righ s (Came a o I aly,2015). Speci ically, in Spain, he Spanish Digi al Agenda 2025
(Go e nmen o Spain,2021) se s ou , among i s 10 s a egic goals, he d a ing o his cha e .
This documen aims o be he e e ence amewo k o ensu ing he igh s and obliga ions
o ci izens and companies in he digi al age. This cha e is based on he de elopmen s in
pe sonal da a p o ec ion and he gua an ee o digi al igh s and add esses he ollowing
igh s: (a) igh o eedom, i.e., igh o iden i y, da a p o ec ion, pseudo-anonymi y,
non- aceabili y, cybe secu i y and digi al inhe i ance; (b) igh o equali y, including non-
disc imina ion, access o he In e ne , p o ec ion o mino s, uni e sal accessibili y and
access gaps; (c) he igh o pa icipa ion and shaping o he public space, i.e., neu ali y,
eedom o exp ession and in o ma ion, ecei ing accu a e in o ma ion, pa icipa ion,
digi al educa ion and access o public se ices h ough hese echnologies; (d) he igh s o
he wo king and speci ic en i onmen ; and, inally, (e) he gua an ees o hose igh s and
he e ec i eness o wha is s a ed in his documen .
Howe e , he majo i y o young en ep eneu s do no know o do no ha e su icien
knowledge o hese egula ions, hei applica ions and he isk o no complying wi h hem
when i comes o making hei en ep eneu ial p ojec s isible on he in e ne o social
ne wo ks (Ba bosa e al.,2024).
2.5. En ep eneu ship Suppo Cen es
Acco ding o Colombo e al. (2019) and Spigel and Ha ison (2018), wi hin he en-
ep eneu ial ecosys em he e a e o ganisa ions whose aim is o suppo and de elop
en ep eneu ship. These o ganisa ions p o ide ad ice, inancing, opening up o o he ma -
ke s, in as uc u es and men o ing, among o he s (Labudo á& Jánošo á,2019;Nowi´nski
& Rialp,2016;Sa ka e al.,2019). Among hese o ganisa ions is he Eu opean Commission
i sel , which has launched a websi e (Eu opean Commission,n.d.) whe e ci izens can ind
in o ma ion on how o c ea e an en ep eneu ial p ojec . In Eu opean coun ies he e a e
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 7 o 18
o ganisa ions which suppo en ep eneu ship, such as he Local En e p ise O ice (n.d.) in
I eland o he Chambe o Comme ce (KVK,n.d.) in he Ne he lands.
Fo Andalusia (Spain), which is he a ge communi y o his esea ch, he lead-
ing o ganisa ion in e ms o en ep eneu ial ad ice is he Andalusian Public Founda ion
Andalusia S a s Up. This is a public en i y belonging o he Regional Go e nmen o
Andalusia and, mo e speci ically, a ached o he Minis y o Knowledge, Resea ch and Uni-
e si ies. I was c ea ed wi h he objec i e o helping o s a up, de elop and consolida e
business ideas, awa e o he alue o en ep eneu s as c ea o s o weal h and employmen
(Siles-Mo eno,n.d.).
Th ough i s mo e han 250 Andalusian En ep eneu ship Cen es (CADE, by i s
ac onym in Spanish) sp ead h oughou he Andalusian egion, his ounda ion o e s
ee se ices o en ep eneu s who wish o c ea e a business p ojec o o companies which
a e al eady es ablished, g ouped in o h ee a eas: (a) suppo o he en ep eneu ial p ojec
and he c ea ion o he company by means o in o ma ion, communica ion and pe sonal
a en ion; p ojec design and business plan; assis ance in se ing up he company; accompa-
nimen , incuba ion and u o ing; men o ing by expe ienced p o essionals; (b) suppo in
he s eng hening o business p ojec s by o e ing accommoda ion, aining, consul ancy,
managemen ools, assis ance in s a egic decision making; and, inally, (c) p omo ion o
he en ep eneu ial cul u e wi h ac ions wi hin educa ion in en ep eneu ial skills, he p o-
mo ion and guidance o en ep eneu ial ini ia i e and he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial
ac i i y in he local en i onmen .
On he basis o he abo e, he gene al objec i e o his esea ch is o analyze he
di e ences be ween gende s in young en ep eneu ial p ojec s, bo h in he obse ance o
digi al igh s and in he ype o SM used o ad e ise each p ojec . Speci ically, i examines
he issue by asking he ollowing ques ions:
•
Objec i e 1. Wha a e he cha ac e is ics o young en ep eneu s, hei p ojec s and
business ac i i y acco ding o gende ?
•
Objec i e 2. A e he e s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween men and women in
he ype o SM used o p omo e hei en ep eneu ial p ojec s?
•
Objec i e 3. A e he e s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween men and women in
he obse ance o digi al igh s in he SM?
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
A desc ip i e me hodology has been used in a mul iple case s udy. We ha e e iewed
he ini ia i es con ained in he Andalucía Emp ende p og am—de eloped in he CADEs.
A o al o 144 en ep eneu ial p oposals we e used o analyze he en ep eneu s, hei
p ojec s and hei SM. This s udy complies wi h he e hical equi emen s o he Uni e si y
o G anada (2019).
3.1. Sample
The pa icipan s we e 144 en ep eneu s. The a e age age o he pa icipan s was
24.58 yea s, SD = 4.15. A o al o 144 SMs o he en ep eneu ial p ojec s we e analyzed. The
numbe o companies c ea ed in 2022 in he Au onomous Communi y o Andalusia was
12,597 (Jun a de Andalucía,2022); 460 p ojec s we e hos ed on he ins i u ional pla o m,
o which 220 co esponded o young en ep eneu s. Conside ing sampling and ep esen-
a i eness equi emen s, a con idence le el o 95%, and an e o o 5%, his s udy had a
sample ha exceeded he minimum size equi ed o be ep esen a i e (popula ion 220,
minimum sample 141).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 8 o 18
3.2. Da a S uc u ing and Analysis P ocedu e
Fo his s udy, wo pa allel p ocesses we e ca ied ou : on he one hand, he selec ion
o people and en ep eneu ial p ojec s; on he o he hand, he cons uc ion o a g id o he
analysis o he p ojec s.
P ocess 1. The da a we e s uc u ed on he basis o he in o ma ion con ained in
he Andalucía Emp ende p og am and he SMs o each o he en ep eneu ial p ojec s.
The p ojec s we e loca ed on he websi e o he p ojec bank and conside ed success ul
expe iences and cases (Andalucia Emp ende Fundación Pública Andaluza,n.d.). A e wa d,
he en ep eneu s who had s a ed up a an age o less han 29 yea s we e selec ed.
P ocess 2. Six esea che s ha e cons uc ed a g id (Supplemen a y Ma e ials) o
coding in o ma ion. The g id has been based on he Cha e on Digi al Righ s documen
(Minis y o Economic A ai s and Digi al T ans o ma ion,2021), which aims o a icula e
a e e ence amewo k ha sa egua ds ci izens’ igh s in he new digi al eali y. Fi y
no ma i e documen s we e also used wi h he ollowing desc ip o s: digi al igh s, digi al
skills, in e ne and social esponsibili ies, digi al en ep eneu ship, young en ep eneu s
and he Eu opean Union Legal F amewo k. Subsequen ly, documen s ela ed o a leas one
ca ego y o digi al igh s (Go e nmen o Spain,2021;Eu opean Commission,2023) we e
selec ed, and, inally, documen s ha explici ly e e o one o he indica o s we e iden i ied
and selec ed. A e wa d, an i em pool was c ea ed, and an in e disciplina y discussion
g oup was se up wi h wo ounds o discussion o p oposals o imp o e he g id. La e ,
he g id was alida ed by expe s in en ep eneu ship and digi al igh s.
The inal e sion o he analysis ool consis s o ou sec ions: (a) socio-demog aphic
and en ep eneu ial p ojec da a (nine i ems) and o he g oups o igh s based on hose
iden i ied in Gallego-A u a e al. (2023); (b) digi al igh s o equali y and pa icipa ion,
including he igh o uni e sal access, pa icipa ion, in o ma ion and digi al educa ion
(EPDR, 11 i ems); (c) digi al igh s o eedom, including he igh o p i acy, iden i y, secu-
i y and p o ec ion o p i acy (FDR, 10 i ems); (d) digi al igh s o de elopmen , c ea ion
and sus ainabili y, including copy igh , exploi a ion o in o ma ion and pa icipa ion, da a
managemen and en i onmen al p o ec ion (DCSDR, six i ems).
The da a ob ained we e p ocessed wi h he s a is ical so wa e SPSS . 25. Six i ems
we e emo ed because hey we e no o esea ch in e es (e.g., name o he membe who
ex ac ed he in o ma ion, p o ince
. . .
). In e code eliabili y was pe o med in o de
o ensu e a deg ee o con o mi y and conco dance be ween he h ee esea che s in he
assignmen o he in o ma ion con ained in he selec ed cases. This was achie ed by
pe o ming K ippendo ’s alpha. In a i s ound, se en cases wi h K ippendo ’s alpha
below 0.67 we e ob ained, h ee cases wi h K ippendo ’s alpha be ween 0.67 and 0.8,
and 16 cases wi h K ippendo ’s alpha highe han 0.8. Acco ding o K ippendo (2004,
pp.
241–242
), da a wi h eliabili ies whose con idence in e al is below he minimum
accep able (no less han 0.67) should no be accep ed. Da a be ween 0.67 and 0.8 and an
accep able eliabili y, wi h alpha abo e 0.8, can be conside ed beyond easonable doub .
Fo his eason, a e cla i ica ion o he di e ences ound, a second ound o in e code
ag eemen was ca ied ou , ob aining an alpha abo e 0.8 in all cases excep one.
Reliabili y was analyzed h ough he Kunde –Richa dson coe icien , KR-20, which
De Vellis (2017) says is he app op ia e coe icien o dicho omous a iables. A esul o
alpha = 0.94 was ob ained; his esul is almos pe ec (Landis & Koch,1977, p. 165).
In o de o de ec di e ences be ween he le el o p o ec ion o he di e en digi al
igh s (objec i e 3), h ee anks ha e been es ablished:
•Rank 1, be ween 0 and 3 digi al igh s ha e been egis e ed—low le el;
•Rank 2, be ween 4 and 7 digi al igh s ha e been egis e ed—medium le el;
•Rank 3, be ween 8 and 11 digi al igh s a e egis e ed—high le el.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 9 o 18
These le els a e ob ained by coun ing igh s in he h ee sec ions analyzed in each
case: digi al igh s o equali y and pa icipa ion; o eedom; o de elopmen , c ea ion
and sus ainabili y. The in o ma ion used on SM (i em 9) e e s o he dissemina ion o
media ypes by he en ep eneu , (e.g., websi es, blogs, Facebook, Twi e , Ins ag am,
. . .
).
Twel e SM ypologies we e conside ed, wi h nine o hem emaining in he inal e sion
because no cases we e ound o because hey we e speci ic o a pa icula business ac i i y
(e.g., T ipad iso ).
4. Resul s
The Kolmogo o –Smi no no mali y es was conduc ed on he da a conce ning
digi al igh s, and p< 0.05 was ob ained. This is no mal o la ge samples. Howe e , a e
checking he his og ams and plo s (No mal Q-Q Plo ), he sco es appea o be easonably
no mally dis ibu ed.
4.1. Objec i e 1: Wha A e he Cha ac e is ics o Young En ep eneu s, Thei P ojec s and Business
Ac i i y Acco ding o Gende ?
Ou o he p ojec s analyzed, male p ojec s accoun o 76.4%, while emale p ojec s
accoun o 23.6%. Rega ding he age o he en ep eneu a he s a o he p ojec , Figu e 1
shows he dis ibu ion.
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 20
• Rank 3, be ween 8 and 11 digi al igh s a e egis e ed—high le el.
These le els a e ob ained by coun ing igh s in he h ee sec ions analyzed in each
case: digi al igh s o equali y and pa icipa ion; o eedom; o de elopmen , c ea ion and
sus ainabili y. The in o ma ion used on SM (i em 9) e e s o he dissemina ion o media
ypes by he en ep eneu . (e.g., websi es, blogs, Facebook, Twi e , Ins ag am, …).
Twel e SM ypologies we e conside ed, wi h nine o hem emaining in he inal e sion
because no cases we e ound o because hey we e speci ic o a pa icula business ac i i y
(e.g., T ipad iso ).
4. Resul s
The Kolmogo o –Smi no no mali y es was conduc ed on he da a conce ning
digi al igh s, and p < 0.05 was ob ained. This is no mal o la ge samples. Howe e , a e
checking he his og ams and plo s (No mal Q-Q Plo ), he sco es appea o be easonably
no mally dis ibu ed.
4.1. Objec i e 1:Wha A e he Cha ac e is ics o Young En ep eneu s, Thei P ojec s and
Business Ac i i y Acco ding o Gende ?
Ou o he p ojec s analyzed, male p ojec s accoun o 76.4%, while emale p ojec s
accoun o 23.6%. Rega ding he age o he en ep eneu a he s a o he p ojec , Figu e
1 shows he dis ibu ion.
Figu e 1. Pe cen age o cases acco ding o age a s a ing up and gende .
Figu e 1 shows ha mos o he men s a up in a highe age band han women. Tha
is, while mos men s a up be ween 27 and 29 yea s old, women s a up be ween 24 and
26. A younge ages (18 yea s old o below), men and women unde ake in a simila way.
I is wo h no ing ha , be ween he ages o 19 and 20, no emale en ep eneu s we e ound
in he cases analyzed.
In he i em on economic ac i i y, a di e ence in he pe cen ages be ween men and
women can be seen.
Figu e 2 shows gende di e ences. The di e ence is especially appa en in he
manu ac u ing indus y and in ac i i ies ela ed o ag icul u e, animal husband y,
o es y, and ishing. Howe e , equal pe cen ages we e ound in o he sec o s (e.g.,
accommoda ion and ood se ices, educa ion). In ewe cases, mo e emale
en ep eneu ship was ound han male en ep eneu ship (e.g., heal h and social se ices,
wa e supply).
Figu e 1. Pe cen age o cases acco ding o age a s a ing up and gende .
Figu e 1shows ha mos o he men s a up in a highe age band han women. Tha
is, while mos men s a up be ween 27 and 29 yea s old, women s a up be ween 24 and
26. A younge ages (18 yea s old o below), men and women unde ake in a simila way.
I is wo h no ing ha , be ween he ages o 19 and 20, no emale en ep eneu s we e ound
in he cases analyzed.
In he i em on economic ac i i y, a di e ence in he pe cen ages be ween men and
women can be seen.
Figu e 2shows gende di e ences. The di e ence is especially appa en in he manu-
ac u ing indus y and in ac i i ies ela ed o ag icul u e, animal husband y, o es y, and
ishing. Howe e , equal pe cen ages we e ound in o he sec o s (e.g., accommoda ion and
ood se ices, educa ion). In ewe cases, mo e emale en ep eneu ship was ound han
male en ep eneu ship (e.g., heal h and social se ices, wa e supply).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 12 16 o 18
o de o, on his basis, e iew Eu opean, na ional and egional policies and p og ams on
en ep eneu ship and he esponsible use o SM and new in o ma ion echnologies.
Supplemen a y Ma e ials: The ollowing suppo ing in o ma ion can be downloaded a : h ps://
www.mdpi.com/a icle/10.3390/admsci15010012/s1.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, E.G.-S. and M.F.-S.; me hodology, E.G.-S.; so wa e, E.G.-
S.; alida ion, E.G.-S.; o mal analysis, E.G.-S.; in es iga ion, E.G.-S. and M.F.-S.; esou ces, E.G.-S.
and M.F.-S.; da a cu a ion, E.G.-S. and M.F.-S.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, E.G.-S. and M.F.-S.;
w i ing— e iew and edi ing, E.G.-S. and M.F.-S. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This s udy was unded by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund (ERDF) 2014–2020
Ope a ional P og am/Andalusian Go e nmen /Depa men o Economic T ans o ma ion, Indus y,
Knowledge and Uni e si ies/P ojec A.SEJ.46.UGR20.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : The esea ch complies wi h he p i acy policy o he Uni e si y o
G anada, Spain p i acy policy (Uni e si y o G anada,2019).
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da ase s gene a ed and/o analyzed du ing he cu en s udy a e
no publicly a ailable bu a e a ailable om he co esponding au ho upon easonable eques .
Acknowledgmen s: To he g oup o collabo a o s o he Diagnos icaTEC p ojec and o G ian A.
Cu anda o his help wi h he ansla ion.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he design
o his s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip ; o
in he decision o publish he esul s.
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