nu ien s
A icle
Assessmen o Food Sou ces and he In ake o he Colou less
Ca o enoids Phy oene and Phy o luene in Spain
Begoña Olmedilla-Alonso 1,* , Ana M. Bení ez-González 2, Rocío Es é ez-San iago 3, Paula Mapelli-B ahm 2,
Ca la M. S inco 2and An onio J. Meléndez-Ma ínez 2,*


Ci a ion: Olmedilla-Alonso, B.;
Bení ez-González, A.M.;
Es é ez-San iago, R.; Mapelli-B ahm,
P.; S inco, C.M.; Meléndez-Ma ínez,
A.J. Assessmen o Food Sou ces and
he In ake o he Colou less
Ca o enoids Phy oene and
Phy o luene in Spain. Nu ien s 2021,
13, 4436. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
nu13124436
Academic Edi o : Wins on C aig
Recei ed: 30 Oc obe 2021
Accep ed: 9 Decembe 2021
Published: 11 Decembe 2021
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Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Depa men o Me abolism and Nu i ion, Ins i u e o Food Science, Technology and Nu i ion (ICTAN-CSIC),
C/JoséAn onio No ais, 10, 28040 Mad id, Spain
2Food Colou and Quali y Labo a o y, Facul ad de Fa macia, Uni e sidad de Se illa, 41012 Se illa, Spain;
[email p o ec ed] (A.M.B.-G.); [email p o ec ed] (P.M.-B.); [email p o ec ed] (C.M.S.)
3Facul y o Expe imen al Science, Uni e sidad F ancisco de Vi o ia, 28223 Mad id, Spain; Rocio.es e ez@u .es
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (B.O.-A.); [email p o ec ed] (A.J.M.-M.)
Abs ac :
Phy oene (PT) and phy o luene (PTF), colo less ca o enoids, ha e la gely been igno ed
in ood science s udies, ood echnology, and nu i ion. Howe e , hey a e p esen in commonly
consumed oods and may ha e heal h-p omo ion e ec s and possible uses as cosme ics. The goal o
his s udy is o assess he mos impo an ood sou ces o PT and PTF and hei die a y in akes in a
ep esen a i e sample o he adul Spanish popula ion. A o al o 62 ood samples we e analyzed
(
58 ui
and ege ables; se en i ems wi h di e en a ie ies/colo ) and ca o enoid da a o ou oods
( h ee ui s and one p ocessed ood) we e compiled. PT concen a ion was highe han ha o PTF
in all he oods analyzed. The highes PT con en was ound in ca o , ap ico , comme cial oma o
juice, and o ange (7.3, 2.8, 2.0, and 1.1 mg/100 g, espec i ely). The highes PTF le el was de ec ed in
ca o s, comme cial oma o sauce and canned oma o, ap ico , and o ange juice (1.7, 1.2, 1.0, 0.6, and
0.04 mg/100 g, espec i ely). The daily in akes o PT and PTF we e 1.89 and
0.47 mg/pe son/day
,
espec i ely. The majo con ibu o s o he die a y in ake o PT (98%) and PTF (73%) we e: ca o ,
oma o, o ange/o ange juice, ap ico , and wa e melon. PT and PTF a e mainly supplied by ege ables
(81% and 69%, espec i ely). Conside ing he colo o he edible pa o he oods analyzed ( ui ,
ege ables, sauces, and be e ages), he majo con ibu o o he daily in ake o PT and PTF (abou
98%) we e o ed/o ange colo .
Keywo ds:
phy oene; phy o luene; ood composi ion; ca o enoid sou ces; ca o enoid in ake;
Medi e anean die
1. In oduc ion
Ca o enoids a e ancien and widesp ead isop enoids biosyn hesized by pho osyn he ic
o ganisms (cyanobac e ia, algae, plan s) as well as some ungi, bac e ia, and a ew known
in e eb a e animals [
1
]. Resea ch on hese compounds in he ag o- ood and heal h ields
con inues o g ow due o hei e sa ili y and use ulness in de eloping heal hy oods and
o he ela ed p oduc s including unc ional oods, nu aceu icals, supplemen s, and no el
oods [
2
]. Beyond hei ole as pigmen s and p ecu so s o i amin A (some o hem),
he e is ample e idence ha ca o enoids can spa k heal h-p omo ing biological ac ions
con ibu ing o a dec ease in he isk o cance , ca dio ascula disease, and bone, skin, o
eye diso de s [
3
,
4
]. The e is also inc easing e idence ha hey can ha e posi i e e ec s on
men al and me abolic heal h, du ing p egnancy and ea ly li e [
5
,
6
]. The e is also a enewed
in e es in he use o ca o enoids o cosme ics [7,8].
Phy oene (PT) is he p ecu so o he as majo i y o ca o enoids. The o ma ion o
phy oene om ge anylge anyl py ophospha e (GGPP) is ca alyzed by phy oene syn hase,
whe eas phy oene desa u ase in oduces new double bonds o o m phy o luene (PTF) and
hen o he mo e unsa u a ed compounds [
1
]. Ve y high quan i ies o PT can be ob ained by
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/nu13124436 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/nu ien s
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 2 o 15
using bleaching compounds ( o ins ance, no lu azom) ha block ca o enoid biosyn hesis
a he le el o he desa u a ion o ca o enes ea ly in he pa hway [
9
]. Ve y high le els
a e also ound in ui colo mu an s, such as Pinala e o Ca a Ca a o anges, esul ing
om abno mal ca o enoid biosyn hesis [
10
,
11
]. Mo eo e , as i can be in e ed om he
oods analyzed o his s udy, impo an amoun s o PT and PTF can be p esen in plan
oods also accumula ing o he ca o enoids as a esul o “no mal” ca o enoid biosyn hesis.
Howe e , he colo less ca o enoids PT and PTF ha e been la gely igno ed in ood science
and echnology, and nu i ion s udies. This has changed in ecen yea s as s udies and
e iews conclude ha hey a e among he majo ca o enoids in many oods and could be
in ol ed in heal h-p omo ing ac ions in humans [
12
–
17
]. Al hough mo e s udies a e now
epo ing on he le el o colo less ca o enoids in oods a e his in o ma ion can be ound in
he la es comp ehensi e da abases on ood ca o enoid con en [
18
–
20
], ca o enoid in akes
a e mos ly unknown as hey ha e only been assessed in a Luxembou g s udy [
15
]. The
goal o his s udy is o epo on he le el o colo less ca o enoids in commonly consumed
oods in Spain, assess hei daily in akes, and iden i y he majo ood con ibu o s.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. F ui s, Vege ables and P ocessed Food Samples
F ui and ege ables we e acqui ed om supe ma ke s in Se ille (Spain). A o al o
62 samples
we e analyzed, 58 o which we e ui s and ege ables, and ou we e ke chup,
o ange juice ( om concen a e), oma o juice, and canned oma o. Di e en a ie ies/colo
o se en i ems we e analyzed (gua a, kiwi, le uce, melon, peach, plum, peppe ). Upon
a i al o he labo a o y, ep esen a i e samples we e chopped and eeze-d ied. In he
case o ui s, peel and he seeds we e emo ed be o e p ocessing.
2.2. Ex ac ion and Rapid Resolu ion Liquid Ch oma og aphy (RRLC) Analysis o Ca o enoids
in Foods
50 mg samples (in iplica e) o homogenized eeze-d ied powde we e added 1 mL
o ex ac ing sol en (e hyl ace a e/dichlo ome hane, 1:1 / ) and hen we e o exed.
700
µ
L o wa e was hen added and cen i uged a 18.000
×
g o 5 min. A e eco e ing
he colo ed ac ion, an addi ional 500
µ
L o dichlo ome hane was added and he mix u e
was o exed and inally spun as desc ibed abo e. This ope a ion was epea ed un il all
colo was gone. The pooled o ganic colo ed ac ions we e hen e apo a ed o d yness in
a acuum concen a o (Eppendo Concen a o Plus, Hambu g, Ge many) and s o ed
unde N
2
a
−
20
◦
C un il analysis. A saponi ica ion s ep was added in he case o samples
wi h high ca o enoid es e con en . All ca o enoid ex ac s we e saponi ied excep o hose
om ca o , swee po a o, wa e melon, oma o and g een ui s, and ege ables. To ha
end, ex ac s we e edissol ed in 500
µ
L o dichlo ome hane and ea ed wi h 500
µ
L o
me hanolic KOH (30%, w/ ) o e nigh in a ni ogen a mosphe e, dim ligh , and a oom
empe a u e. Las ly, he o ganic phase was washed wi h NaCl 5% un il inse wa e pH was
neu al and hen concen a ed o d yness. The d y esidue was e-dissol ed in 50–100
µ
L
o ace oni ile be o e being injec ed in o he RRLC sys em.
Ex ac s we e analyzed by RRLC wi h UV/VIS diode a ay de ec o acco ding o
a ou ine me hod [
21
]. They we e iden i ied by compa ing hei ch oma og aphic and
UV/ is spec oscopic cha ac e is ics wi h hose o s anda ds. PT and PTF we e isola ed
om app op ia e sou ces in acco dance wi h s anda d p ocedu es [
22
]. Ex e nal calib a ion
was used o quan i ica ion. The concen a ion o each s anda d was measu ed spec opho-
ome ically acco ding o he condi ions desc ibed in B i on e al. [
23
]. Full s anda d
cu es we e cons uc ed wi h i e di e en concen a ions o each ca o enoid in iplica e.
Subsequen ly, hey we e injec ed in o he RRLC in iplica e. Bo h cu es showed good
linea i y (R
2
= 0.999). The limi o de ec ion anged be ween 0.001
µ
g o PTF and
0.002 µg
o PT, while he limi o quan i ica ion anged om
0.002 µg
o 0.007
µ
g o PTF and
PT, espec i ely.
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 3 o 15
Ex ac ion sol en s (e hyl ace a e and dichlo ome hane) we e o analy ical g ade
(VWR, Sea le, WA, USA). RRLC sol en s, me hanol (MeOH) and e hyl ace a e, and ace-
oni ile we e o RRLC g ade and we e acqui ed om Me ck (Da ms ad , Ge many). Wa e
was pu i ied in a NANOpu e®DiamondTM sys em (Ba ns ed Inc., Dubuque, IO, USA).
2.3. Subjec s
A ep esen a i e sample o he adul Spanish popula ion (n= 3000), aged
18–64 yea s
,
ook pa in he las Spanish Na ional Die a y Su ey (Spanish ac onym ENIDE) conduc ed
by he Spanish Agency o Food Sa e y and Nu i ion (AESAN) in 2009 and 2010, o de e -
mine die a y in ake pa e ns in he adul Spanish popula ion. The ENIDE s udy conside ed
demog aphic cha ac e is ics (gende , age, geog aphical zone, size o amily, and le el o
educa ion), li es yle and die , and seasonal consump ion, analyzing he same numbe o
su eys in each o he ou seasons o he yea . Food consump ion da a we e ob ained om
a 24-h die a y ecall comple ed by each pa icipan wi h he aid o ained in e iewe s and
a h ee-day die dia y which oge he cons i u ed a eco d o o e
12,000 days
o die a y
consump ion [
24
]. The ENIDE su ey used his in o ma ion o show he daily consump ion
o oods (n> 400 i ems), classi ied in o 12 g oups acco ding o in ake. Each ood ( aw) was
exp essed in g ams o mL (in he case o liquids) pe pe son pe day, conside ing he o e all
popula ion (consume s and non-consume s). The ENIDE su ey ga he ed in o ma ion on
he consump ion o mixed meals/ ecipes, eco ding bo h he amoun s consumed by he
pa icipan s and he way in which he meals we e p epa ed.
2.4. Die a y Ca o enoid In ake Assessmen
The mean o he ood consump ion da a (g/pe son/day o ml/pe son/day) p o ided
by he c oss-sec ion ENIDE su ey [
24
] was used o assess he die a y in ake o PT and PTF
in he Spanish popula ion. Da a on he oods and amoun s consumed we e in oduced in o
a speci ic so wa e applica ion o ca o enoids [
25
] in which PT and PTF da a con en in
58 oods
and 4 p ocessed oods (o ange juice om concen a e, ke chup, oma o: canned,
juice) we e analyzed in his s udy we e included. PT and PTF concen a ions in loqua ,
o ange, pea , oma o sauce we e ob ained om he da abase o ca o enoid con en in
Ibe o-ame ican oods [
19
]. PTF was no analyzed in loqua , o ange, and pea , and PT
was no analyzed in oma o sauce. The ood g oups included in he so wa e a e ui ,
ege ables, oils and a s, snacks, nonalcoholic be e ages, milk and dai y p oduc s, eggs
and egg p oduc s, sauces, he bs, and spices. Howe e , only da a om oods belonging o
he ollowing g oups we e a ailable: ui , ege ables, sauces, non-alcoholic be e ages.
Foods conside ed in he calcula ions o he die a y in ake o phy oene and phy o luene
we e (n= 66): (A) F ui s (n= 33, some o hem o di e en a ie ies and colo s): apple,
ap ico , a ocado, banana, ches nu , la peach, g ape ui , gua a, gua a ( ed), kaki, kiwi
(g een, yellow), lemon, loqua , manda ins, mango, melon (Can aloupe), melon (whi e,
yellow), nec a ine, o ange, o ange juice ( eshly squeeze), papaya, peach (gelo, igloo, ed,
yellow), pea , pineapple, plum (g een, yellow), quince, wa e melon. (B) Vege ables (n= 28,
some o di e en a ie ies and colo s): A ichoke, aspa agus (g een), beans (g een), b occoli,
cabbage, ca o , cauli lowe , cha d, co n, cucumbe , eggplan , ga lic (whi e), lamb’s le uce,
le uce (“hea ”, icebe g, omana), mush oom, peas, peppe (g een, o ange, ed, yellow),
po a o, pumpkin, spinach, swee po a o, oma o, zucchini. (C) Juices and p ocessed oods
(n= 5): Ke chup, o ange juice ( om concen a e), oma o (canned, juice, sauce).
The PT and PTF con en in he oods consumed was mul iplied by he amoun o edible
po ion inges ed (g/pe son/day) and his p o ided an es ima e o he con ibu ion o he
ood o he in ake o hese ca o enoids. In akes om indi idual oods we e added up o
yield indi idual and o al ca o enoid in ake, as well as hei ela i e con ibu ion. A se ies
o assump ions we e made ega ding he in ake o he ollowing oods and subsequen
calcula ion o he ca o enoid: a ichoke ( aw plus canned), lamb’s le uce plus wa e c ess/2, aspa a-
gus(g eenandwhi e)/2,kiwi(4/5g eenand1/5yellow),le uces(
hea + icebe g + omana/3
), peach
(
yellow + gelo + iglo + ed/4
),melon(
whi e + yellow + galo/3
),o angejuice(
na u al + concen a ed
),
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 4 o 15
peppe s (
yellow + o ange + ed + g een/4
), g ape ui (pink + yellow/2), ca o
(
aw + boiled + canned
), p epa ed sauces ( o example, oma o sauce, Bolognese sauce)
we e quan i ied conside ing he mean alue o he concen a ions o oma o pas e and
oma o pu ee epo ed in he ood composi ion able [16].
The majo ood sou ces o PT and PTF in he die o he Spanish popula ion we e hus
de e mined. The con ibu ion made by he g oup comp ised o ui and ege ables o he
in ake o hese ca o enoids is p esen ed bo h o indi idual i ems and i ems g ouped by
colo (whi e/yellow, g een, ed/o ange).
3. Resul s
3.1. Phy oene and Phy o luene Concen a ion in Spanish Foods
Table 1shows he concen a ion o PT and PTF in oods consumed by he Spanish
popula ion. Colo less ca o enoids we e de ec ed in 21 o he 66 oods used in he die a y PT
and PTF die a y assessmen . Colo less ca o enoids we e ound in adi ional Medi e anean
die oods (such as pea , peaches, g ape ui , manda in, nec a ine, quince, wa e melon, and
oma o de i a i es) and o he s ha could be conside ed non- adi ional o exo ic (gua as,
loqua , papaya) (Figu e 1). The concen a ion o PT was highe han ha o PTF in all
he oods assessed excep o oma o sauce in which no PT was de ec ed. The highes PT
con en s we e ound in ca o , ap ico , comme cial oma o juice, and o ange (7.3, 2.8, 2.0,
and 1.1 mg/100 g, espec i ely). PT concen a ion in ca o s was ou imes highe han
ha o PTF. The highes PTF le els we e de ec ed in ca o , comme cial oma o sauce, and
canned oma o, ap ico , and o ange juice (1.7, 1.2, 1.0, 0.6, and 0.04 mg/100 g, espec i ely).
Nu ien s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 15
Figu e 1. Some sou ces o colo less ca o enoids in Spanish die a y in ake.
3.2. Daily In akes o Phy oene and Phy o luene in Spain
The con ibu ion o each ui and ege able o he die a y in ake o PT and PTF in
he Spanish die is shown in Table 1. The daily o al in ake o PT and PTF is 1889.2
µg/p/day and 470.4 µg/day espec i ely. Howe e , in ake may be sligh ly highe as PT
and PTF da a om ou oods ( oma o sauce, o ange, pea , loqua ) we e aken om he
Ibe o-ame ican ca o enoid da abase [19], and hese oods we e no analyzed o PTF o
PT. Fi e oods a e majo con ibu o s o he die a y in ake o PT and PTF: ca o , oma o,
o ange/o ange juice, ap ico , and wa e melon, which accoun o 98% and 73% o he die-
a y in ake o PT and PTF, espec i ely. Figu e 2A,2B shows he majo ood con ibu o s
o he PT and PTF die a y in ake.
Figu e 1. Some sou ces o colo less ca o enoids in Spanish die a y in ake.
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 5 o 15
Table 1.
Phy oene and phy o luene con en (
µ
g/100 g esh weigh ) (a) o ui s, ege ables and p ocessed oods and daily in ake (
µ
g/pe son) and he consump ion o ui s, ege ables,
sauces and o ange and oma o juices among he adul Spanish popula ion.
Name Spanish Name Scien i ic Name Edible Po ion Con en (µg)/100 g F esh Weigh (a) Food In ake
(g/p/day)
Die a y In ake (µg/day)
Phy oene Phy o luene Phy oene Phy o luene
F ui s
Apple Manzana Malus domes ica 80 41.4 0.0 0.0
Ap ico Alba icoque P unus a meniaca 93 2818 616 1.3 33.0 7.2
A ocado Aguaca e Pe sea ame icana 72 1 0.0 0.0
Banana Plá ano Musa ×pa adisiaca 60 24.3 0.0 0.0
Chesnu Cas aña Cas anea sa i a 82 0.2 0.0 0.0
Fla peach Pa aguaya P unus pe sica a . pla yca pa 88 81 12 0.6 0.4 0.1
G ape ui Pomelo Ci us ×pa adisi 68 151 6 0.2 0.2 0.0
Gua a Guayaba Psidium guaja a 89 454 83 0.005 0.0 0.0
Gua a ( ed) Guayaba ( oja) Psidium guaja a 89 187 32 0.005 0.0 0.0
Kaki Kaki Diospy os kaki 87 0.6 0.0 0.0
Kiwi (g een) Kiwi ( e de) Ac inidia deliciosa 66 5.7 0.0 0.0
Kiwi (yellow) Kiwi (ama illo) Ac inidia deliciosa 66 1.4 0.0 0.0
Lemon LimónCi us ×limon 60 0.9 0.0 0.0
Loqua (b) Níspe o E iobo ya japonica 65 26 0.1 0.0
Manda ine Manda ina Ci us e icula a 73 60 51 9.8 4.3 3.7
Mango Mango Mangi e a indica 68 0.4 0.0 0.0
Melon
(can aloupe) Melón galo Cucumis melo a . e icula us 55 4.8 0.0 0.0
Melon (whi e)
Melón piel de sapo
Cucumis melo ‘San a Claus’ 62 4.8 0.0 0.0
Melon (yellow) Melón (ama illo) Cucumis melo L. 60 4.8 0.0 0.0
Nec a ine Nec a ina P unus pe sica a . nucipe sica 89 29 6 0.04 0.0 0.0
O ange (b) Na anja Ci us ×sinensis 72 1065 34.6 265.6
O ange juice
( eshly squeeze)
Na anja (zumo
na u al) Ci us ×sinensis 100 122 40 11.9 14.5 4.8
Papaya Papaya Ca ica papaya 75 12 10 0.9 0.1 0.1
Peach gelo Meloco ón gelo P unus pe sica 88 3.8 0.0 0.0
Peach (igloo) Meloco ón iglúP unus pe sica 88 3.8 0.0 0.0
Peach ( ed) Meloco ón ( ojo) P unus pe sica 69 99 14 3.8 2.6 0.4
Peach (yellow) Meloco ón
(ama illo) P unus pe sica 69 26 2 3.8 0.7 0.1
Pea (b) Pe a Py us communis 80 28.5 18.3 4.2

Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 6 o 15
Table 1. Con .
Name Spanish Name Scien i ic Name Edible Po ion Con en (µg)/100 g F esh Weigh (a) Food In ake
(g/p/day)
Die a y In ake (µg/day)
Phy oene Phy o luene Phy oene Phy o luene
Pineapple Piña Ananas comosus 57 6.7 0.0 0.0
Plum (g een) Ci uela ( e de) P unus domes ica subsp. domes ica 85 1.0 0.0 0.0
Plum (yellow) Ci uela (ama illa) P unus domes ica subsp. domes ica 92 1.0 0.0 0.0
Quince Memb illo Cydonia oblonga 61 116 44 0.4 0.2 0.1
Wa e melon SandíaCi ullus lana us 78 144 55 17.0 19.0 7.3
Sub o al 209.4 344.8 23.8
Vege ables
A ichoke Alcacho a Cyna a scolymus 47 2.6 0.0 0.0
Aspa agus (g een) Espá ago ( e de) Aspa agus o icinalis 50 1.8 0.0 0.0
Beans (g een) Judías ( e des) Phaseolus ulga is a . ulga is 93 8.3 0.0 0.0
B occoli B écol B assica ole acea a . i alica 97 0.1 0.0 0.0
Cabbage Col B assica ole acea 2.3 0.0 0.0
Ca o Zanaho ia Daucus ca o a 85 7264 1701 10.0 618.1 144.7
Cauli lowe Coli lo B assica ole acea a . bo y is 84 2.9 0.0 0.0
Cha d Acelga Be a ulga is a . Cicla 88 3.0 0.0 0.0
Co n MaízZea mays 100 1.8 0.0 0.0
Cucumbe Pepino Cucumis sa i us 70 4.6 0.0 0.0
Eggplan Be enjena Solanum melongena 85 3.4 0.0 0.0
Ga lic (whi e) Ajo (blanco) Allium sa i um 100 2.6 0.0 0.0
Lamb’s le uce Canónigo Vale ianella locus a 100 0.3 0.0 0.0
Le uce (hea ) Lechuga (cogollo) Lac i a longi olia 100 6.9 0.0 0.0
Le uce (icebe g) Lechuga (icebe g) Lac uca sa i a a . Capi a a 88 6.9 0.0 0.0
Le uce ( omana) Lechuga ( omana) Lac uca sa i a 50 6.9 0.0 0.0
Mush oom ChampiñónAga icus bispo us 80 5.6 0.0 0.0
Peas Guisan e Pisum sa i um 100 3.5 0.0 0.0
Peppe (g een) Pimien o ( e de) Capsicum annuum G oup 95 3.4 0.0 0.0
Peppe (o ange) Pimien o (na anja) Capsicum annuum G oup 87 3.4 0.0 0.0
Peppe ( ed) Pimien o ( ojo) Capsicum annuum G oup 85 3.4 0.0 0.0
Peppe (yellow) Pimien o
(ama illo) Capsicum annuum G oup 81 3.4 0.0 0.0
Po a o Pa a a Solanum ube osum 74 68.4 0.0 0.0
Pumpkin Calabaza Cucu bi a maxima 67 2.2 0.0 0.0
Spinach Espinaca Spinacia ole acea 76 4.4 0.0 0.0
Swee po a o Ba a a Ipomoea ba a as 100 0.1 0.0 0.0
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 7 o 15
Table 1. Con .
Name Spanish Name Scien i ic Name Edible Po ion Con en (µg)/100 g F esh Weigh (a) Food In ake
(g/p/day)
Die a y In ake (µg/day)
Phy oene Phy o luene Phy oene Phy o luene
Toma o Toma e Solanum lycope sicum 97 1697 330 55.6 915.2 178.0
Zucchini CalabacínCucu bi a pepo 79 6.3 0.0 0.0
Sub o al 224.1 1533.3 322.7
P ocessed Foods
O ange juice
( om concen a e)
Na anja
(zumo a pa i
de concen ado)
100 0 0 11.9 0.0 0.0
Toma o canned Toma e enla ado 100 1878 999 0 0.0 0.0
Toma o juice Toma e en zumo 100 1994 884 0.4 7.8 3.4
Toma o sauce (b) Toma e en salsa 100 1165 10.3 119.6
Ke chup Ké chup 100 391 99 1.0 4.0 1.0
Sub o al 23.6 11.8 124.0
TOTAL 457.1 1889.9 470.5
(a) phy oene and phy o luene: emp y boxes co espond o concen a ions unde de ec ion limi . (b) da a compiled om e e ence [19] and in hese oods PT o PTF con en we e no analyzed.
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 8 o 15
3.2. Daily In akes o Phy oene and Phy o luene in Spain
The con ibu ion o each ui and ege able o he die a y in ake o PT and PTF in he
Spanish die is shown in Table 1. The daily o al in ake o PT and PTF is 1889.2
µ
g/p/day
and 470.4
µ
g/day espec i ely. Howe e , in ake may be sligh ly highe as PT and PTF da a
om ou oods ( oma o sauce, o ange, pea , loqua ) we e aken om he Ibe o-ame ican
ca o enoid da abase [
19
], and hese oods we e no analyzed o PTF o PT. Fi e oods
a e majo con ibu o s o he die a y in ake o PT and PTF: ca o , oma o, o ange/o ange
juice, ap ico , and wa e melon, which accoun o 98% and 73% o he die a y in ake o PT
and PTF, espec i ely. Figu e 2A,B shows he majo ood con ibu o s o he PT and PTF
die a y in ake.
Nu ien s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 15
(A)
(B)
Figu e 2. Majo con ibu o s o he die a y in ake o phy oene (A) and phy o luene (B).
Table 2 shows he con ibu ion o he di e en ood g oups o hei daily in ake. The
main sou ce o hese colo less ca o enoids is ege ables accoun ing o 81% o PT and 69%
o PTF in ake. F ui and non-alcoholic be e ages (o ange juice and oma o juice) supply
352.8 and 27 µg/p/d o PT and PFT, espec i ely, accoun ing o 18.7% and 5.8% o he
daily in ake o PT and PTF, espec i ely.
Figu e 2. Majo con ibu o s o he die a y in ake o phy oene (A) and phy o luene (B).
Table 2shows he con ibu ion o he di e en ood g oups o hei daily in ake. The
main sou ce o hese colo less ca o enoids is ege ables accoun ing o 81% o PT and 69%
o PTF in ake. F ui and non-alcoholic be e ages (o ange juice and oma o juice) supply
352.8 and 27
µ
g/p/d o PT and PFT, espec i ely, accoun ing o 18.7% and 5.8% o he
daily in ake o PT and PTF, espec i ely.
Nu ien s 2021,13, 4436 9 o 15
Table 2.
Daily PT and PTF in ake (
µ
g/pe son/d) om he di e en ood g oups in he Spanish
adul popula ion.
Food G oup Phy oene Phy o luene
F ui 330.5 18.8
Vege ables 1533.3 322.7
Sauces 4.0 120.7
Non alcoholic be e ages
(o ange juice, oma o juice) 22.3 8.2
To al 1890 470
Table 3shows he con ibu ion o hese oods ( ui , ege ables, sauces, and be e ages)
o he daily in ake o PT and PTF g ouped acco ding o he colo o hei edible pa .
Red/o ange colo ed oods a e he majo con ibu o o he daily in ake o PT and PTF (abou
98%), while whi e-yellowish oods accoun o 2% o he in ake o he wo ca o enoids.
G een oods do no supply hese ca o enoids.
Table 3.
Con ibu ion o oods ( ui , ege ables, sauces, and be e ages) g ouped acco ding o he
colo o hei edible pa o he daily in ake (µg/pe son/d).
Food Colo Phy oene Phy o luene
Red/o ange 1852.0 463.0
G een 0.0 0.0
Whi e-yellowish 37.9 7.4
4. Discussion
4.1. Phy oene and Phy o luene Concen a ions in Spanish Foods
PT and PTF we e ound in only abou one- hi d o he oods ( ui , ege ables, sausages,
and be e ages) om hose habi ually consumed in he adul Spanish popula ion [
24
]. The
highes PT concen a ions (>1 mg/100 g) we e ound in ca o , ap ico , oma o ( esh,
canned, juice), and o ange ( esh) (7.3, 2.8, 2.0, and 1.1 mg/100 g, espec i ely). Ca o ,
oma o (canned, juice), and ap ico a e also he oods wi h he highes PTF concen a ions
(1.7, 1.0, 0.9, 0.6 mg/100 g, espec i ely). PT concen a ion was highe han ha o PTF in
all he oods analyzed, which is consis en wi h o he s udies [26].
PT and PTF concen a ions in ca o s a e qui e highe han hose epo ed in o he
s udies (1.3–1.8 and 0.6 mg/100 g o PT and PTF, espec i ely) [
19
,
25
]. In con as , hose
ound in ap ico coincided wi h he alues epo ed elsewhe e [
19
,
25
]. Among Medi e -
anean esh ui s, ap ico appea s o be he iches in colo less ca o enoids, he main
ca o enoids ound in comme cially a ailable a ie ies o his ui [
18
,
26
]. Concen a ion
in o anges is highe o PT in esh o ange and in he ange o PT and PTF concen a ions
published in o he s udies (0.05–0.56 mg PT/100 g and 0.04–0.18 mg PTF/100 g) as abu-
la ed in a e iew [
26
]. PT concen a ion in o ange juice was nea ly nine imes lowe han
ha ound in he esh ui . This could be due o he ac ha a la ge pa o he pulp
(whe e he ca o enoids a e ound) is emo ed om he juice and he ca o enoids b eak
down du ing juicing as his p ocess damages cell s uc u es which could con ibu e o a
ca o enoid loss [
26
]. No PT o PTF was de ec ed in o ange juice made om concen a e. In
his case, he he mal ea men s his p oduc is subjec ed o could con ibu e o ca o enoid
deg ada ion [27].
The ac ha highly a iable concen a ions o colo less ca o enoids ha e been ound
in he li e a u e o he same ood is no su p ising as he seconda y me aboli es con en o
ui s and ege ables is dependen on many ac o s, including he geno ype, clima e, ag o-
nomic p ac ices as well as echnological and/o culina y p ac ices, among o he s [
7
]. As an
example, oma oes o he same a ie y g own unde he same condi ions ha e been known
o exhibi di e ences in PT and PTF con en o ou - old and six- old, espec i ely [
28
]. As
o di e ences ac oss oma o cul i a s, a ecen s udy showed ha PT le els anged om