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Pp. 127-146.
Fai h and s a e. B i ish policy esponses o
‘Islamis ’ ex emism1
Fe y Es ado. La polí ica b i ánica esponde al
ex emismo ‘Islamis a’
E ik Bleich
Middlebu y College, Ve mon (USA)
Recibido: 15-11-13
Ap obado: 20-11-13
Abs ac
Islamis ex emism has been he ocus o in ensi e global sc u iny since
Sep embe 2001. Many s a es ha e esponded o he challenge o Islamic
e o ism wi h a common an i e o is s a egy. Those policies include gene ic
an i iolence policies ha consciously a oided o men ion Islam; ep essi e
policies ha explici ly a ge Muslims ex emis s and policies ha seek o
in eg a e Muslims by so o compelling me hods. The a icle explo es hese
policies in B i ain.
Key-wo ds: Islam; e o ism; ex emism; in eg a ion; B i ain.
Resumen
El ex emismo islámico ha sido obje o de in enso esc u inio global desde
sep iemb e de 2001. Muchos Es ados han espondido al desa ío del e o ismo
islámico con una es a egia an i e o is a común. Tal es a egia incluye polí icas
gené icas an i iolencia que conscien emen e e i a on mención alguna del Islam;
polí icas ep esi as di igidas explíci amen e con a ex emis as musulmanes y
polí icas que pe siguen la in eg ación de los musulmanes an o median e mé odos
blandos como median e mé odos pe suasi os. El a ículo explo a es as polí icas
en el Reino Unido.
Palab as-cla e: Islam; e o ismo; ex emismo; in eg ación; G an B e aña.
1 Es e a ículo ue o igina iamen e publicado como capí ulo de lib o en: Roge Ea well and Ma -
in Goodwin eds., The New Ex emism in 21s . Cen u y B i ain (Abingdon: Rou ledge, pp. 67-84).
A auca ia desea mani es a su g a i ud a los edi o es po pe mi i su ep oducción.
128 E ik Bleich
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Pp. 127-146.
In oduc ion
Islamis ex emism has been he ocus o in ense global sc u iny since
Sep embe 11, 2001 (9/11)2. As libe al democ acies became he a ge s o a acks,
hey ha e had o espond wi h policies ha ha e ampli ied o e en d ama ically
changed hei app oach o igh ing e o ism. In he ea ly days a e 9/11, many
go e nmen leade s con inued o iew lslamis ex emism as o igina ing ab oad.
Howe e , his e ol ed quickly in he wake o e en s such as he 11 Ma ch 2004
ain bombings in Mad id, he assassina ion o Du ch ilmmake Theo an Gogh
in No embe 2004 and he London anspo a ion bombings o July 2005, each o
which showed he ulne abili y o Eu opean socie ies o in e nal a ack.
Many Eu opean s a es ha e esponded o hese challenges wi h a common
policymaking pa e n. They ha e adop ed an o e lapping h ee-p onged s a egy
o ackling iolence associa ed wi h Islam ha includes: (I) gene ic an i- iolence
policies ha consciously a oid men ion o Islam; (2) ep essi e policies ha
explici ly a ge Muslim ex emis s; and (3) policies ha seek o in eg a e Muslims
in o na ional socie ies, ei he by so ly enabling o by i mly compelling such
in eg a ion3.
This chap e explo es he B i ish s a e esponse o Islamis ex emism,
using he o e lapping h ee-p onged pa e n as a lens h ough which o iew i s key
s a egic elemen s. This lens illus a es B i ain’s a - imes ambiguous ecogni ion
o Islamism as a co e elemen o new e o is challenges; i highligh s he s a e’s
ocus on ep essing Muslim ex emis s; and i discusses he ambi ion o in eg a e
Muslims mo e success ully in o B i ish socie y. The ul ima e goal, howe e , is o
po ay an accu a e pic u e o B i ish app oaches o Islamis ex emism ha ha e
been implemen ed since 2001. To do his, he ollowing sec ion b ie ly examines he
his o y o Muslim immig a ion o B i ain, highligh ing ac o s ha ha e spu ed he
s a e o amp up i s policymaking e o s since he 1980’s. The subsequen sec ion
in oduces he compa a i e Eu opean con ex be o e u ning squa ely o he B i ish
case. I analyses B i ain’s CONTEST s a egy as a mul iplici y o policies ha
e lec he o e lapping h ee-p onged s a egy.
F om immig an s o Muslims o ex emis s
The e a e be ween 1.6 and 2 million Muslims li ing in G ea B i ain
oday4. Acco ding o he mos ecen census igu es, jus o e hal o he Muslims
2 The au ho would like o hank Roge Ea well, Ma hew Goodwin and Shami Sagga o hei
help ul inpu in he planning and execu ion o his essay, as well as F ancesca Lambe o excep ional
esea ch assis ance.
3 Fo an expanded discussion see also Bleich (2009).
4 The 2001 Census eco ds 1.6 million Muslims, bu a 2008 s a emen by he Home Sec e a y pla-
ces he numbe close o 2 million (Gua dian, 8 Ap il 2008).
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Pp. 127-146.
esiding in B i ain in 2001 we e immig an s, wi h he majo i y o hose bo n in
Sou h Asia5. Signi ican ‘Muslim’ immig a ion began in he 1950s, bu o mos
o he pos -Second Wo ld Wa e a hese immig an s we e no p ima ily de ined
by hei eligion. Un il ecen ly, i was a mo e common o iden i y hem by
hei o icial s a us (immig an s, asylum-seeke s/ e ugees o o eigne s), o
by hei ace, e hnici y o na ionali y (Black, Asian, Pakis ani, e c.). This was
pa ly a esul o s a e ules and socie al pe cep ions, and pa ly a esul o he
way he mig an s o ganized hemsel es. O e he pas 20 yea s, howe e , Islam
has become an iden i y consciously deployed by many Muslims in B i ain, and
i is one ha he s a e and socie y inc easingly use o iden i y segmen s o he
popula ion. As eligious iden i ies ha e become pa o he public con e sa ion,
so oo ha e con en ious issues su ounding eligion. The 1989 Rushdie A ai
ma ked a de ini i e u ning poin in he passage om ‘immig an s’ o ‘Muslims’,
e ealing he capaci y o signi ican numbe s o B i ish Muslims o mobilize
a ound hei eligious iden i y and o he B i ish media, poli icians and public o
espond on simila e ms. Since ha ime, ensions ha e c opped up in o he a eas
oo, gene a ing deba es abou unding o eligious schools, eligious educa ion
wi hin s a e schools, mosque cons uc ion, headsca es, i ual slaugh e , Islamic
ules o bu ying he dead, sha ia cou s and na ional blasphemy laws.
These discussions, and in pa icula he in lamma o y book-bu ning
ac ics o he Rushdie p o es e s, ha e d awn a en ion o he po en ial o
ex emism among B i ish Muslims. Ye , al hough B i ain has been ocally
c i icized o ha bou ing known adicals – c ea ing wha has de oga o ily been
called Londonis an (Kepel 2004: 242-6) – he e we e no majo ac s o Islamis
ex emism in B i ain be ween 1989 and 2001. Following 9/11, B i ish policymake s
began o pay a en ion o he possibili y ha Muslim ci izens migh pe pe a e ac s
o e o ism on B i ish soil. The Decembe 2001 a emp by Richa d Reid ( he
‘shoe bombe ’) o blow up a ansa lan ic ligh highligh ed he ac ha Islamis
e o ism was no con ined o people o Middle Eas e n o No h A ican o igin,
and could be ca ied ou jus as easily by Eu opean ci izens.
The No embe 2003 a acks on B i ish a ge s in Is anbul and he Ma ch
2004 disco e y o s ocks o ammonium ni a e e ilize in subu ban London
– linked o B i ish ci izens o Pakis ani o igin – led o u he anxie y abou
Islamis ex emism di ec ed agains B i ain (Kepel 2004: 245). As a e lec ion
o he winding down o pe missi e Londonis an policies, in la e 2004 B i ish
au ho i ies cha ged Muslim cle ic Abu Hamza al-Mas i wi h ‘encou aging
ollowe s o mu de Jews and o he non-Muslims’ and also cha ged Abu Qa ada,
who epo edly was he ‘spi i ual counsello ’ o Mohamed A a, he p incipal
a chi ec o he 9/11 a acks6. The 7 July 2005 (7/7) London anspo a ion
5 A ailable online: h p://www.s a is ics.go .uklcciJnugge .asp?id=958 (accessed 4 No embe 2008).
6 New Yo k Times, 20 Oc obe 2004. Abu Hamza Al-Mas i was he imam o he Finsbu y Pa k
Mosque, which bo h Richa d Rcid and Zaca ias Moussaoui epo edly a ended be o e hei a es s.
130 E ik Bleich
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bombings and he subsequen inciden s o la e July 2005 (in London) and o
June 2007 (in Glasgow) can hus be seen as he culmina ion o he inc easing
conce n abou domes ic lslamis ex emism ha has aken place since 9/11.
The e has ‘undeniably been a ansi ion in B i ain since he 1950’s
om a b oad unease abou immig a ion, o inc eased a en ion o Muslims as a
speci ic g oup, o ocused app ehension abou Muslim ex emis s. Bu o hei
c edi , ew B i ish policymake s ha e made he mis ake o simply con la ing
Muslims wi h ex emis s. In ac , in he a e ma h o ecen a acks, mos leade s
ha e gone ou o hei way o condenm he pe pe a o s as inge elemen s
wi hin he b oade B i ish Muslim communi y. In ecen yea s, howe e , he e
has been a ansi ion om ocusing on he e y ew indi iduals willing o ca y
ou a acks owa d a b oade g oup – pe haps as much as 10 pe cen o he
B i ish Muslim popula ion – ha comp ise wha Shami Sagga (2009) has
e med he ‘ci cle o aci suppo ’ ha helps o enable he pe pe a o s o ca y
ou hei ac s.
Su ey e idence lends suppo o he no ion o widesp ead Muslim
in eg a ion con as ed wi h pocke s o signi ican di e ence. Two Ipsos MORI
polls conduc ed in he a e ma h o he 7/7 a acks. Fo example, show ha eeling
s ongly Muslim is no incompa ible wi h a s ong sense o belonging o B i ain7.
Mo eo e , he as majo i y o Muslims su eyed in 2005 and 2007 ag eed
ha immig an s should lea n English, pledge hei p ima y loyal y o B i ain,
in eg a e ully in o B i ish socie y and espec he ule o law8. Con e sely, polls
also demons a e he po en ial o disg un lemen , cul u al disconnec s and e en
ex emism. Acco ding o he 2005 Na ional Su ey on Equali y, Di e si y and
P ejudice in B i ain, 46 pe cen o Muslims polled epo ed ha ing su e ed
om p ejudice o disc imina ion based on hei eligion (Ab ams and Hous on
2006: 43); 2005 and 2006 su eys ound ha 54 pe cen o Muslims app o ed
o a anged ma iages and 40 pe cen o Muslims backed in oducing sha ia in
pa s o B i ain9; and in 2006, one- i h o B i ish Muslims can assed exp essed
sympa hy wi h he ‘ eelings and mo i es’ o he 7/7 suicide bombe s10. These
su eys he e o e ein o ce he poin ha while almos all B i ish Muslims ejec
ex emism, he e emain g ounds o conce n bo h abou he e y ew willing o
ca y ou a acks, and abou hose in he ci cle o aci suppo .
7 See Ipsos MORI ‘A i udes o B i ish Muslims’ and ‘Muslims “Take P ide” in B i ish Way o Li e.’
8 Ipsos MORI ‘Muslims “Take P ide” in B i ish Way o Li e’ and ‘Muslim A i udes - The Real S o y’.
9 Ipsos MORI . A i udes o B i ish Muslims’ and Teleg aph, 20 Feb ua y 2006.
10 Teleg aph, 20 Feb ua y 2006.
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Pp. 127-146.
Eu opean and B i ish s a e esponses o Islamis ex emism
Many Wes Eu opean coun ies ha e de eloped an o e lapping h ee-
p onged s a egy o esponding o he h ea o lslamis ex emism (Bleich 2009).
The h ee elemen s o he s a egy a e:
1 gene ic coun e e o ism policies ha a oid e e ences o Islam;
2 policies designed o ep ess lslamis ex emism; and
3 policies o enable and o compel in eg a ion o Muslims in o na ional li e.
B i ain, F ance, Ge many, I aly, he Ne he lands and Spain ha e each
deployed his s a egy in sligh ly di e en ways since 9/11 and subsequen e en s,
bu almos all o hese coun ies ha e e amped hei an i- e o ism p o isions in
a manne ha downplays he cen ali y o Muslim ex emism as a co e conce n.
Al hough many ecen laws we e c a ed wi h Islamis e o ism in mind, mos
s a es ha e op ed o minimize he speci ic connec ion o Islam by e e ing o
‘in e na ional’ e o ism and by including a leas some non-Muslim g oups on
hei wa ch-lis s o in hei public p onouncemen s. These policy s ances sel -
consciously seek o neu alize ensions associa ed wi h eligion.
A he same ime, Eu opean s a es ha e no en i ely shi ed he ocus away
om Islam. In pa icula , many coun ies ha e s epped up moni o ing o suspec ed
adical Muslims. The e ha e been o icial go e nmen in es iga ions in o he
p ac ice o Islam, inc eased aining and hi ing o na ional secu i y agen s wi h
ele an expe ise, ape eco ding o eligious se ices and sc u iny o pa icula
mosques and public s a emen s abou abs kep on po en ial suspec s. The e ha e
also been p oposals o ack mo e closely o eign imams and o eign unding o
domes ic mosques and e en a go e nmen al p oposal o equi e egula epo ing
o he police by anyone suspec ed o adical leanings. Inc eased moni o ing has
esul ed in aids, ound ups, a es s and ials o hund eds o suspec ed Islamis
e o is s. F ance, Gennany, I aly, he Ne he lands and Spain ha e each engaged
in ac i e ep ession o po en ial pe pe a o s o eligiously mo i a ed iolence.
In addi ion, many o hese coun ies ha e ansla ed he moni o ing o mosques
in o expulsions o so-called ‘ ogue imams’. F ance has been among he mos
ac i e s a es in his espec , wi h dozens o eligious leade s depo ed since 2001,
bu Ge many and he Ne he lands ha e also shi ed hei laws and policies o
acili a e expulsions11.
In eg a ion o Muslims has been equally high on Eu opean agendas.
Religious consul a ion and ep esen a ion ha e become a popula way o each
ou o Muslim communi ies, as e idenced bo h by pos -c isis mee ings wi h
Muslim leade s and by s a e encou agemen o mo e o malized bodies, such as
11 Fo an ex ended discussion o de elopmen s ac oss Wes e n Eu ope, see Bleich (2009).

132 E ik Bleich
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F ance’s Council o he Muslim Fai h (CFCM), Spain’s Islamic Commission o
I aly’s Consul a i e Council o Islam, each se up since 2003 (Lau ence 2005,
2006)12. In ecen yea s, Eu opean go e nmen s ha e also p o en mo e willing
han e e o und ini ia i es speci ically o he Muslim communi y. Whe he
inancing p i a ely o ganized Du ch language and cul u e aining p og ammes
o imams and Muslim chaplains, se ing up uni e si y deg ee p og ammes in
‘con empo a y F ench ci iliza ion’ o u u e imams, o enabling ounda ions in
Spain and F ance ha aid Muslim communi ies, hese ini ia i es ha e aken new
o ms and deepe oo s o e he pas ew yea s13.
Eu opean s a es ha e balanced policies ha enable in eg a ion o eligious
mino i ies wi h policies ha compel in eg a ion by obliging a deg ee o cul u al
con o mi y. The mos no able policy in ecen yea s is undoub edly he 2004 F ench
law banning eligious symbols wo n by s uden s in public schools. Al hough cas
in eligiously neu al e ms ha apply o isible symbols o all ai hs, he law’s
pu pose was clea ly o ban Muslim headsca es. Pa alleling he F ench policy bu
on a smalle scale, i e o he 16 Gennan ede al s a es ha e ou lawed headsca es
o public school eache s, and in he wake o he July 2005 London bombings, he
I alian go e nmen ins i u ed hea y ines and imp isonmen o wea ing a bu qa in
public (Lau ence 2006), and bo h Du ch and F ench poli ical leade s ha e oiced
suppo o banning he bu qa ou side o he home14.
B i ain’s speci ic app oach o coun e ing Islamis ex emism i s Eu ope’s
gene al h ee-p onged pa e n qui e closely. By ea ly 2003, he go e nmen had
launched i s CONTEST coun e e o ism s a egy, which encompassed ou
co e s ands: PREVENT, PURSUE, PROTECT and PREPARE. In b ie , he
PREVENT s and e lec s he hi d p ong o in eg a ing Muslims in o B i ish
socie y h ough a ocus on add essing disad an ages, challenging ex emis
ideologies and undennining he g ounds ha gi e ise o e o is impulses. The
PURSUE angle echoes he second p ong o ep essing iolence by ocusing
on dis up ing Muslim e o is s ia in elligence ga he ing, police wo k and
p osecu ions. The PROTECT and PREPARE elemen s a e closes o he i s
p ong o he common s a e esponse in ha hey a e gene ic policies – i.e. no
speci ic o Muslim e o ism – aimed a educing he ulne abili y o a ge s and
enabling a apid and e ec i e esponse o an a ack15.
12 US Depa amen o S a e. A ailable online: h p://www.s a e.go /g/d l/ ls/i /2004/35485.h m
(accessed 19 Decembe 2008).
13 New Yo k Times, 18 Oc obe 2004; Le Figa o, 10 Ma ch 2005; New Yo k Times, 24 Oc obe 2004.
14 BBC News, 16 Janua y 2006; Aljazee a, 9 Ma ch 2006; BBC News, 17 No embe 2006; BBC
News. 22 June 2009. Local au ho i ies in Belgium and I aly had also p e iously enac ed o en o ced
bans on bu qas, jus i ying he mo e by a guing ha appea ing masked in public p esen s a h ea o
secu i y (lHF 2005: 46, 100-1).
15 Fo he mos ecen assessmen o he CONTEST s a egy, see HM Go e nmen (2009).
133
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Gene ic policies: how much ocus on Islam?
Looking mo e closely a he i be ween he s ands o he B i ish
app oach and each p ong o he gene al model e eals he challenges o
esponding o Islamis ex emism. In pa icula , B i ish policymaking has been
qui e con adic o y and con lic ed in he ex en o which i acknowledges he
Muslim elemen o ex emism and e o ism con on ing he s a e. Fo example,
while he PROTECT and PREPARE policies a e he mos gene ic elemen s o i s
o e all s a egy, hey o m pa o he o e all CONTEST app oach. As such, hey
a e packaged as pa o a s a egy ha desc ibes he ‘p incipal cu en e o is
h ea ’ o B i ain as emana ing om ‘ adicalized indi iduals who a e using a
dis o ed and un ep esen a i e e sion o he Islamic ai h o jus i y iolence’,
and which a gues ha ‘ he cu en h ea om Islamis e o ism is se ious and
sus ained’ (HM Go e nmen 2006: 1).
Ye , as his language implies, B i ish go e nmen al o icials ha e ca e ully
chosen hei wo ds when discussing he ‘Islamis ’ dimension o he p oblem. The
e y same summa y o he CONTEST s a egy akes pains o emphasize ha such
pe pe a o s a e ‘a iny mino i y wi hin he Muslim communi ies he e and ab oad’
and ha ‘Muslim communi ies hemsel es do no h ea en ou secu i y; indeed
hey make a g ea con ibu ion o ou coun y’ (HM Go e nmen 2006: I). This
explains he choice o ’ Islamis ’ a he han’ Islamic’ o desc ibe such e o is s and
he o e whelming use o he euphemism ‘in e na ional e o ism’ o summa ize
he h ea in a way ha a oids epe i ion o he wo ds Islam o Muslim. I also
accoun s o he comple e neu ali y o language in he PROTECT and PREPARE
demen s o he CONTEST s a egy. B i ish policy make s e y quickly de eloped
an ins inc o a oid linkages be ween e o ism and Islam whe e e possible.
This is e lec ed in discussions o p o ec ing public places and p epa ing o he
consequences o a acks, which a e amed in he neu al language o dealing
wi h a gene ic a ack. I is also e lec ed in he B own adminis a ion’s ansi ion
away om discussing he ‘wa on e o ’, which many Muslims had come o see
as code o a ge ing Islam. In he immedia e a e ma h o he June 2007 a ack
on Glasgow ai po , he new p ime minis e a oided his ca chph ase, as well as
any men ion o he wo d ‘Muslim’ a s udied neu ali y ha bo h he and his home
sec e a y epea ed when in oducing he la es e sion o he CONTEST s a egy
in Ma ch 200916.
In la ge pa , downplaying he ‘Muslim’ angle o ‘Islamis e o ism’ is
an elemen o a conscious s a egy o esponding o such ex emism. Howe e , in
some measu e, i also e lec s he eali y ha ocusing on Muslims is likely o be
coun e p oduc i e in mo e ways han one. Apa om demonizing and aliena ing
16 Washing on Pos , 4 July 2007; New Yo k Times, 4 July 2007; New Yo k Times, 22 July 2007; HM
Go emmen (2009: 4-5).
134 E ik Bleich
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a ai h g oup wi hin he coun y and all o he disad an ages ha acc ue o di ided
s a es, a ecen epo by he B i ish secu i y se ice MIS concluded ha i is no
possible o de elop a p o ile o he ypical B i ish e o is . I ound ha mos
a e ‘demog aphically un ema kable’ and ha assump ions canno be made based
on skin colou , e hnic he i age o na ionali y17. A he same ime, howe e , and
e lec ing he di icul y o calib a ing a esponse o Islamis ex emism, he epo
s essed ha he mos p essing h ea o B i ain oday is om Islamis ex emis
g oups, while also acknowledging ha he e a e iolen ex emis s in non-Islamic
mo emen s.
Rep essing lslamis ex emism
B i ain’s con empo a y legal a senal o ep essing e o ism was ini ially
o mula ed ill he 1970’s ollowing he onse o a acks by he I ish Republicanism
mo emen s. By he la e 1990s, go e nmen leade s el he need o sys ema ize he
coun y’s agg ega ion o piecemeal legisla i e ools. The Te o ism Ac 2000 was
designed o alle ia e some c i icisms o he longs anding P e en ion o Te o ism
Ac 18, bu i con ained su p isingly li le men ion o Islamis e o ism. In a sign
o he imes. a Ma ch 2000 BBC s o y abou he pending legisla ion desc ibed i
as co e ing ‘ac s by animal ac i is s, di ec ac ion by en i onnlen al p o es e s,
compu e hacke s, ac s mo i a ed by eligious belie s and ac ion agains p ope y
such as ha in las yea ’s io s and an i-capi alis p o es s in London’19. The ac
ha Islamis ex emism was no a p ima y ac o mo i a ing he 2000 law s ands in
sha p con as o legisla ion passed since ha ime. B i ain has enac ed ou majo
laws since 9/11. The An i-Te o ism, C ime and Secu i y Ac 2001, he P e en ion
o Te o ism Ac 2005 (enac ed p io o he 7/7 bombings). he Te o ism Ac 2006
and he Coun e -Te o ism Ac 2008 ha e each e ined and ex ended B i ish powe s
o ep ess e o ism in ways ha enable he PURSUE s and o he coun y’s o e all
coun e e o ism s a egy. Al hough such legisla ion seldom explici ly men ions
eligion o Islam, each has been a di ec esponse o he pe cei ed h ea o Islamis
e o ism and has been used p ima ily o a ge Muslim ex emis s.
Taken oge he B i ain’s an i- e o ism p o isions ha e endowed he
coun y wi h po en ools o coun e ing ex emis ac s. They inc ease police powe s
o in es iga ion and de en ion o suspec ed e o is s; hey make i illegal o inci e
e o ism o o p o ide aining o e o is pu poses; hey ou law s a emen s ha
in ol e he ‘glo i ica ion’ o e o ism; hey allow he go e nmen o eeze and
o seize inancial asse s associa ed wi h e o ism o wi h e o is s; hey p osc ibe
o ganiza ions deemed by he go e nmen o be in ol ed in e o ism, making i an
o ence o belong o, suppo o display suppo o ha o ganiza ion; hey enable
17 Acco ding o a classi ied in e nal esea ch documen on adicaliza ion epo ed in Gua dian, 21 Augus 2008.
18 The P e en ion o Te o ism Ac was passed in 1974 and was enewable annually.
19 BBC News, 15 Ma ch 2000.
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he go e nmen o en o ce ‘con ol o de s’ on suspec ed e o is s who canno be
con ic ed o depo ed, limi ing hei eedom o mo emen and associa ion; and
hey acili a e dep i a ion o B i ish ci izenship and e en depo a ion o hose
connec ed o e o ism20.
While mos o hese ep essi e measu es ha e hei oo s in legisla ion,
he e a e also policy p og ammes ha ha e been deployed as pa o he PURSUE
s a egy. Mos impo an ly, B i ain has e-o ganized i s in elligence se ices o
s eamline he ga he ing and analysis o in o ma ion abou e o is h ea s. I s Join
Te o ism Analysis Cen e (JTAC) was c ea ed in 2003 o coo dina e he e o s o
he in elligence communi y. I in ol es membe s o he Secu i y Se ice (MIS), he
Sec e In elligence Se ice (SIS), he Go e unen Communica ions Headqua e s
(GCHQ), he De ence In elligence S a , and ep esen a i es om he Fo eign
and Commonweal h O ice, he Home O ice and he police se ices. This g oup
is esponsible o assembling and analysing in o ma ion abou po en ial e o is
h ea s and o se ing he o icial h ea le el wi hin B i ain21. I s explici ocus is
on ‘in e na ional e o ism’ , which is summa ized as ‘Al Qaida and ela ed e o is
g oups’22. As such, i has become a p ominen o ganiza ion in he igh agains
Islamis ex emism23. Na ional and local police o ces ha e also been eo ganized o
econs i u ed o imp o e hei abili y o add ess e o is h ea s (HM Go e nmen
2009: 63-4).
These ools ha e been applied in p ac ice wi h signi ican e ec . While da a
on sensi i e o unde co e in es iga ions a e closely gua ded by au ho i ies, o icial
go e nmen epo s claim nume ous dis up ions o po en ial a acks wi hin B i ain since
2000 (HM Go e nmen 2006:17, 2009: 62). In 2007/8, he Me opoli an Police Se ice
(Me ) epo ed 3,458 in o ma ion e e als ela ed o e o ism, all o which we e gi en
an ini ial assessmen wi hin he i e days called o by in elligence p o ocols; he Me
also epo ed 13 e o is ne wo k dis up ions in ha same ime pe iod24. Be ween
Janua y and May 2008, he Me a es ed 46 people based on e o is in es iga ions.
10 o whom we e cha ged25. Na ionwide, o e 40 people we e con ic ed on e o ism
cha ges in 2007/8, ecei ing a combined o al o 600 yea s in p ison sen ences. In one
high-p o ile case, he su i ing pe pe a o o he Glasgow ai po a ack was handed
20 The Immig a ion. Asylum and Na ionali y Ac 2006 acili a es dep i a ion o ci izenship, he
igh o abode and e ugee s a us.
21 Fo he go emmen ’s summa y o JT AC. see www.In elligence.go .uk/agencies/j ac.aspx
(accessed 29 Oc obe 2008).
22 See www.mi5.go .uk/ou pu /in e na ional- e o ism.h ml (accessed 21 Oc obe 2009).
23 B i ain’s s a egy also has an in e na ional dimension. In he iscal yea 2005/6, he UK spen
o e £7 million helping o he na ions wi h hei conn e - e o ism p og ammes; o example, i p o i-
ded aining and liaised wi h au ho i ies in places such as Pakis an, Malaysia and No h A ica (HM
Go e nmen 2006: 22).
24 See Me opoli an Police Au ho i y, Repo 7b o he 24 July 2008 mee ing, a h p/www.mpa.go .
uk/commi ees/mpa/2008/080724/07b.h m (accessed 30 Oc obe 2008).
25 Ibid.
142 E ik Bleich
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en o cemen o icials, and public se ice p o ide s o discuss no only how o
cu b ex emism, bu also a ange o issues ele an o Muslims hemsel es (HM
Go e nmen 2006: 13-14) and hey ha e encou aged local au ho i ies o conduc
simila o ums in o de o ield Muslim g ie ances (HM Go e nmen 2008: 36-7).
E o s o acili a e communica ion wi h Muslims a e also e lec ed
in on-going g oups such as he Muslim Women’s Ne wo k and i s successo
he Na ional Muslim Women’s Ad iso y G oup, which ha e been acili a ed
and a imes chai ed by minis e s who a e seeking o connec wi h he Muslim
communi y (HM Go emmen 2006: 13, 2008: 31, 34)48. While hese g oups a e
pa ly in ended o s eng hen ac o s deemed less ex emis , hey also se e as
di ec condui s o Muslims o oice hei conce ns o high go e nmen o icials.
Simila ly, he Muslim Sa e y Fo um coo dina es mee ings be ween Muslim
leade s and police ep esen a i es o discuss communi y conce ns, mainly ela ed
o ex emism bu also ouching upon o he issues (HM Go e nmen 2006: 22).
The PREVENT ini ia i e has also ins i u ed a public ela ions campaign in he
wide Muslim wo ld, and has sen delega ions o B i ish Muslims ab oad o help
e u e he image o B i ain as being an i-Islam (HM Go e nmen 2006: 16).
Th ough hese ini ia i es, he go e nmen hopes o show ha i is lis ening o and
aking se iously Muslim oices.
The ou each o Muslim communi ies in ol es se e al highly symbolic
changes o he c iminal code ha a e mean o show ha he s a e is no jus
lis ening bu also ac ing upon Muslim conce ns. B i ain’s An i-Te o ism, C ime
and Secu i y Ac 2001 included p o isions ou lawing eligiously agg a a ed
o ences which ex ended he C ime and Diso de Ac ’s 1998 concep o acially
agg a a ed o ences. As o he 2001 law, c imes mo i a ed by o displaying
hos ili y agains people because o hei ai h a e subjec o addi ional penal ies.
Gi en ha he e was emendous conce n abou an i-Muslim a acks in he wake
o 9/11, his mo e was mean o ake he edge o wha was o he wise a e y
ep essi e law. The go e nmen also made se e al a emp s o b oaden inci emen
o acial ha ed p o isions o co e inci emen o eligious ha ed. Al hough hese
we e ho ly con es ed, much delayed, and e en ually wa e ed down, hey we e
implemen ed in 2006 h ough he Racial and Religious Ha ed Ac .
In a ci il law ein, p ominen igu es such as he A chbishop o
Can e bu y and he Lo d Chie Jus ice ha e bucked public and eli e poli ical
opinion by endo sing adap a ion o ce ain elemen s o sha ia law wi hin B i ain49.
In spi e o oci e ous c i icism o he idea om many qua e s - including om
Sadiq Khan, a junio minis e in he Depa men o Communi ies and Local
Go e nmen as o Oc obe 2008 - sha ia cou s began passing binding judgmen s
in 2007 unde he auspices o he A bi a ion Ac 1996 (which also go e ns he
48 See also h p://www.communi ies.go .uk/news/co po a e/680335 (accessed 11 No embe 2008).
49 BBC News, 8 Feb ua y 2008; BBC News, 4 July 2008; Gua dian, 4 July 2008.

143
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use o Jewish Be h Din cou s), The Times epo ed in Sep embe 200850. While
some o hese s eps may back i e by a ousing public esen men o e en ou age
- especially in he case o sha ia cou s - such legal de elopmen s in he c iminal
and ci il sphe es cons i u e signals o Muslims ha hey a e p o ec ed on a pa
wi h analogous g oups.
The e o o in eg a e Muslims in o mains eam policymaking ex ends o
p og ammes aimed a igh ing socioeconomic disad an age, o p og ammes aimed
o help ai h g oups, and o ci izenship educa ion abou B i ain’s mul icul u al
composi ion. Fo example, he go e nmen ’s b oad social cohesion plans ocus
no jus on acial issues, bu also explici ly on educing inequali ies associa ed
wi h ai h, and e en mo e speci ically on s eps ha can help Muslims imp o e
hei educa ional, employmen and housing si ua ion (HM Go e nmen 2006: II;
Home O ice 2005). The go e nmen also launched a Fai h Communi ies Capaci y
Building Fund in ea ly 2005 which by mid-2006 had al eady spen £7.7 million,
o which £1.5 million wen o Muslim o ganiza ions (HM Go e nmen 2006: II).
And he Depa men o Educa ion and Skills ecen ly published Si Kei h Ajegbo’s
Cu iculum Re iew on Di e si y and Ci izenship, which ecommends - among
many s eps - ex ending an unde s anding o Islam and Islamic cul u e, socie y
and his o y ac oss all communi ies in an e o o diminish misunde s andings
and p ejudices in he b oade popula ion (Depa men o Educa ion and Skills
2007: 18: HM Go e nmen 2008). These e o s un pa allel o hose designed o
p omo e in e - ai h dialogues and unde s anding ha ha e been popula in B i ain
and many o he coun ies since 9/11 (Home O ice 2005: 46).
Mos b oadly, he go e nmen has aken up he banne o Islamophobia
as a majo cause o na ional conce n. I has used his e m as a way o signal o
Muslims ha i is awa e o a p oblem aced by hei communi y, and as a a ionale
o b oad ou each ha includes public s a emen s and symbols o suppo by high
go e nmen o icials (Joppke 2009). S a e o icials ha e ansla ed he abs ac
conce n abou Islamophobia in o conc e e policy ini ia i es, such as he la e 2004
Associa ion o Chie o Police O ice s join ini ia i e. ‘Islamophobia - Don’ Su e
in Silence’, which dis ibu ed 50,000 in o ma ion packe s o Muslim communi y
enues and o police s a ions ha we e designed o encou age epo ing o an i-
Muslim inciden s51. While some c i ics (Joppke 2009) cha ge ha his pla o m
has p omised Muslims mo e han i can deli e - he eby a ousing esen men and
a ques o e e -g ea e ecogni ion - i s ambi ion is o demons a e clea ly ha
B i ish go e nmen o icials a e eady, willing and able o di e ene gy, a en ion
and esou ces owa d os e ing in eg a ion in he Muslim communi y.
50 The Times, 14 Sep embe 2008.
51 See he Fo um Agains Islamophobia and Racism’s 16 No embe 2004 p ess elease ‘Police and
Muslim Communi ies Wo k Toged1e o Tackle Islamophobia’, h p//:www. ai uk.o g/p ess eleases/2
004/20041116FAIRUK_P ess_Releasc.pd (accessed 12 No embe 2008).
144 E ik Bleich
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The goal o in eg a ing Muslims mo e i mly in o he B i ish na ional
communi y has hus been pu sued h ough a numbe o a enues and h ough a
wide a ie y o policy ini ia i es. Some a e small-scale, local p ojec s ha a y
by egion o ci y, and o he s a e na ional in scope. In o al, he go e nmen has
alloca ed ens o millions o pounds, hund eds o pe sonnel and coun less hou s
o he ask52. While in eg a ion e o s a imes ha e hei ep essi e side, hey also
ep esen an hones e o s o each ou o Muslims53. Na u ally, he go e nmen
is no unde aking hese ini ia i es ou o he goodness o i s hea . A emp s
o in eg a e Muslims would no ha e been nea ly as ex ensi e we e i no o
he go e nmen ’s ea o ex emism and i s calcula ed s a egy ha in eg a ing
Muslims in o B i ish socie y is a necessa y o he secu i y o he coun y as a
whole.
Conclusion
B i ish s a e esponses o Islamis ex emism ha e con o med o an
o e lapping h ee-p onged s a egy o consciously downplaying he Islamic
elemen o he h ea , ep essing Muslim ex emis ac i i y and in eg a ing
Muslims h ough a dual s a egy ha i sel in ol es elemen s o ep ession
and accommoda ion. I is wo h emphasizing ha many o he speci ic policies
deployed embody mo e han one o he h ee p ongs. The no ion o communi y-
based coun e - e o ism policing, o example, in ol es ou each o communi y
membe s in o de o ga he be e in onna ion abou po en ial h ea s. This s a egy
encompasses bo h an e o o ep ess e o ism, as well as an a emp o in eg a e
communi ies as sympa he ic s akeholde s in he policing p ocess (Klausen 2009).
The e ha e also been dynamic elemen s o B i ish s a e esponses
ha sugges limi s o any comple ely s a ic in e p e a ion o he h ee-p onged
amewo k. The scope o ep ession and especially o in eg a ion e o s has
g ea ly expanded o e ime. This is ue compa ing de elopmen s p e- and pos -
9/11 and e en mo e so o hose p e- and pos - 7/7. The e ha e also been small
ecalib a ions o go e nmen e minology when discussing ex emism. Mos
o icial publica ions dance a ound he Islamic o Muslim na u e o he h ea
by e e ing b ie ly o Islamis e o ism be o e ecas ing he analysis in mo e
ai h-neu al e ms. Howe e , Go don B own has gone u he han Tony Blai
in emphasizing ha e o ism is a c iminal unde aking, and no one necessa ily
associa ed wi h any pa icula ai h communi y. His a oidance o ca chph ases
52 See speech by R Hon Hazel Blea s, MP, Sec e a y o S a e o Communi ies and Local Go e n-
men , speech 31 Oc obe 2007 o he P e en ing Ex emism Con e ence, a h p: www .communi ies.
go .uklspccches!co po a e/p e cn ingex cmism (accessed 12 No embe 2008).
53 This is no o imply ha hey ha e all been success ul, no ha he go e nmen ’s s a egy is he
bes possible one. Fo a hough ul c i ique, see Thomas (2009).
145
Fai h and s a e. B i ish policy esponses o ‘Islamis ’ ex emism
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Pp. 127-146.
like he ‘wa on e o ’ sugges s he go e nmen may inc easingly shy away om
e ms ha imply a connec ion o Islam, a leas in e en s o public consump ion.
F aming B i ish esponses o Islamis ex emism as an o e lapping
h ee-p onged s a egy emains e y use ul o g asping he main axes o
B i ain’s policies, howe e . I has he addi ional ad an age o un eiling many
o he in e nal ensions be ween he cons i uen pa s o he o e all app oach.
Is i possible, o ins ance, o bo h s ong ann and o each ou o Muslims in an
e o o encou age in eg a ion? How can he s a e walk he ine line be ween
ep essing ce ain membe s o a communi y and encou aging o he s o eel ully
pa o B i ish socie y? And he o ically, is i logical o say in he same b ea h ha
Islamis ex emism is he bigges secu i y p oblem in B i ain, bu hen s ess ha
Muslims a e no a h ea and o euphemize he challenge as one o ‘in e na ional’
e o ism?
Al hough hese in e nal con adic ions may aise ques ions abou he
e ec i eness o he o e all s a egy, examining B i ain’s app oach in compa a i e
pe spec i e sugges s ha i i s squa ely in o a common Eu opean pa e n
among s a es coping wi h Islamis ex emism. Eu opean coun ies mus balance
compe ing ideas and in e es s in c a ing hei policy esponses, and i has been
he compe i ion among hese o ces ha ha e p opelled all na ions o adop an
o e lapping h ee-p onged s a egy. S a es such as B i ain ha e o acknowledge
ha Islamis s a e pe pe a ing deadly a acks, bu also eassu e he public ha
mos Muslims ejec such ac ions. They mus demons a e o he gene al public
ha hey a e capable o dis up ing e o is ne wo ks and p omo ing na ional
cohesion, while also showing Muslims ha hey can be ull ci izens and no
simply na ional pa iahs.
These compe ing asks a e undeniably in ension wi h one ano he . As
a esul , libe al democ a ic s a es such as B i ain a e o ced o de elop policies
ha a emp o a ge each issue and each cons i uency as p ecisely as possible.
Among Eu opean coun ies, B i ain has been a he o e on o de o ing ime,
ene gy and esou ces o his conund um in a way ha makes i a model om
which o he s a es can lea n a g ea deal. No all o i s speci ic policies will ha e
he in ended e ec , and he e ec o many p og ammes will be impossible o
judge by any s anda d policy ya ds icks. Bu his may be he na u e o dealing:
wi h p oblems ha will ine i ably ex policymake s ying o walk he ine line
equi ed o maximize cohesion and unde mine ex emism.
146 E ik Bleich
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Pp. 127-146.
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