ene gies
A icle
Me hodology o he S udy o he En elope
Ai igh ness o Residen ial Buildings in Spain:
A Case S udy
Feijó-Muñoz Jesús1, Poza-Casado I ene 1,*ID , González-Lezcano Robe o Alonso 2ID ,
Pa dal C is ina 3ID , Echa i Víc o 4, Assiego de La i a Ra ael 5ID , Fe nández-Agüe a Jesica 6ID ,
Dios-Viéi ez Ma ía Jesús7, del Campo-Díaz Víc o José8, Mon esdeoca Calde ín Manuel 9,
Padilla-Ma cos Miguel Ángel 1and Meiss Albe o 1ID
1RG A chi ec u e & Ene gy, Uni e sidad de Valladolid; Valladolid 47014, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (F.-M.J.);
[email p o ec ed] (P.-M.M.A.); [email p o ec ed] (M.A.)
2Depa men o A chi ec u e and Design, Uni e sidad CEU San Pablo; Boadilla del Mon e, Mad id 28668,
Spain; [email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o A chi ec u al Technology, Uni e sidad Poli écnica de Ca aluña; Ba celona 08028, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
4
A chi ec u al Cons uc ions Depa men , Uni e sidad de Alican e; San Vicen e del Raspeig, Alican e 03690,
Spain; ic o [email p o ec ed]
5A and A chi ec u e Depa men , Uni e sidad de Málaga; Málaga 29071, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
6Ins i u o de Ciencias de la Cons ucción Edua do To oja, Consejo Supe io de In es igaciones Cien í icas;
Mad id 28033, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
7A chi ec u al Cons uc ions Depa men , Uni e sidade da Co uña; A Co uña 15008, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
8
Depa men o The mal Engines and Machines, Uni e sidad del País Vasco, UPV/EHU; Bilbao 48013, Spain;
ic o [email p o ec ed]
9A chi ec u al Cons uc ions Depa men , Uni e sidad de Las Palmas de G an Cana ia;
Las Palmas de G an Cana ia 35017, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-983-423-462
Recei ed: 2 Feb ua y 2018; Accep ed: 12 Ma ch 2018; Published: 21 Ma ch 2018


Abs ac :
Ai leakage and i s impac on he ene gy pe o mance o dwellings has been b oadly s udied
in coun ies wi h cold clima es in Eu ope, US, and Canada. Howe e , he e is a lack o knowledge in
his ield in Medi e anean coun ies. Cu en Spanish building egula ions es ablish en ila ion a es
based on ideal ai igh en elopes, causing p oblems o o e - en ila ion and subs an ial ene gy losses.
The aim o his pape is o de elop a me hodology ha allows he cha ac e iza ion o he en elope o
he housing s ock in Spain in o de o adjus en ila ion a es aking in o conside a ion ai leakage.
A me hodology ha is easily applicable o o he coun ies ha conside s udying he ai igh ness o
he en elope and i s ene ge ic beha iou imp o emen is p oposed. A s a is ical sampling me hod has
been es ablished o de e mine he dwellings o be es ed, conside ing ele an a iables conce ning
ai igh ness: clima e zone, yea o cons uc ion, and ypology. The ai leakage a e is de e mined
using a s anda dized building p essu iza ion echnique acco ding o Eu opean S anda d EN 13829.
A ep esen a i e case s udy has been p esen ed as an example o he implemen a ion o he designed
me hodology and esul s a e compa ed o p elimina y alues ob ained om he da abase.
Keywo ds: in il a ions; ai igh ness o he en elope; blowe doo es ; esiden ial buildings
1. In oduc ion
In ecen yea s, he in e es in ai in il a ions has signi ican ly g own. The uncon olled in ake
access h ough he en elope o buildings gene a es a se ies o p oblems ha a ec i s occupan s [
1
]:
Ene gies 2018,11, 704; doi:10.3390/en11040704 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ene gies
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 2 o 20
highe ene gy consump ion, lack o he mal com o , en y o pollu an s and odou s, noise, inadequa e
unc ioning o en ila ion sys ems, less p o ec ion agains i e, e c.
The e a e nume ous s udies ha ha e been ca ied ou in No he n Eu ope, USA, and Canada
o decades [
2
]. Howe e , in Medi e anean coun ies he e is s ill a lack o knowledge in his a ea [
3
].
Some ield s udies ha e been ca ied ou o cha ac e ize he beha iou o he en elope o esiden ial
buildings conce ning in il a ion (Table 1):
Table 1. Examples o s udies o ai igh ness cha ac e iza ion ca ied ou in Medi e anean coun ies.
Coun y Re . Yea Sample Size Yea o Cons uc ion Typologies 1Tes ing Me hod 2Leakage De ec ion 3
I aly [4]
2012
20 1810–2010 M/S BD T/A/PT
I aly [5]
2013
5 1970’s M BD/S A
G eece [6]
2007
20 unspeci ied S BD/TG -
Po ugal [3]
2017
4 unspeci ied M/S BD -
Po ugal [7]
2015
49 1972–1974 M BD/TG -
C oa ia [8]
2014
58 di e en pe iods M/S BD -
Tu key [9]
1990
52 1980’s M BD/TG -
Spain
[
10
] 2013
>120 unspeci ied M BD T
Spain
[
11
] 2014
13 1973–2012 M BD T
Spain
[
12
] 2015
6 1960–1976 M BD T/SD
Spain
[
13
] 2012
45 2003–2011 M BD T/SD
1
Mul i- amily dwellings: M/Single- amily houses: S;
2
P essu iza ion me hod: BD/T ace gas decay me hod:
TG/So wa e simula ion: S; 3The mog aphy: T/Anemome e : A/Pi o ube: PT/Smoke de ec o : SD.
In he sou h o I aly, an expe imen al s udy [
4
] was ca ied ou in 20 esiden ial buildings o
di e en pe iods (1810–2010), clima ic zones, and ypologies (co ages, e aced houses, apa men s,
and la ge buildings). The s udy ocused on he impac o in il a ions on ene gy consump ion and
he mal com o , analysing he in luence o se e al pa ame e s: ne loo a ea, en elope a ea, in e nal
olume, ypology, ype o window ames, and yea o cons uc ion.
Ano he s udy in I aly [
5
] analysed he ai igh ness o a h ee-s o y building o he 1970s ecen ly
eno a ed wi h six apa men s o know he in luence o ai leakage on ene gy losses and indoo ai
quali y. Repea ed es s sealing di e en elemen s e ealed he in luence o each componen on he o al
in il a ion a e.
S akianaki e al. [
6
] conduc ed a s udy in 20 single- amily homes in he A ica a ea, G eece.
Bo h he ace gas decay and p essu iza ion me hods we e used. In his way, he cases we e classi ied
in o h ee ca ego ies acco ding o EN ISO 13,790 [
14
] and he in luence o di e en pa ame e s on he
global in il a ion a e was s a is ically e alua ed.
In Coimb a, Po ugal [
3
], ou e o i ed and o iginal buildings o he his o ic cen e we e s udied.
Th ee o hem we e mul i- amily buildings and one was a de ached house. The objec i e was o know
he ai change a e (ACH) o he chosen sample and o es ablish he minimum ACH o main ain
good indoo ai quali y and accep able he mal beha iou . Ano he mo e ex ensi e es ing campaign
in Po ugal [
7
] analysed 49 apa men s in wo social housing neighbou hoods in o de o know he
ela ionship be ween he beha iou o he use s o he dwellings and hei ai igh ness and en ila ion.
One o he neighbou hoods had ecen ly been ehabili a ed. Tes s we e also ca ied ou in an apa men
o ind ou he indi idual impac o di e en elemen s on he ai igh ness o he whole en elope
(window ame, sel - egula ed ai inle s, mechanical ex ac ion in ki chens, ixed ai inle s in he
laund y, and mechanical an in he ba h oom).
A s udy in Osijek, C oa ia, [
8
] ob ained a da abase wi h ai igh ness es esul s in 58 esiden ial
uni s. The sample was conside ed ep esen a i e in e ms o yea o cons uc ion a e inding a
ela ionship be ween he elemen s o he sample and he s a is ical da a o esiden ial buildings in
C oa ia. The pu pose was o es ablish a me hod o p edic ing he ai igh ness o he en elope applying
neu al ne wo ks, which has been subsequen ly alida ed [15,16].
In Tu key [
9
], ano he s udy was ca ied ou a e he de ec ion o p oblems in dwellings such
as inadequa e ai condi ioning and en ila ion o condensa ion. Ai igh ness es s we e conduc ed
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 3 o 20
in 52 newly buil unoccupied homes o analyse he beha iou o he en elope and o p oceed wi h a
possible e ision o he egula ions.
In he case o Spain, only pa ial s udies ha e been ca ied ou so a o cha ac e ize he ai igh ness
o he en elope o he housing s ock. None o hem has co e ed he en i e geog aphy o he coun y.
The s udy wi h he la ges numbe o es s ul illed was conduc ed in ecen ly buil dwellings in
no he n Spain [
10
] o de e mine he le el o in il a ion in esiden ial buildings and o es ablish he
de e mining ac o s. Also, in no he n and cen al Spain, Meiss and Feijó-Muñoz [
11
] de eloped a
p ocedu e o e alua e he excess ene gy consump ion caused by ai in il a ion, analysing 13 homes in
esiden ial buildings. The lack o ai igh ness in Spain was es ima ed o ep esen be ween 10.5% and
25.4% o he ene gy demand in win e in buildings buil unde cu en egula ions [17].
Se e al social housing uni s in Mad id and Se ille we e analysed o de e mine he deg ee
o ai igh ness and indoo ai quali y [
12
]. The sample was chosen paying a en ion o he
ep esen a i eness o he a chi ec u al and cons uc ion ypologies used in he pe iod 1940–1980
and p esen ed di e en deg ees o e o i ing o he en elope. The ai igh ness o he en elope
in esiden ial buildings a he beginning o he 21s cen u y in he sou h o Spain has also been
cha ac e ized [
13
]. The selec ion o cases o be analysed in each building was made wi h a s a i ied
p obabilis ic design.
The objec i e o his wo k is o es ablish a igo ous and simple me hodology in o de o ca y ou
a cha ac e iza ion o he en elope o esiden ial buildings in Spain in e ms o ai igh ness, h ough
coo dina ed es ing campaigns. A b oad da abase o 411 cases ha collec s cha ac e iza ion in o ma ion
and esul s is being c ea ed. In a la e phase, he analysis o he da a unde a uni ied p ocedu e and
c i e ia will be gua an eed. In his sense, i will be possible o know he impac ha di e en ac o s
ha e on ai igh ness, as well as he in il a ion a es co esponding o he mos widesp ead cons uc i e
solu ions in Spain.
This me hodology has been concei ed in such a way ha i is easily applicable o o he coun ies
ha in end o e alua e he ene gy impac o ai leakage o exis ing buildings.
Regula ions in Spain
The Eu opean Di ec i e on he ene gy pe o mance o buildings [
18
] is commi ed o he
gene aliza ion o nea ly-ze o ene gy buildings (nZEB) by 2020. In esponse o i , many coun ies
ha e been inco po a ing limi a ions in hei egula ions ega ding he ai igh ness o he en elope [
19
]
since he beginning o he 2000s.
Howe e , in Medi e anean coun ies wi h a empe a e clima e, whe e en ila ion has adi ionally
been done in a na u al and manually con olled way, in il a ions ha e been pa o he ai supply and
ha e compensa ed he lack o egula ion o speci ic con olled en ila ion sys ems [13].
In Spain, a e he oil ene gy c isis in he 70s, he building egula ions NBE-CT-79 [
20
], ela ing o
he mal condi ions o buildings, ended o inc ease he mal insula ion, achie ing an imp o emen in
he ene gy pe o mance o buildings. NBE-CT-79 also a ec ed indoo ai quali y as a consequence o
he lack o en ila ion. To gi e an answe o his p oblem, in 2006 egula ions o he Technical Building
Code (CTE) DB HS3 [
21
] we e app o ed. This documen implemen ed speci ic en ila ion equi emen s
and p oceedings o ensu e adequa e indoo ai quali y, es ablishing minimum en ila ion lows.
The cu en e sion o he CTE [
21
], in spi e o no con empla ing a minimum equi emen o
global ai igh ness o he en elope, gi es he op ion o conside he equi alen in il a ion a ea as pa
o he en ila ion opening a ea. In his way, using echnical speci ica ions ables o minimum alues o
ai igh ness es ablished o each ype o window (Table 2) i is possible o adjus he equi ed low a es.
Howe e , he ob aining o a p ecise alue o he en i e enclosu e conside ing no only he ai igh ness
o i s elemen s sepa a ely, bu also he encoun e s o each solu ion, would be necessa y. In any case,
he lack o knowledge o ai igh ness alues esul s in he o e sizing o he en ila ion sys ems.
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 4 o 20
Table 2.
DB HE1: Limi a ion o he ene gy demand [
22
]: maximum ai pe meabili y alues o he
windows o he he mal en elope by win e clima e zone 1.
Pa ame e Zone αZone A Zone B Zone C Zone D Zone E
Window ai pe meabili y 2(m3/h·m2)≤50 3≤50 ≤50 ≤27 ≤27 ≤27
1
Zones A, B, C, D and E e e o Con inen al Spain. Zone
α
e e s o Cana y Islands.
2
Ai igh ness measu ed wi h
100 Pa o e p essu e.
3
The alues co espond o he window classi ica ion es ablished in he EN 12207 [
23
]: class 1
(≤50 m3/h·m2) and class 2 (≤27 m3/h·m2).
2. Me hodology
2.1. Sampling
Gi en he impossibili y o es ing and cha ac e izing each home in he Spanish esiden ial s ock,
sampling has been used, selec ing a se o elemen s (sample), om which o ex apola e he esul s and
es ablish s a emen s. In his sense, he maximum ep esen a i eness o he sample has been ensu ed in
o de o cha ac e ize he exis ing housing s ock in Spanish geog aphy in he mos eliable way.
In he heo e ical amewo k, he bes way o es ima e a ele an s a is ical dis ibu ion would be
o analyse cases in a andom sample o buildings in Spain ha would ensu e he ep esen a i eness
o he sample [
24
]. Howe e , aking in o accoun he objec i es and cha ac e is ics o he p esen
s udy, a mo e ealis ic and e icien app oach has been conside ed, p oposing a non-p obabilis ic
quo a sampling scheme. The sample ep oduces he popula ion on a smalle scale, ensu ing he
he e ogenei y and p opo ionali y o he selec ed cases. The p oblem o his me hodology lies mainly
in he possibili y o bias in he sample when he cases a e selec ed in a e y speci ic en i onmen .
The app op ia e measu es o a oid i ha e been aken. I is also necessa y o indica e ha sampling
e o s canno be es ima ed because he p obabili y o each case being selec ed is unknown [25].
2.1.1. Pa ame e s
The Spanish esiden ial s ock has been s a i ied in o subg oups (s a a) acco ding o a se ies o
con ol a iables. In o de o de ine ele an con ol a iables, a e iew o p e ious s udies ha ha e
es ablished p edic i e ai igh ness models in esiden ial buildings [
26
] has been used. I is deduced
ha one o he a iables wi h g ea e ele ance is he yea o cons uc ion [
27
–
30
]. Also, cha ac e is ics
o he building such as ypology [
31
], ype o cons uc ion [
30
], ype o window/glazing [
15
] and
window ame [
6
,
32
], ounda ion [
28
], cons uc ion sys em [
33
], ma e ials [
15
,
24
,
32
,
34
], loo a ea [
28
],
o al heigh [
28
], numbe o s o eys [
33
], en ila ion sys em [
35
,
36
], ype o insula ion [
30
] and sealing
de ices [
34
], and managemen ype [
31
] should be conside ed. In addi ion, he execu ion also seems o
be a ele an ac o in he ai igh ness o he en elope [
36
,
37
]. Se e al au ho s ha e also conside ed
ha he clima ic zone is a a iable o conside [28,38].
The e a e many ac o s ha ha e an impac on ai igh ness. Howe e , in o de o be conside ed
as con ol a iables o sampling, i s dis ibu ion mus be known. Finally, he yea o cons uc ion,
ypology, and clima ic zone ha e been aken as con ol a iables o he sampling, gi en hei ele ance.
The impac on he in il a ion a e gene a ed by he o he pa ame e s will be e alua ed a e wa ds,
du ing he da a analysis phase.
The yea o cons uc ion is ele an o se e al aspec s. Fi s , ma e ials and join s de e io a e
o e ime [
39
]. A 10–15% inc ease in he in il a ion a e has been es ima ed e e y 10 yea s [
40
,
41
].
Second, cons uc ion sys ems a e e ol ing and imp o ing, al hough in coun ies wi h empe a e
clima es whe e he e a e no egula ions ha limi he in il a ion a e, he mos ecen buildings a e no
necessa ily he mos ai igh [
2
]. Thi d, he yea o cons uc ion is linked o he egula ions in o ce a
each momen , which es ablishes he equi emen s and condi ions o he cons uc ion sys ems. A o al
o 10 g oups ha e been de e mined by pe iods, based on s a is ical sou ces [42].
Rega ding he ypology, a dis inc ion has been made be ween single- amily and mul i- amily
dwellings, which ep esen mo e han 70% o he esiden ial s ock in Spain [40].
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 5 o 20
The clima ic zone also has a signi ican impac on ai igh ness. Buildings loca ed in cold clima es
end o be mo e ai igh han o he s loca ed in empe a e clima es [
41
]. Clima ic zones do no only
a ec wea he condi ions, bu hey can also es ablish di e ences in egula o y equi emen s o di e en
cons uc ion sys ems [
28
]. A simpli ica ion o he clima ic zones in Spain has been made, ob aining a
o al o ou zones: Con inen al, Oceanic, Medi e anean, and Cana y Islands (Figu e 1).
The numbe o cases belonging o each s a um has been made p opo ionally, acco ding o he
s a is ical dis ibu ion o he housing s ock in Spain [
42
]. This way, a s a i ied ep esen a ion o he
popula ion is ob ained.
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 20
ypology, and clima ic zone ha e been aken as con ol a iables o he sampling, gi en hei
ele ance. The impac on he in il a ion a e gene a ed by he o he pa ame e s will be e alua ed
a e wa ds, du ing he da a analysis phase.
The yea o cons uc ion is ele an o se e al aspec s. Fi s , ma e ials and join s de e io a e
o e ime [39]. A 10–15% inc ease in he in il a ion a e has been es ima ed e e y 10 yea s [40,41].
Second, cons uc ion sys ems a e e ol ing and imp o ing, al hough in coun ies wi h empe a e
clima es whe e he e a e no egula ions ha limi he in il a ion a e, he mos ecen buildings a e
no necessa ily he mos ai igh [2]. Thi d, he yea o cons uc ion is linked o he egula ions in
o ce a each momen , which es ablishes he equi emen s and condi ions o he cons uc ion sys ems.
A o al o 10 g oups ha e been de e mined by pe iods, based on s a is ical sou ces [42].
Rega ding he ypology, a dis inc ion has been made be ween single- amily and mul i- amily
dwellings, which ep esen mo e han 70% o he esiden ial s ock in Spain [40].
The clima ic zone also has a signi ican impac on ai igh ness. Buildings loca ed in cold clima es
end o be mo e ai igh han o he s loca ed in empe a e clima es [41]. Clima ic zones do no only
a ec wea he condi ions, bu hey can also es ablish di e ences in egula o y equi emen s o
di e en cons uc ion sys ems [28]. A simpli ica ion o he clima ic zones in Spain has been made,
ob aining a o al o ou zones: Con inen al, Oceanic, Medi e anean, and Cana y Islands (Figu e 1).
The numbe o cases belonging o each s a um has been made p opo ionally, acco ding o he
s a is ical dis ibu ion o he housing s ock in Spain [42]. This way, a s a i ied ep esen a ion o he
popula ion is ob ained.
Figu e 1. Conside ed clima e zones in Spain, loca ion o he pa icipan Uni e si ies, and size o he
sample o each o hem.
2.1.2. Size and Dis ibu ion o he Sample
Once he con ol a iables we e de ined, he numbe o cases o be analysed and he s a i ica ion
o he popula ion is ca ied ou . The size o he sample depends on h ee a iables: he le el o
con idence, he a iance, and he ma gin o e o ha is conside ed accep able [43]. S a is ically, he
Spanish esiden ial s ock is conside ed an in ini e popula ion. This means ha he size o he sample
will be de e mined by he ollowing Equa ion (1):
n=Zσ
e (1)
whe e:
n0: sample size (numbe o dwellings o be s udied)
Z: c i ical alue, depending on he con idence le el
σ: popula ion s anda d de ia ion (unknown alue in Spain)
Figu e 1.
Conside ed clima e zones in Spain, loca ion o he pa icipan Uni e si ies, and size o he
sample o each o hem.
2.1.2. Size and Dis ibu ion o he Sample
Once he con ol a iables we e de ined, he numbe o cases o be analysed and he s a i ica ion
o he popula ion is ca ied ou . The size o he sample depends on h ee a iables: he le el o
con idence, he a iance, and he ma gin o e o ha is conside ed accep able [
43
]. S a is ically,
he Spanish esiden ial s ock is conside ed an in ini e popula ion. This means ha he size o he
sample will be de e mined by he ollowing Equa ion (1):
n0=Z2σ2
e2(1)
whe e:
n0: sample size (numbe o dwellings o be s udied)
Z: c i ical alue, depending on he con idence le el
σ: popula ion s anda d de ia ion (unknown alue in Spain)
e: ma gin o e o
The alue o Z is gi en by he Gaussian dis ibu ion, depending on he le el o con idence
accep ed. The mos equen alues a e Z = 1.645, Z = 1.96 and Z = 2.575, o con idence le els o 90%,
95% and 99% espec i ely.
The alue o he a iance in e ms o he ai igh ness o he en elope in Spain is an unknown
alue, since he e is s ill no ep esen a i e da a in his ega d. Values ob ained in a s udy ca ied ou in
I aly we e aken as e e ence, by p oximi y, cons uc i e, and clima ic analogy [
44
]. The s udy ca ied
ou analysed 20 cases o se e al ypologies and yea o cons uc ion, esul ing om he ai change
a es alues a 50 Pa (n50) a a iance o 17.584.

Ene gies 2018,11, 704 6 o 20
Taking in o accoun ha a highe le el o con idence o a mino admissible e o signi ican ly
inc eases he sample size and ha he numbe o cases o be analysed is condi ioned by he pu pose o
he s udy, he a ailabili y o esou ces, and he ime limi a ion, a con idence le el o 95% and an e o
o
±
0.4 ha e been conside ed accep able, esul ing in a sample size o 423 cases. This igu e has inally
been educed o 411 due o nume ical ounding in he s a i ica ion p ocess. The dis ibu ion o he
samples and hei loca ion a e de ailed in Table 3and in Figu e 1.
Table 3. Dis ibu ion o he sample.
Clima e Zone
Oceanic Con inen al Medi e anean Cana y Islands
Pe iod Typology 1COR BIL VLL MAD BCN ALC MAL SEV LPA
<1900 S 1 - - - 1 1 - - -
M - 1 - 2 3 - - - -
1900–1920 S 1 - - - 1 - - - -
M - 1 - 2 3 - - - -
1921–1940 S 1 - - - 1 - - - -
M - 1 - 3 4 - - - -
1941–1950 S 1 - - - 1 1 - 1 -
M - 1 - 3 3 1 - 1 -
1951–1960 S 1 - - 1 1 1 1 1 -
M 1 3 - 8 7 1 1 1 1
1961–1970 S 1 - - 1 2 1 1 2 1
M 3 7 2 19 19 5 3 4 2
1971–1980 S 1 - - 3 3 2 2 2 1
M 5 5 2 23 22 8 6 5 2
1981–1990 S 1 - - 3 3 3 2 2 1
M 2 1 1 9 6 5 5 2 2
1991–2001 S 1 - 1 4 3 2 2 3 1
M 3 2 1 13 10 3 4 3 2
2002–2011 S 2 - 1 3 2 3 1 3 1
M 6 3 1 13 9 12 6 3 2
TOTAL 31 25 9 110 104 49 34 33 16
1S a e single- amily houses and M mul i- amily o apa men buildings.
2.2. Tes s Assessmen
2.2.1. Tes ing Me hod
The e alua ion o he leakages is ca ied ou in acco dance wi h EN 13829 s anda d [
45
], used
o he de e mina ion o ai pe meabili y o buildings by he an p essu iza ion me hod, commonly
known as Blowe doo es (Figu e 2).
The e a e o he measu emen echniques such as he ace gas me hod, which is mo e accu a e
bu equi es well- ained expe s and also highe cos s [
3
]. The blowe doo es has been conside ed
he mos app op ia e echnique because i is simple and compa a i ely inexpensi e. The gene a ion
o a high-p essu e di e en ial (50 Pa) is su icien o mi iga e he wind and empe a u e ac ion on
he en elope. In his sense, i is easonably accu a e and ep oducible [
2
]. In e u n, he en elope is
subjec ed o an un eal si ua ion, because he a e age p essu e di e en ial unde no mal en i onmen al
ci cums ances is a ound 1–4 Pa.
Measu emen se s a e made bo h o p essu iza ion and dep essu iza ion, in he in e nal olume
o he delibe a ely condi ioned space o he house. In he case o apa men buildings, in which pa o
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 7 o 20
he en elope is in con ac wi h o he condi ioned o uncondi ioned spaces di e en om he ou doo
space, he ai pe meabili y o each dwelling is measu ed indi idually. Di iding walls and ho izon al
pa i ions o adjacen spaces a e conside ed o be pa o he en elope. I mus be aken in o accoun ,
hough, ha he e a e ai inle s wi h di e en en i onmen al condi ions [
11
]. Thus, en elope a eas
om di e en condi ions a e measu ed in a di e en ia ed way. Technical and ope a ional limi a ions
do no allow add essing mo e accu a e app oaches like he p essu e equaliza ion me hod [46].
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 20
The e alua ion o he leakages is ca ied ou in acco dance wi h EN 13829 s anda d [45], used
o he de e mina ion o ai pe meabili y o buildings by he an p essu iza ion me hod, commonly
known as Blowe doo es (Figu e 2).
The e a e o he measu emen echniques such as he ace gas me hod, which is mo e accu a e
bu equi es well- ained expe s and also highe cos s [3]. The blowe doo es has been conside ed
he mos app op ia e echnique because i is simple and compa a i ely inexpensi e. The gene a ion
o a high-p essu e di e en ial (50 Pa) is su icien o mi iga e he wind and empe a u e ac ion on he
en elope. In his sense, i is easonably accu a e and ep oducible [2]. In e u n, he en elope is
subjec ed o an un eal si ua ion, because he a e age p essu e di e en ial unde no mal
en i onmen al ci cums ances is a ound 1–4 Pa.
Measu emen se s a e made bo h o p essu iza ion and dep essu iza ion, in he in e nal olume
o he delibe a ely condi ioned space o he house. In he case o apa men buildings, in which pa
o he en elope is in con ac wi h o he condi ioned o uncondi ioned spaces di e en om he
ou doo space, he ai pe meabili y o each dwelling is measu ed indi idually. Di iding walls and
ho izon al pa i ions o adjacen spaces a e conside ed o be pa o he en elope. I mus be aken
in o accoun , hough, ha he e a e ai inle s wi h di e en en i onmen al condi ions [11]. Thus,
en elope a eas om di e en condi ions a e measu ed in a di e en ia ed way. Technical and
ope a ional limi a ions do no allow add essing mo e accu a e app oaches like he p essu e
equaliza ion me hod [46].
Figu e 2. Blowe doo sys em.
Th ough an au oma ed es using he so wa e p o ided by he blowe doo manu ac u e
(TECTITE Exp ess), a o al o 10 da a poin s we e measu ed, wi h inc emen s o 6 Pa in he ange 11–
65 Pa.
Figu e 2. Blowe doo sys em.
Th ough an au oma ed es using he so wa e p o ided by he blowe doo manu ac u e
(TECTITE Exp ess), a o al o 10 da a poin s we e measu ed, wi h inc emen s o 6 Pa in he ange
11–65 Pa.
The in il a ion cu e is calcula ed acco ding o he powe law equa ion (Equa ion (2)), based on
he undamen al mechanics ai low, o es ablish he ela ionship be ween he an low (q
en
) and he
building p essu e di e ence (∆p):
Ven =Cen (∆pn)(2)
whe e:
Ven : ai low a e h ough he en elope o he dwelling (m3/h)
Cen : ai low coe icien , which is ela ed o he size o he opening (m3/(h·Pan))
∆p: induced p essu e di e ence (Pa)
n: p essu e exponen
The p essu e exponen n p o ides an indica ion o he low egime. I has he limi ing alues
o 0.5 and 1 [
2
]. On he one hand, when n is close o 0.5, he low egime is u bulen and leakage
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 8 o 20
pa hs a e expec ed o be la ge, sho leaks. On he o he hand, when he exponen is close o 1,
he low is lamina and long-pa h leaks a e expec ed. Typical low exponen alues ange be ween
0.6 and 0.7 [47].
Two p ocedu es a e ca ied ou by Me hods A ( es ing o a building in use) and B ( es ing o
he building en elope), as desc ibed in s anda d EN 13829 [
45
], aking in o accoun he di e en
p epa a ions o he building ha each me hod equi es (Table 4).
Table 4. P epa a ion o he building en elope o Me hods A and B.
Openings on he En elope Me hod A Me hod B
Te minal de ices o mechanical en ila ion o ai condi ioning sys ems } }
Te minal de ices o mechanical en ila ion o ai condi ioning sys ems } }
Hea ing sys ems wi h indoo ai in ake ⊗}
Na u al en ila ion wi h adjus able openings ⊗}
Na u al en ila ion wi hou adjus able openings #}
Exhaus openings ⊗}
Enclosed i eplaces ⊗}
Open i eplaces #}
Plumbing o e lows and d ains (wi hou aps) #/}
Wa e aps in plumbing /}
Cupboa ds and close s doo s ⊗ ⊗
Ex e io windows and doo s ⊗ ⊗
In e connec ing doo s # #
#open posi ion; ⊗close posi ion; }sealed posi ion; illed posi ion.
The pa ame e s ob ained om he powe law, de ined in he EN 13829 s anda d [
45
] ha allow
he compa ison o esul s in di e en buildings (Table 5) a e lis ed below:
Table 5. Pa ame e s ob ained om he powe law.
Pa ame e Equa ion Uni
V
50 ai low a e a 50 Pa Cen (50)nm3/h
n
50 ai change a e a 50 Pa (ACH50) V50/V H−1
w
50 speci ic leakage a e a 50 Pa V50/AEm3/h·m2
q
50 ai pe meabili y a e a 50 Pa V50/AFm3/h·m2
V (m
3
): in e nal olume. Volume o ai inside he measu ed building, calcula ed by mul iplying he ne loo a ea by
he ceiling heigh . The olume o he u ni u e is no sub ac ed. A
E
(m
2
): en elope a ea. To al a ea o walls, loo s,
and ceilings bo de ing he in e nal olume subjec o he es . A
F
(m
2
): ne loo a ea. To al loo a ea o all loo s
belonging o he in e nal olume subjec o he es .
Addi ionally, wo pa ame e s a e conside ed:
•
EqLA (10 Pa): equi alen leakage a ea—Na ional Resea ch Council (NRC) o Canada Model (cm
2
).
I is de ined as he a ea o a sha p-edged o i ice ha would leak he same amoun o ai as he
building does a a p essu e o 10 Pa [48].
•
ELA (4 Pa): e ec i e leakage a ea—Law ence Be keley Labo a o ies Model (LBNL) (cm
2
). I is
de ined as he a ea o a special nozzle-shaped hole ha would leak he same amoun o ai as he
building does a a p essu e o 4 Pa.
Du ing he dep essu iza ion s age, leakage poin s we e iden i ied by he mog aphy (Figu e 3).
Howe e , due o he clima ological condi ions o he a eas whe e he es s we e ca ied ou , a la ge
he mal g adien o allow he mog aphic obse a ion was no always expec ed. In hese cases,
he mog aphy will be eplaced by he use o smoke gene a o s.
Fo he assessmen o he es s, a common p o ocol based on he s anda d [
45
] has been de eloped,
which speci ies he co ec execu ion o he expe imen al p ocedu es and da a cap u e, in such a way
ha all he cases a e analysed in a sys ema ic and uni o m way.
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 9 o 20
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 20
Addi ionally, wo pa ame e s a e conside ed:
• EqLA (10 Pa): equi alen leakage a ea—Na ional Resea ch Council (NRC) o Canada Model
(cm2). I is de ined as he a ea o a sha p-edged o i ice ha would leak he same amoun o ai
as he building does a a p essu e o 10 Pa [48].
• ELA (4 Pa): e ec i e leakage a ea—Law ence Be keley Labo a o ies Model (LBNL) (cm2). I is
de ined as he a ea o a special nozzle-shaped hole ha would leak he same amoun o ai as
he building does a a p essu e o 4 Pa.
Du ing he dep essu iza ion s age, leakage poin s we e iden i ied by he mog aphy (Figu e 3).
Howe e , due o he clima ological condi ions o he a eas whe e he es s we e ca ied ou , a la ge
he mal g adien o allow he mog aphic obse a ion was no always expec ed. In hese cases,
he mog aphy will be eplaced by he use o smoke gene a o s.
Fo he assessmen o he es s, a common p o ocol based on he s anda d [45] has been
de eloped, which speci ies he co ec execu ion o he expe imen al p ocedu es and da a cap u e, in
such a way ha all he cases a e analysed in a sys ema ic and uni o m way.
(a) (b)
Figu e 3. Usual leakage pa hs de ec ed wi h he mog aphy. (a) Leakage pa h a he s ap coile s o
olling shu e s; (b) Leakage pa h a window join s.
2.2.2. So wa e De elopmen o Da a Ga he ing
A speci ic ool has been de eloped o s o e all he da a om each case, “in il-APP” (Figu es 4–
7). A wide cha ac e iza ion o di e en pa ame e s, up o a o al o mo e han 140, a e s o ed in a
abula ed way, de ailed in Table 6. The applica ion has been concei ed o allow a simple, as , and
in ui i e ope a ion. I s s uc u e is in acco dance o he es ing p ocess, so ha echnicians only need
o ollow he s eps. The in o ma ion needed in o de o pe o m he es is ga he ed in ad ance, so
ha he minimum ime is spen on si e.
The i s s age is comple ed be o e he es pe o mance and comp ises da a o he echnicians
and he owne , esponsible uni e si y, loca ion, and yea o cons uc ion o he dwelling (Figu e 4).
A code is au oma ically gene a ed o each case, which allows pe sonal da a p o ec ion and he
iden i ica ion o each case. Dimensions a e also ga he ed a his s age whene e g aphical
documen a ion o he dwelling is a ailable. O he wise, simple loo plans a e ske ched on si e in o de
o ob ain he equi ed in o ma ion. Dimensions such as loo a ea (AF), olume (V), en elope a ea
(AE), o shape ac o (S ) a e au oma ically calcula ed om pa ial dimensions. In o de o gua an ee
sui able me eo ological condi ions limi ed by EN 13829 s anda d [45], wea he o ecas a he
expec ed da e, and ime o he es is also in oduced. I he wind speed exceeds 6 m/s, “in il-APP”
does no allow one o con inue o u he s eps and he es needs o be pos poned.
Figu e 3.
Usual leakage pa hs de ec ed wi h he mog aphy. (
a
) Leakage pa h a he s ap coile s o
olling shu e s; (b) Leakage pa h a window join s.
2.2.2. So wa e De elopmen o Da a Ga he ing
A speci ic ool has been de eloped o s o e all he da a om each case, “in il-APP” (Figu es 4–7).
A wide cha ac e iza ion o di e en pa ame e s, up o a o al o mo e han 140, a e s o ed in a abula ed
way, de ailed in Table 6. The applica ion has been concei ed o allow a simple, as , and in ui i e
ope a ion. I s s uc u e is in acco dance o he es ing p ocess, so ha echnicians only need o ollow
he s eps. The in o ma ion needed in o de o pe o m he es is ga he ed in ad ance, so ha he
minimum ime is spen on si e.
The i s s age is comple ed be o e he es pe o mance and comp ises da a o he echnicians and
he owne , esponsible uni e si y, loca ion, and yea o cons uc ion o he dwelling (Figu e 4). A code
is au oma ically gene a ed o each case, which allows pe sonal da a p o ec ion and he iden i ica ion
o each case. Dimensions a e also ga he ed a his s age whene e g aphical documen a ion o he
dwelling is a ailable. O he wise, simple loo plans a e ske ched on si e in o de o ob ain he equi ed
in o ma ion. Dimensions such as loo a ea (A
F
), olume (V), en elope a ea (A
E
), o shape ac o (S )
a e au oma ically calcula ed om pa ial dimensions. In o de o gua an ee sui able me eo ological
condi ions limi ed by EN 13829 s anda d [
45
], wea he o ecas a he expec ed da e, and ime o he
es is also in oduced. I he wind speed exceeds 6 m/s, “in il-APP” does no allow one o con inue o
u he s eps and he es needs o be pos poned.
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 20
Figu e 4. Sc eensho s o “in il-APP”. P e ious Da a.
The second s age is he cha ac e iza ion o he case (Figu e 5). I is done du ing he isi o he
dwelling. Pic u es o he ex e io , each oom, windows, sys ems, special ea u es, and c acks o o he
pa hologies de ec ed a e aken. Gene al in o ma ion abou he dwelling, cons uc ion sys ems, and
condi ioning and en ila ion sys ems a e sa ed in “in il-APP”.
A ca alogue o p ese ypical cons uc ion solu ions in Spain has been de eloped (Figu e 6),
paying a en ion o singula elemen s such as shu e s. Ne e heless, cus omized solu ions a e also
possible o in oduce. The e o i ing s a e o each case has been conside ed in de ail due o i s
decisi e ele ance.
Figu e 5. Sc eensho s o “in il-APP”. Cha ac e iza ion o he case.
Figu e 4. Sc eensho s o “in il-APP”. P e ious Da a.
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 16 o 20
3.2. Compa ison o he Resul s
The case s udy esul s a e compa ed o p elimina y esul s o 343 buildings es ed in he da abase
(Table 10). Building ai igh ness is exp essed by ei he he ai change a e (n
50
) o he ai pe meabili y
a e (q50).
As a p elimina y analysis o he esul s, he con ol a iables used o design he sample we e
s udied: clima e zone, yea o cons uc ion, and ypology. Figu e 11 ep esen s g aphically he
compa ison be ween he case s udy esul s and he da abase esul s o Me hod B conce ning dwellings
om he same clima e zone (Con inen al), buil wi hin he same pe iod (1960–1979) and dwellings
wi h he same ypology (mul i- amily housing).
Al hough he e is a wide sp ead o he alues ob ained om he da abase, he mean alues
acco ding o he chosen pa ame e s do no di e in a meaning ul way. I seems clea he ac ha
signi ican ly be e esul s ha e been ob ained o he case s udy dwelling han he gene al end o
he da abase.
Acco ding o ISO 13790 [
14
] he case-s udy dwelling has a “medium ai igh ness le el”, ha ing
a alue wi hin he ange o 2–5 h
−1
. Howe e , he mean n
50
alue o mul i amily dwellings o he
da abase is 7.26 h−1, which, acco ding o ISO 13790 [14], co esponds o a “low ai igh ness le el”.
Table 10. Compa ison o esul s o he case s udy and he da abase.
Da abase Cases Case S udy
Chosen Cases n Mean n50
(h−1)S . de . Mean q50
(m3/m2·h) S . de . n50
(h−1)
q50
(m3/m2·h)
Comple e da abase
334
7.12 3.29 5.63 2.72
4.38 2.9
Dwellings in he Con inen al a ea
127
6.77 3.18 5.50 2.76
Dwellings buil 1960–1979
121
7.18 3.23 5.54 2.63
Mul i- amily dwellings
267
7.26 3.28 5.44 2.42
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 20
(a) (b)(c)
(d) (e)( )
Figu e 11. Boxplo o da abase esul s compa ed o he case s udy esul s, indica ed by he ed line.
(a) n50 o Con inen al clima e zone; (b) n50 o dwellings buil wi hin he pe iod 1960–1979; (c) n50 o
mul i- amily dwellings; (d) q50 o Con inen al clima e zone; (e) q50 o dwellings buil wi hin he
pe iod 1960–1979; ( ) q50 o mul i- amily dwellings.
3.3. Leakages Loca ion
To de e mine in il a ion loca ions and dis ibu ion, he mal imaging was unde aken du ing
he dep essu iza ion s age. Since he e was a g ea empe a u e di e ence be ween he inside and he
ou side o he dwelling leakage poin s we e easily isualized. Mos leakages we e loca ed in window
ames and shu e boxes (Figu e 12).
(a) (b)
Figu e 12. Leakage pa hs de ec ed wi h he mog aphy. (a) Leakage pa h loca ed in a doo ame; (b)
Leakage pa h loca ed in he ape guide o he olling shu e .
4. Conclusions
A me hodology has been de eloped o in es iga e he ai igh ness o he a chi ec u al en elope
o he exis ing esiden ial s ock in Spain h ough an expe imen al s udy ca ied ou h oughou he
Spanish geog aphy. Conside ing a p opo ional quo a sampling scheme, a ep esen a i e numbe o
Figu e 11.
Boxplo o da abase esul s compa ed o he case s udy esul s, indica ed by he ed
line. (
a
) n
50
o Con inen al clima e zone; (
b
) n
50
o dwellings buil wi hin he pe iod 1960–1979;
(c) n50 o mul i- amily dwellings;
(
d
) q
50
o Con inen al clima e zone; (
e
) q
50
o dwellings buil
wi hin he pe iod 1960–1979; ( ) q50 o mul i- amily dwellings.

Ene gies 2018,11, 704 17 o 20
When compa ed o egula ions in o he Eu opean coun ies, he case s udy dwelling would
comply wi h UK (q
50
< 10 m
3
/m
2·
h) and I eland (q
50
<7m
3
/m
2·
h) o Czech Republic (
n50 < 4.5 h−1
)
egula ions bu no wi h Ge man egula ions no Polish ecommenda ions (n
50
< 3 h
−1
) o new
buildings [
49
]. The compa ison wi h F ench egula ions has no been made since i s indica o is
measu ed a 4 Pa and a di ec ansla ion o he esul s would no be accu a e.
3.3. Leakages Loca ion
To de e mine in il a ion loca ions and dis ibu ion, he mal imaging was unde aken du ing he
dep essu iza ion s age. Since he e was a g ea empe a u e di e ence be ween he inside and he
ou side o he dwelling leakage poin s we e easily isualized. Mos leakages we e loca ed in window
ames and shu e boxes (Figu e 12).
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 20
(a) (b)(c)
(d) (e)( )
Figu e 11. Boxplo o da abase esul s compa ed o he case s udy esul s, indica ed by he ed line.
(a) n50 o Con inen al clima e zone; (b) n50 o dwellings buil wi hin he pe iod 1960–1979; (c) n50 o
mul i- amily dwellings; (d) q50 o Con inen al clima e zone; (e) q50 o dwellings buil wi hin he
pe iod 1960–1979; ( ) q50 o mul i- amily dwellings.
3.3. Leakages Loca ion
To de e mine in il a ion loca ions and dis ibu ion, he mal imaging was unde aken du ing
he dep essu iza ion s age. Since he e was a g ea empe a u e di e ence be ween he inside and he
ou side o he dwelling leakage poin s we e easily isualized. Mos leakages we e loca ed in window
ames and shu e boxes (Figu e 12).
(a) (b)
Figu e 12. Leakage pa hs de ec ed wi h he mog aphy. (a) Leakage pa h loca ed in a doo ame; (b)
Leakage pa h loca ed in he ape guide o he olling shu e .
4. Conclusions
A me hodology has been de eloped o in es iga e he ai igh ness o he a chi ec u al en elope
o he exis ing esiden ial s ock in Spain h ough an expe imen al s udy ca ied ou h oughou he
Spanish geog aphy. Conside ing a p opo ional quo a sampling scheme, a ep esen a i e numbe o
Figu e 12.
Leakage pa hs de ec ed wi h he mog aphy. (
a
) Leakage pa h loca ed in a doo ame;
(b) Leakage pa h loca ed in he ape guide o he olling shu e .
4. Conclusions
A me hodology has been de eloped o in es iga e he ai igh ness o he a chi ec u al en elope
o he exis ing esiden ial s ock in Spain h ough an expe imen al s udy ca ied ou h oughou he
Spanish geog aphy. Conside ing a p opo ional quo a sampling scheme, a ep esen a i e numbe
o 411 cases has been selec ed. In his way i is possible o ex apola e he esul s o o he Spanish
esiden ial buildings. The sample includes di e en ypologies, cons uc ion yea s, and clima ic
zones. The s udy will allow he c ea ion o an ex ensi e da abase and he iden i ica ion o he ac o s
ha ha e a g ea e impac on ai igh ness and he in il a ion a es o ypical cons uc i e solu ions.
The me hodology has been concei ed in such a way ha i can be applied o o he coun ies whe e
he e is no da a ega ding he ai igh ness o he en elope in esiden ial buildings.
A case s udy in Valladolid has been p esen ed in o de o show an example o he implemen a ion
o he me hodology. Ai igh ness esul s a e compa ed o mean alues ob ained om he da abase,
conside ing he con ol a iables used o design he sample: clima e zone, yea o cons uc ion,
and ypology. Resul s ob ained indica e ha he dwelling has a medium ai igh ness le el, signi ican ly
highe han he mean alues ob ained om he da abase. Leakages a he case s udy we e loca ed
mainly a ound window join s and ames and shu e boxes.
Fu he wo k will include a deep analysis o he comple e da ase ob ained du ing he es
campaigns in o de o es ablish in il a ion a es o ypical Spanish cons uc i e solu ions, he impac
o di e en pa ame e s on he en elope pe meabili y, and he impac o in il a ions on he en ila ion
and ene gy pe o mance o dwellings.
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 18 o 20
Acknowledgmen s:
This pape p esen ed he me hodology unde he esea ch p ojec INFILES: Repe cusión
ene gé ica de la pe meabilidad al ai e de los edi icios esidenciales en España: es udio y ca ac e ización de sus
in il aciones, unded by he Spanish Minis y o Economy and Compe i i eness ( e . BIA2015-64321-R). The wo k
o one o he esea che s has been possible hanks o he S a egy o En ep eneu ship and You h Employmen ,
Sis ema Nacional de Ga an ía Ju enil, an ini ia i e o he Minis y o Employmen and Social Secu i y, Go e nmen
o Spain, and he Eu opean Social Fund o he Eu opean Union.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Feijó-Muñoz Jesús di ec ed he s udy; Padilla-Ma cos Miguel Ángel and Meiss Albe o
concei ed and designed he expe imen s;
Poza-Casado
I ene designed he sampling me hod; González-Lezcano
Robe o Alonso,
Pa dal C is ina
,
Echa i Víc o
,
Assiego de La i a Ra ael
,
Fe nández-Agüe a Jesica
,
Dios-Viéi ez Ma ía Jesús
, del Campo-Díaz Víc o Joséand Mon esdeoca Calde ín Manuel coo dina ed
he ield es campaigns om each uni e si y; Padilla-Ma cos Miguel Ángel de eloped he ool “in il-APP”.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
Ale , Ü.; Kalamees, T. Field S udy o Ai igh ness o T adi ional Ru al Houses in Es onia. P oc. CLIMA
2013
,
2013, 6882.
2.
She man, M.H.; Chan, R. Building Ai igh ness: Resea ch and P ac ice; Law ence Be keley Na ional Labo a o y:
Be keley, CA, USA, 2004.
3.
Salehi, A.; To es, I.; Ramos, A. Expe imen al analysis o building ai igh ness in adi ional esiden ial
Po uguese buildings. Ene gy Build. 2017,151, 198–205. [C ossRe ]
4.
D’Amb osio Al ano, F.R.; Dell’Isola, M.; Ficco, G.; Tassini, F. Expe imen al analysis o ai igh ness in
Medi e anean buildings using he an p essu iza ion me hod. Build. En i on. 2012,53, 16–25. [C ossRe ]
5.
Villi, G.; Pe e i, C.; G aci, S.; De Ca li, M. Building leakage analysis and in il a ion modelling o an I alian
mul i- amily building. J. Build. Pe o m. Simul. 2013,6, 98–118. [C ossRe ]
6.
S akianaki, A.; Pa lou, K.; San amou is, M.; Li ada, I.; Assimakopoulos, M.N.; Man as, P.;
Ch is akopoulos, A. Ai igh ness measu emen s o esiden ial houses in A hens, G eece. Build. En i on.
2008,43, 398–405. [C ossRe ]
7.
Ramos, N.M.M.; Almeida, R.M.S.F.; Cu ado, A.; Pe ei a, P.F.; Manuel, S.; Maia, J. Ai igh ness and en ila ion
in a mild clima e coun y ehabili a ed social housing buildings—Wha use s wan and wha hey ge .
Build. En i on. 2015,92, 97–110. [C ossRe ]
8.
K s i´c, H.; Koški, Ž.; O ko i´c, I.I.; Špani´c, M. Applica ion o neu al ne wo ks in p edic ing ai igh ness o
esiden ial uni s. Ene gy Build. 2014,84, 160–168. [C ossRe ]
9.
Tan ibili , A.; Oskay, R.; Yene , C. Ai Leakage Measu emen s in Dwellings in Tu key. In Symp on Ai Change
Ra e and Ai igh ness in Buildings; ASTM In e na ional: A lan a, GA, USA, 1990; pp. 165–179.
10.
Jiménez Tibe io, A.; B anchi, P. A s udy o ai leakage in esi en ial buildings. In P oceedings o he
2013 In e na ional Con e ence on New Concep s in Sma Ci ies: Fos e ing Public and P i a e Alliances
(Sma MILE), Gijon, Spain, 11–13 Decembe 2013; pp. 1–4.
11.
Meiss, A.; Feijó-Muñoz, J. The ene gy impac o in il a ion: A s udy on buildings loca ed in no h cen al
Spain. Ene gy E ic. 2014,8, 51–64. [C ossRe ]
12.
Fe nández-agüe a, J.; Send a, J.J.; Suá ez, R.; O eiza, I. Ai igh ness and indoo ai quali y in subsidised
housing in Spain. In P oceedings o he 36 h AIVC Con e ence ‘E ec i e Ven ila ion in High Pe o mance
Buildings’, Mad id, Spain, 23–24 Sep embe 2015.
13.
Fe nández-Agüe a, J.; Domínguez-Ama illo, S.; Send a, J.J.; Suá ez, R. An app oach o modelling en elope
ai igh ness in mul i- amily social housing in Medi e anean Eu ope based on he si ua ion in Spain.
Ene gy Build. 2016,128, 236–253. [C ossRe ]
14.
ISO 13790:2008. Ene gy Pe o mance o Buildings—Calcula ion o Ene gy Use o Space Hea ing and Cooling;
supe seded by ISO 52016-1:2017; In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion: Gene a, Swi ze land, 2008;
A ailable online: h ps://www.iso.o g/s anda d/41974.h ml (accessed on 1 Feb ua y 2018).
15.
K s ic, H.; O ko ic, I.I.; Todo o ic, G. Valida ion o a Model o P edic ing Ai igh ness o Residen ial Uni s.
Ene gy P ocedia 2015,78, 1525–1530. [C ossRe ]
16.
K s ic, H.; O ko ic, I.I.; Kosinski, P.; Wójcik, R. Valida ion o neu al ne wo k model o p edic ing ai igh ness
o esiden ial and non- esiden ial uni s in Poland. Ene gy Build. 2016,133, 423–432. [C ossRe ]
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 19 o 20
17.
Minis e io de Fomen o del Gobie no de España Código écnico de la Edi icación (CTE). Spain, 2017.
A ailable online: h ps://www.codigo ecnico.o g/ (accessed on 10 Ma ch 2018). (In Spanish)
18.
DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council on ene gy e iciency; 2012; pp. 1–56.
A ailable online: h ps://eu -lex.eu opa.eu/legal-con en /EN/TXT/?u i=celex:32012L0027 (accessed on
1 Feb ua y 2018).
19.
Lep ince, V.; Moujalled, B.; Li ak, A. Du abili y o building ai igh ness, e iew and analysis o exis ing
s udies. In P oceedings o he 38 h AIVC Con e ence Ven ila ing Heal hy Low-Ene gy Buildings, No ingham,
UK, 13–14 Sep embe 2017; pp. 1–14.
20.
Minis e io de Fomen o del Gobie no de España. No ma Básica de Edi icación NBE-CT-79. Condiciones é micas
en los edi icios; Spain, 1979. A ailable online: h ps://www.codigo ecnico.o g/ (accessed on 10 Ma ch 2018).
(In Spanish)
21.
Minis e io de Fomen o del Gobie no de España. Código écnico de la Edi icación (CTE). Documen o básico HS 3:
Calidad del ai e in e io . Wi h commen s om he Minis y o De elopmen (in Spanish). 2017. A ailable online:
h ps://www.codigo ecnico.o g/ (accessed on 10 Ma ch 2018).
22.
Minis e io de Fomen o del Gobie no de España. Código écnico de la Edi icación (CTE). Documen o básico HE 1:
Limi ación de la demanda ene gé ica (in Spanish). 2017. A ailable online: h ps://www.codigo ecnico.o g/
(accessed on 10 Ma ch 2018).
23.
EN 12207:2016. Windows and doo s. Ai Pe meabili y. Classi ica ion. 2016. A ailable online: h p://www.en.
aeno .es/aeno /no mas/no mas/ ichano ma.asp? ipo=N&codigo=N0058081#.W D MN wa71 (accessed on
1 Feb ua y 2018).
24.
P ice, P.N.; Shehabi, A.; Chan, R. Indoo -Ou doo Ai Leakage o Apa men s and Comme cial Buildings;
Cali o nia Ene gy Commission: Sac amen o, CA, USA, 2006.
25.
Alaminos Chica, A.; Cas ejón, J.L. Elabo ación, Análisis e In e p e ación de Encues as, Cues iona ios de Escalas de
Opinión; Uni e sidad de Alican e Edi o ial Ma il: Alican e, Spain, 2006; ISBN 8426812678.
26.
B amiana, C.N.; En op, A.G.; Halman, J.I.M. Rela ionships be ween Building Cha ac e is ics and
Ai igh ness o Du ch Dwellings. Ene gy P ocedia 2016,96, 580–591. [C ossRe ]
27. Ale , Ü.; Eskola, L.; A umägi, E.; Jokisalo, J.; Dona elli, A.; Si en, K.; B os öm, T.; Kalamees, T. Reno a ion
al e na i es o imp o e ene gy pe o mance o his o ic u al houses in he Bal ic Sea egion. Ene gy Build.
2014,77, 58–66. [C ossRe ]
28.
Chan, W.R.; Joh, J.; She man, M.H. Analysis o ai leakage measu emen s o US houses. Ene gy Build.
2013
,
66, 616–625. [C ossRe ]
29.
Sinno , D.; Dye , M. Ai - igh ness ield da a o dwellings in I eland. Build. En i on.
2012
,51, 269–275.
[C ossRe ]
30.
Mon oya, M.I.; Pas o , E.; Ca ié, F.R.; Guyo , G.; Planas, E. Ai leakage in Ca alan dwellings: De eloping an
ai igh ness model and leakage ai low p edic ions. Build. En i on. 2010,45, 1458–1469. [C ossRe ]
31.
Pan, W. Rela ionships be ween ai - igh ness and i s in luencing ac o s o pos -2006 new-build dwellings in
he UK. Build. En i on. 2010,45, 2387–2399. [C ossRe ]
32.
Zou, Y. Classi ica ion o Buildings wi h Rega d o Ai igh ness; Chalme s Uni e si y o Technology: Go henbu g,
Sweden, 2010.
33.
Kalamees, T. Ai igh ness and ai leakages o new ligh weigh single- amily de ached houses in Es onia.
Build. En i on. 2007,42, 2369–2377. [C ossRe ]
34.
O me, M.; Liddamen , M.; Wilson, A. Nume ical Da a o Ai In il a ion and Na u al Ven ila ion Calcula ions;
Ai In il a ion and Ven ila ion Cen e: London, UK, 1994; p. 108.
35.
Pin o, M.; Viegas, J.; de F ei as, V.P. Ai pe meabili y measu emen s o dwellings and building componen s
in Po ugal. Build. En i on. 2011,46, 2480–2489. [C ossRe ]
36.
Van Den Bossche, N.; Huyghe, W.; Moens, J.; Janssens, A.; Depaepe, M. Ai igh ness o he window-wall
in e ace in ca i y b ick walls. Ene gy Build. 2012,45, 32–42. [C ossRe ]
37.
Relande , T.O.; Bauwens, G.; Roels, S.; Thue, J.V.; U sløkk, S. The in luence o s uc u al loo s on he
ai igh ness o wood- ame houses. Ene gy Build. 2011,43, 639–652. [C ossRe ]
38.
E inje i, J.J.; Ka z, M.; Wi iol, N.M. Empi ical Modeling o Ai Tigh ness in Residen ial Homes in No h Louisiana;
Case S udies, S a is ics, Coun ies & Da ase s; Ben ley Uni e si y: Wal ham, MA, USA, 2009; pp. 37–47.
Ene gies 2018,11, 704 20 o 20
39.
Ylmén, P.; Hansén, M.; Romild, J. Du abili y o ai igh ness solu ions o buildings. In P oceedings o he 35 h
AIVC Con e ence ‘Ven ila ion and Ai igh ness in T ans o ming he Building S ock o High Pe o mance’,
Poznan, Poland, 24–25 Sep embe 2014.
40.
Mcwilliams, J.; Jung, M. De elopmen o a Ma hema ical Ai -Leakage Model om Measu ed Da a; Law ence
Be keley Na ional Labo a o y: Be keley, CA, USA, 2006.
41.
Chan, W.R.; Walke , I.S.; She man, M.H. Du able Ai igh ness in Single-Family Dwellings: Field Measu emen s
and Analysis. In . J. Ven . 2015,14, 27–38. [C ossRe ]
42.
Ins i u o Nacional de Es adís ica INEbase. A ailable online: h p://www.ine.es/ (accessed on 19 May 2016).
43.
Mo ales-Vallejo, P. Tamaño necesa io de la mues a: Cuán os suje os necesi amos? Es ad. Apl. Cienc. Soccapl.
Cienc. Soc. 2012,24, 20.
44.
D’Amb osio Al ano, F.R.; Dell’Isola, M.; Ficco, G.; Palella, B.I.; Riccio, G. Expe imen al ai - igh ness analysis
in medi e anean buildings a e windows e o i . Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 991. [C ossRe ]
45.
EN 13829:2000. The mal Pe o mance o Buildings—De e mina ion o Ai Pe meabili y o Buildings.
Fan P essu iza ion Me hod; (ISO 9972:1996, modi ied); In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion: Gene a,
Swi ze land, 2000; A ailable online: h ps://www.en.aeno .es/aeno /no mas/no mas/ ichano ma.asp?
ipo=N&codigo=N0026148&PDF=Si#.W DgUN wa70 (accessed on 1 Feb ua y 2018).
46.
DePani, S. A S udy in Single Blowe Doo Me hods o Mul i amily Buildings in Mon eal; Conco dia Uni e si y:
Mon eai, QC, Canada, 1999.
47.
Humph eys, M.; Nicol, F. Guide A: En i onmen al Design; Cha e ed Ins i u ion o Building Se ices Enginee s:
London, UK, 2006; ISBN 9780240812243.
48.
The Ene gy Conse a o y TECTITE 4.0 (Building Ai igh ness Tes Analyses P og am). So wa e Use ’s
Guide 2012. A ailable online: h ps://suppo .ene gyconse a o y.com/hc/en-us/a icles/202778350-
TECTITE-4-0. (accessed on 1 Feb ua y 2018).
49.
Lep ince, V.; Ca ié, F.R.; Kapsalaki, M. Building and duc wo k ai igh ness equi emen s in
Eu ope—Compa ison o 10 Eu opean coun ies. In P oceedings o he 38 h AIVC Con e ence Ven ila ing
heal hy Low-Ene gy Buildings, No ingham, UK, 13–14 Sep embe 2017; pp. 192–201.
©
2018 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access
a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
(CC BY) license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).