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Leade ship and gende pe spec i e
in hospi al physio he apy uni s
Me cedes Fe ando Ma gelí
1,2, Ai o Ga ay Sánchez
1,3, Elena And ade‑Gómez
4*,
Ca men Sua ez‑Se ano
5 & Yolanda Ma cén‑Román
2,3
Analyze he gende s e eo ypes p esen in he leade s o he Hospi al Physio he apy Uni s, de e mine
he le el o accep ance o emale leade ship and iden i y which ac o s in luence hese pe cep ions.
Obse a ional, desc ip i e, explo a o y and c oss‑sec ional s udy. The s udy subjec s a e he census
o leade s o he Physio he apy Uni s o public hospi als. The measu emen ins umen s used a e
he Accep ance o Female Leade ship Ques ionnai e (ACT‑LM), and he sociodemog aphic and
job‑ ela ed a iables. Mos o he leade s o he hospi al physio he apy uni s we e women (69.4%)
physio he apis s. Gende s e eo ypes eme ge in he dimension o Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics, wi h
esponden s no ully ag eeing ha women we e su icien ly compe i i e (18.7%) o ambi ious (20.8%)
o be success ul in he wo ld o wo k. These da a we e in luenced by gende , showing ha men ha e a
highe ega d o emale leade ship abili ies han women hemsel es. In he dimension o Accep ance
o Female Leade ship, 17.4% o hose su eyed did no ully ag ee ha women can ise o he same
ex en as men. Mos o he leade s o he physio he apy uni s in public hospi als in Spain a e women,
his is e e sed in a o o men in highly complex hospi als. The s e eo ype pe sis s, especially among
women, ha hey do no ha e enough ambi ion and compe i i eness o succeed in he wo ld o wo k.
Keywo ds Gende , Communica ion, Leade ship, Heal h P o essions, Physio he apy
Gende is a undamen al aspec ha has been widely s udied om di e en pe spec i es and in di e en a eas,
including managemen and leade ship1. Gende s e eo ypes e e o gene alized belie s and expec a ions abou
cha ac e is ics, abili ies, in e es s, and beha io s ha a e assumed o be app op ia e o men and women in a
ce ain socie y2.
In ecen decades, he e has been an inc ease in he pa icipa ion o women in all a eas o wo k. Howe e ,
inequali y pe sis s in he deg ee o occupa ion o managemen posi ions3,4. The ela ionship be ween leade ship
and gende has been e ol ing, om “The Wall”, which e e ed o men wo king and women a home, o he
“Glass Ceiling”, which e e s o in isible ba ie s, linked o gende inequali ies oo ed in socie y, which hinde
he p o essional p og ession o women5. Subsequen ly, “The Laby in h”6 eme ges, which e e s o he g ea es
numbe o obs acles ha women mus o e come o access leade ship posi ions un il he “Glass Cli ” ha wa ns
ha women access posi ions in which he e is g ea e isk o ailu e7.
In heal h p o essions, gende con inues o be a de e mining ac o ha is e lec ed in he p o essional ajec-
o ies o men and women8. Gende s e eo ypes pe mea e no only p o essionals, bu also pa ien s, pe pe ua ing
hemsel es in he o ganiza ional cul u e o he heal hca e ield9. The low p esence o women in managemen and
decision-making posi ions can lead o a lack o unde s anding o women’s wo king condi ions and he speci ic
needs o women in e ms o heal h ca e. This can lead o hese issues being neglec ed in heal h policies, hus
comp omising gende equali y in he exe cise o he igh o heal h9.
In oday’s socie y, gende s e eo ypes emain en enched, occupying a signi ican space bo h in he media
and in he ield o esea ch. In he heal hca e ield, ecen s udies ha e indica ed ha gende s e eo ypes con inue
o be an obs acle o women leade s10, who mus ace challenges o demons a e hei compe ence and leade -
ship skills. In he ield o physio he apy, he e is ha dly any na ional o in e na ional esea ch ha speci ically
add esses gende s e eo ypes in leade ship11.
In nu sing, an eminen ly emale p o ession, he in luence o gende on leade ship has been widely s udied12,
concluding ha gende s e eo ypes con inue o be a ba ie o he de elopmen o nu ses’ leade ship. In his
OPEN
1Miguel Se e Uni e si y Hospi al, Za agoza, Spain. 2GIIS086 G oup, Ins i u o In es igación Sani a ia A agón,
Za agoza, Spain. 3Depa men o Ana omy and Human His ology, Facul y o Medicine, Uni e si y o Za agoza,
Za agoza, Spain. 4Depa men o Nu sing, Facul y o Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o La Rioja, C/Duquesa de la
Vic o ia, nº 88, 26004 Log oño, La Rioja, Spain. 5Depa men o Physio he apy, Facul y o Nu sing, Physio he apy
and Podia y, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain. *email: [email p o ec ed]
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p o ession, he in luence ha aspec s such as age, lack o aining and wo k en i onmen ha e on he possibili ies
o leade ship de elopmen in women has been s udied12.
Acco ding o 2022 da a om he Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics13, physio he apy is also a p edominan ly
emale p o ession, 61.64% o women compa ed o 38.35% o men, i is impo an o analyze he cu en si ua ion
o leade ship in physio he apy in he heal hca e ield o iden i y and apply a eas o imp o emen ha p omo e
gende equi y.
The inclusion o he gende pe spec i e in esea ch allow us o isualize he poli ical and ins i u ional in lu-
ences ha con ibu e o he pe sis ence o hese inequali ies14. Howe e , o da e, in he ield o physio he apy,
esea ch on leade ship11 and gende 15 is sca ce and li le explo ed.
The main objec i e o his s udy is o analyze he gende s e eo ypes p esen in he leade s o Hospi al Physi-
o he apy Uni s, as well as o de e mine hei le el o accep ance o emale leade ship. Likewise, i seeks o iden-
i y he ac o s ha in luence hese pe cep ions, o con ibu e o p og ess owa ds mo e inclusi e and equi able
leade ship in he ield o physio he apy.
Me hods
S udy design
A s udy has been ca ied ou wi h quan i a i e me hodology, h ough an obse a ional, desc ip i e, and c oss-
sec ional design.
Pa icipan s
The s udy popula ion was heal h p o essionals who pe o med managemen and leade ship oles in he Physi-
o he apy Uni s o he Gene al Hospi al ne wo k o he Spanish public Heal h Sys em. Gi en ha his is a ela i ely
small popula ion, i was conside ed ha he census would cons i u e he s udy popula ion.
Inclusion c i e ia:
• Heads o he Physio he apy Uni s o he Gene al Hospi als o he Public Heal h Sys em.
The exclusion c i e ia included hose heads o manage s o he Physio he apy Uni s in:,, p i a e hospi als,
p i a ely managed public hospi als, mili a y and NGO hospi als, specialized public hospi als, medium and long-
s ay public hospi als, and men al heal h hospi als.
P ocedu e
P io o ca ying ou his esea ch, he Clinical Resea ch E hics Commi ee o A agon (CEICA) Fa o able Repo
was ob ained, ile numbe PI21/009, and a e he consen om he au ho o he ACT-ML ques ionnai e16 o
i s use, was eques ed and also ob ained.
Con ac wi h he s udy popula ion was made by eques ing pa icipa ion om he en i e popula ion h ough
he ep esen a i es o each egion, membe s o he Quali y G oup o he Gene al Council o Colleges o Physi-
o he apis s o Spain. To ob ain a highe esponse a e, elephone con ac was es ablished wi h he s udy subjec s
who had no been p e iously con ac ed, eques ing pa icipa ion. Fo his, he elephone numbe s egis e ed in
he Na ional Hospi al Ca alogue17 we e used.
Da a collec ion was ca ied ou using a ques ionnai e designed h ough Google Fo ms ha included he ACT-
ML ques ionnai e, sociodemog aphic and job- ela ed ques ions. In he in oduc ion p io o he ques ionnai e,
he objec i e o he s udy and he p i acy policy o he digi al pla o m we e desc ibed. Likewise, pa icipan s
we e in o med ha hei accep ance o pa icipa e ga e consen o he esea che s o use he da a ex ac ed om
he ques ionnai e. The design o he ques ionnai e was ca ied ou in such a way ha he ex ac ed da a ma ix
main ained he coding o he esponses.
The da a we e collec ed du ing he pe iod be ween June and Oc obe 2022. Once his pe iod ended, he da a
was ans e ed om he Excel documen p o ided by Google Fo ms o he SPSS s a is ical package (S a is ical
Package o he Social Sciences), e sion 28 o analysis.
Measu e ins umen
The measu emen ool selec ed o ca y ou his s udy was he ques ionnai e designed by D . Ma ía Lau a
Lupano Pe ugini16, “Accep ance o Female Leade ship” (ACT-ML), de eloped o e alua e un a o able a i udes
owa ds women leade s. This ins umen is an adap a ion o he one designed by Te bo g and Pe e s18 “Women
as Manage s Scale” (WAMS), he eason o i s selec ion was i s psychome ic p ope ies16 and he smalle size,
which p e en ed adding he sociodemog aphic ques ions o he ques ionnai e, i would be oo long and edious.
The ques ionnai e consis s o 7 i ems, answe ed using a 7-poin Like scale, anging om 1 “To al disag ee-
men ” o 7 “To al ag eemen ”.
I p esen s wo dimensions on he gende pe spec i e:
1. The “Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics” dimension: e alua es he ex en o which people conside ha women
p esen cha ac e is ics commonly associa ed wi h leade ship. 2. The “Accep ance o Female Leade ship” dimen-
sion: which e alua es he le el o accep ance o women as leade s.
Demog aphic and job- ela ed ques ions we e included o analyze hei ela ionship wi h he accep ance o
women leade s.
The e o e, he s udy a iables a e made up o h ee blocks:
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1. Sociodemog aphic a iables in ended o iden i y he p o ile o he s udy popula ion: age, sex, ma i al s a us,
p o ession, and academic le el.
2. Va iables ela ed o he job: yea s o wo k expe ience, yea s o expe ience in managemen /leade ship asks,
posi ion held, hospi al classi ica ion acco ding o numbe o beds, span o con ol, and numbe o ca ego ies
in cha ge.
3. Resul a iables o he measu emen ins umen selec ed o he s udy, Accep ance o emale leade ship, To al
scale, Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics and Accep ance o Female Leade ship.
Analysis o da a
Uni a ia e desc ip i e analysis o he quali a i e a iables was ca ied ou using equency dis ibu ion measu es
and pe cen ages o each ca ego y. To desc ibe he quan i a i e a iables, measu es o cen al endency (mean o
median) will be gi en, as well as measu es o dispe sion (s anda d de ia ion).
In ou census s udy, whe e he da a ob ained was om he en i e popula ion, i was no necessa y o make
s a is ical in e ences o make accu a e s a emen s. In e en ial s a is ical es s ha e been applied o e alua e he
in luence o sociodemog aphic and job a iables on he s udy ou comes and de e mine i he e we e s a is ically
signi ican di e ences o associa ions be ween hese a iables and hose o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e. The ela-
ionship be ween he esponse a iables and he quan i a i e a iables was explo ed using an ANOVA analysis i
he da a ollowed a no mal dis ibu ion, analyzed using he Shapi o Wilk no mali y es . The a iables ha did
no comply we e ea ed wi h he non-pa ame ic K uskal–Wallis es . To examine he ela ionship be ween he
esponse a iables and he quali a i e a iables, he Chi Squa e hypo hesis es was used. In all cases he esul s
we e conside ed o each s a is ical signi icance wi h p < 0.05.
E hics app o al and consen o pa icipa e
The Clinical Resea ch E hics Commi ee o A agon (CEICA) Fa o able Repo , ile numbe PI21/009, and
consen om he au ho o he ACT-ML ques ionnai e14 o i s use, we e eques ed and ob ained. All me hods
we e ca ied ou in acco dance wi h ele an guidelines and egula ions. In o med consen was ob ained om
all subjec s.
Resul s
A o al o 149 esponses we e ecei ed, esul ing in a esponse a e o 71.98% (149/207). Fi e o hem did no
mee he inclusion c i e ia (p ima y ca e, head o medical se ice, p i a ely managed hospi al) and hey we e
excluded om he analysis o he esul s, conside ing a o al o 144 esponses alid.
The esul s ob ained om he analysis o he sociodemog aphic a iables (Table1) indica e ha he leade s
o he hospi al physio he apy uni s ha e an a e age age o 49.6 (SD 6.1), he majo i y a e women (69.4%), hey
a e ma ied o li ing as a couple (77.1%) and hey ha e diplomas (59.7%) in physio he apy (91.0%).
The analysis o he a iables ela ed o he job posi ion (Table2) e eals ha he majo i y o esponde s
(77.8%) ha e mo e han 20yea s o wo k expe ience, 43.8% ha e been pe o ming managemen o leade ship
asks o be ween 1 and 5yea s, and i is wo h no ing ha 34.8% ha e been he e o be ween 6 and 15yea s.
I is also no ed ha he majo i y o hose su eyed (47.2%) ha e expe ience in hei cu en posi ion anging
om one o i e yea s.
Rega ding he p o ile o he people who o e see a le el 4 hospi al, conside ed la ge hospi als wi h high man-
agemen complexi y, i is wo h no ing ha only 46% a e women, compa ed o 69.4% o emale leade . P ac ically
78% o hose su eyed ha e a maximum o 50 people and a ound ou p o essional ca ego ies as a span o con ol.
The esul s ob ained om he analysis o he ou come a iables o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e (Table3) a e
p esen ed o each o he i ems in he ques ionnai e, as well as o he wo dimensions and he o al scale. I is
obse ed ha in all i ems, mos esponses all in o ca ego y “1” wi h he g ea es accep ance o emale leade s.
The e o e, all a e age sco es ha e alues sligh ly abo e one.
Conside ing ha he bes sco e on he scale would be “1”, we obse e ha he wo s alued i ems (wi h he
highes a e age alue) a e hose ha make up he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics dimension, wi h he esponden s
no ully ag eeing ha women a e su icien ly compe i i e (18.7%) o ambi ious (20.8%) o be success ul in he
wo ld o wo k.
Rega ding he dimension Accep ance o Female Leade ship, he highes a e age alue is gi en by 17.4% o
esponden s who do no o ally ag ee ha women can ad ance o he same ex en as men.
A e he analysis ca ied ou o iden i y he ac o s ha in luence he esul s ob ained in he ACT-LM Ques-
ionnai e, he esul s indica e ha he demog aphic a iables age, ma i al s a us, p o ession, and academic le el
ha e no s a is ically signi ican ela ionship wi h he esul s o he ACT-LM. On he con a y, he sex a iable
(Table4) shows s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween men and women in he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics
dimension and in he o al scale, being lowe in he male sex, which indica es ha men ha e g ea e conside a ion
on emale leade ship capabili ies han women hemsel es.
O he a iables ela ed o he job, he a iable span o con ol and he a iable numbe o ca ego ies in cha ge
ha e a s a is ically signi ican ela ionship wi h he ACT-LM ques ionnai e (Table5). In he con ol a ea, a s a is i-
cally signi ican di e ence is seen in he ins umen al subscale be ween he anges be ween “51–75” on he one
hand and “0–25” and “26–50” on he o he hand, which, since hey a e no co ela i e, do no allow us o ex ac
conclusions. In he a iable numbe o p o essional ca ego ies in cha ge, he signi ican di e ences occu in he
ins umen al subscale be ween 3 ca ego ies, wi h 2, 4 and 6 o mo e; in he accep ance subscale be ween 3 wi h
4 and 5 and in he To al Accep ance o Female Leade ship scale be ween 3 ca ego ies wi h 2, 4 and 5.
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Discussion
The esul s o his esea ch p o ide ele an in o ma ion o unde s and he si ua ion o emale leade ship in
public hospi als in Spain.
The p esence o 69.4% o emale leade s o he physio he apy uni s o public hospi als in Spain is a good
esul compa ed o he gene al s a is ics o emale physio he apis s in Spain which, acco ding o he epo o he
Gene al Council o Colleges o Physio he apis s19, was 62.4%. This is encou aging and aligns wi h he Eu opean
Pa liamen Resolu ion o 14 Ma ch 2017 aimed, among o he hings, a educing he unde - ep esen a ion o
women in managemen posi ions9. Un o una ely, his high pe cen age is no ep oduced when we alk abou
highly complex hospi als, in which he p esence o women in cha ge o hei managemen is educed o 46%.
This da a would coincide wi h he indings o Rincón4, Saadoun20 and LaPie e and Zimme man21 who epo ed
ha women a e less likely han hei male colleagues o aspi e o high-le el leade ship posi ions.
Rega ding wo k expe ience, 77.8% o he popula ion s udied has mo e han 20yea s o expe ience, which
indica es ex ensi e aining in clinical physio he apy. This esul coincides wi h he s a emen o physio he apy
leade ship expe s who s a e ha clinical expe ience is essen ial o be success ul in he leade ship o physi-
o he apy uni s22.
The posi ion held mos equen ly is ha o uni supe iso , wi h 70.83%, his co esponds o he o ganiza-
ion o mos hospi als, in which he physio he apy uni s depend on he nu sing di ec o a es. Special men ion
dese es he 8 (5.55%) physio he apy depu y di ec o o he Valencian egion, hei managemen is independen
o he nu sing, depending di ec ly on he hospi al managemen . Fu he mo e, he e a e no gende di e ences
in access o his posi ion.
I is ele an o no e ha physio he apis s p esen simila i ies be ween he yea s hey ha e been pe o m-
ing hei cu en posi ion and he yea s pe o ming managemen and/o leade ship asks, which indica es ha
hey do no hold o he managemen posi ions, e idencing ha he e is no mobili y in his p o essional a ea. In
p o essions such as nu sing, i is common o go h ough di e en posi ions and le els o leade ship. This ac
is conside ed an ob ious ba ie o he p o essional de elopmen o physio he apis s, bo h men and women,
in he ield o leade ship22, since hey ha e p ac ically no possibili y o accessing senio managemen posi ions.
The analysis o he accep ance o emale leade ship in he con ex o hospi al physio he apy uni s e ealed
a signi ican imp o emen wi h espec o he esul s ob ained by he au ho o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e16,
especially in men’s assessmen o emale leade ship, since i ob ained means o 2.34 (SD 1.15) in men and 1.92
(SD 0.94) in women. Ou esul s a e mo e consis en wi h cu en social ends o equali y, since he as majo -
i y o esponden s showed high accep ance o women leade s, e lec ing a posi i e e olu ion in he pe cep ion
o women’s leade ship capabili ies4.
Table 1. Sociodemog aphic a iables o he pa icipan s. n: numbe o popula ion subjec s. %: pe cen age o
popula ion.
Va iable n (%)
Sex
Male 43 (29.9%)
Female 100 (69.4%)
Non bina y 1 (0.7%)
Age
Mean (S anda d de ia ion) 49.6 (6.1)
Median 49
Minimum maximum 31/64
Ci il s a us
Single 21 (14.6%)
Ma ied, in a ela ionship 111 (77.1%)
Di o ced 11 (7.6%)
Widowed 1 (0.7%)
P o ession
Nu se 11 (7.6%)
Physio he apis 131 (91.0%)
Speech he apis 1 (0.7%)
Occupa ional he apis 1 (0.7%)
Academic le el
Diploma 86 (59.7%)
Deg ee 26 (18.1%)
Mas e 26 (18.1%)
Doc o 6 (4.2%)
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The i ems ha make up he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics dimension showed wo se esul s han hose o he
Accep ance o Female Leade ship dimension. This indica es ha , al hough leade s o physio he apy uni s mos ly
accep emale leade ship23, hey also e lec he belie ha women may lack, o some ex en , some cha ac e is ics
ha a e conside ed necessa y o e ec i e leade ship.
I is ele an o no e ha he women su eyed hemsel es showed a lowe a ing in bo h he wo dimensions
and in he o al scale, a di e ence ha was signi ican in he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics dimension. This pe -
cep ion could be due o pe sonal ba ie s, since some s udies15 indica e ha women may ha e lowe sel -es eem
and eel less p epa ed o hold leade ship posi ions compa ed o men.
The concep o ambi ion also eme ged as a poin o e lec ion. The s anda ds o mo i a ion, high compe i i e-
ness and ambi ion necessa y o achie e success can con as wi h he idealiza ion o mo he hood and he oles
adi ionally assigned o women24. I is impo an o conside how hese gende s e eo ypes4 can in luence he
pe cep ion o women leade s and hei p o essional sel -assessmen .
In gene al, physio he apis s who occupy leade ship posi ions in public hospi als in Spain show a high le el
o accep ance o emale leade ship, bu he e a e s ill belie s ha can imp o e ega ding he accep ance o emale
leade s, conside ing ha women ha e he same leade ship cha ac e is ics han men and who ha e he same
possibili ies o p omo ion, a e hose wi h he g ea es oom o imp o emen . P omo ing gende di e si y in
Table 2. Va iables ela ed o he job posi ion. n: numbe o popula ion subjec s. %: pe cen age o popula ion.
Va iable n (%)
Yea s o wo k expe ience
< 1yea 0 (0.0%)
15yea s 0 (0.0%)
6–10yea s 3 (2.1%)
11–15yea s 7 (4.9%)
16–20yea s 22 (15.3%)
> 20yea s 112 (77.8%)
Yea s o managemen /leade ship expe ience
< 1yea 12 (8.3%)
15yea s 63 (43.8%)
6–10yea s 27 (18.8%)
11–15yea s 23 (16.0%)
16–20yea s 8 (5.6%)
> 20yea s 11 (7.6%)
Job ha pe o ms
Coo dina ion 19 (13.19%)
Uni supe iso 102 (70.83%)
Physio he apy depu y di ec o 8 (5.55%)
A ea supe iso 14 (9.72%)
Head 1 (0.69%)
Hospi al classi ica ion/No. o beds
Clus e 1/< 200 33 (22.91%)
Clus e 2/200–500 59 (40.97%)
Clus e 3/501–1000 39 (27.08%)
Clus e 4/> 1000 13 (9.02%)
Span o con ol
0–25 wo ke s 56 (38.9%)
26–50 wo ke s 56 (38.9%)
51–75 wo ke s 14 (9.7%)
> 76 wo ke s 18 (12.5%)
Numbe o p o essional ca ego ies unde you esponsibili y
1 ca ego y 6 (4.2%)
2 ca ego ies 27 (18.8%)
3 ca ego ies 33 (22.9%)
4 ca ego ies 43 (29.9%)
5 ca ego ies 23 (16.0%)
6 ca ego ies 9 (6.3%)
7 ca ego ies 1 (0.7%)
8 ca ego ies 2 (1.4%)

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leade ship is bene icial o socie y as a whole4, since i has been shown ha women end o ac om e hical alues,
such as bene olence and uni e salism25.
Despi e he p og essi e p og ess ha has occu ed in he p esence o women in leade ship posi ions, we s ill
ind oom o con inue esea ching and wo king in his di ec ion and hus elimina e all nega i e gende s e eo-
ypes abou leade ship and women.
This s udy highligh s he impo ance o ecognizing and challenging gende s e eo ypes, which pe sis oday,
o achie e gende equali y in he ield o physio he apy leade ship. Allowing people o exp ess and de elop
Table 3. Resul o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e. Fo each i em: numbe o popula ion subjec s, (%) pe cen age
o popula ion. SD s anda d de ia ion.
I em 1 234567Mean SD
Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics 1.5 0.99
Women a e no ambi ious enough o be success ul in he wo ld o wo k 114 (79.2%) 6 (4.2%) 5 (3.5%) 8 (5.6%) 6 (4.20%) 4 (2.8%) 1 (0.7%) 1.63 1.38
Women a e no compe i i e enough o succeed in he wo ld o wo k 117 (81.3%) 8 (5.6%) 4 (2.8%) 2 (1.40%) 6 (4.2%) 3 (2.1%) 4 (2.8%) 1.59 1.46
Women do no ha e he necessa y social and poli ical skills o manage-
men posi ions 134 (93.1%) 2 (1.40%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (1.40%) 1 (0.7%) 1 (0.7%) 4 (2.80%) 1.28 1.16
Accep ance o emale leade ship 1.27 0.72
Women should ha e he same oppo uni ies as men o pa icipa e in
managemen aining p og ams 140 (97.2%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (2.1%) 1.14 0.87
Women can ise o he same ex en as men 119 (82.6%) 5 (3.50%) 8 (5.60%) 5 (3.50%) 4 (2.80%) 1 (0.7%) 2 (1.40%) 1.48 1.21
The wo k ca ied ou by women leade s is jus as aluable as ha ca ied
ou by men leade s 134 (93.1%) 1 (0.7%) 4 (2.80%) 2 (1.40%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (2.1%) 1.23 0.97
Women p esen he abili y o acqui e he necessa y skills o become
leade s 136 (94.4%) 2 (1.40%) 1 (0.7%) 1 (0.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (2.80%) 1.22 1.03
To al scale 1.37 0.68
Table 4. In e en ial s a is ics o he ACT-LM scale wi h he sex a iable. Fo each g oup: mean (s anda d
de ia ion). S a is ical signi icance p < 0.05.
Cha ac e is ic
Subscales
To al scaleIns umen al Leade ship accep ance
Sex
Male 1.14 (0.41) 1.20 (0.58) 1.18 (0.38)
Female 1.66 (1.13) 1.29 (0.78) 1.45 (0.76)
p0.011* 0.072 0.027*
Table 5. In e en ial s a is ics o he ACT-LM scale wi h a iables ela ed o he job posi ion. Fo each g oup:
mean (s anda d de ia ion). S a is ical signi icance p < 0.05.
Cha ac e is ic
Subscales
To al scaleIns umen al Leade ship accep ance
Span o con ol
0–25 1.67 (1.11) 1.28 (0.87) 1.45 (0.83)
26–50 1.51 (1.06) 1.24 (0.48) 1.35 (0.60)
51–75 1.00 (0.00) 1.29 (0.93) 1.16 (0.53)
≥ 76 1.31 (0.67) 1.31 (0.74) 1.31 (0.47)
p0.049* 0.77 0.262
No. p o . ca ego ies in cha ge
1 1.89 (1.57) 2.00 (2.45) 1.95 (2.06)
2 1.35 (0.92) 1.23 (0.46) 1.28 (0.51)
3 1.94 (1.19) 1.36 (0.58) 1.61 (0.69)
4 1.33 (0.89) 1.13 (0.55) 1.22 (0.47)
5 1.46 (0.89) 1.10 (0.22) 1.25 (0.43)
6 o mo e 1.11 (0.38) 1.50 (0.91) 1.33 (0.59)
p0.010* 0.047* 0.034*
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wi hou limi a ions based on hei gende will con ibu e o g ea e equi y and di e si y in leade ship posi ions
and will ul ima ely bene i pa ien s, he p o ession, he heal hca e sys em and socie y as a whole.
A limi a ion o his s udy is ha he au onomy in heal h policy o he egions does no allow us o know exac ly
he compe encies o each o he leade ship posi ions ha appea in his s udy.
Conclusions
In conclusion, mos o he leade s o he physio he apy uni s in public hospi als in Spain a e women, al hough
his is e e sed in a o o men in highly complex hospi als. The e is s ill a s e eo ype ha women do no ha e
enough ambi ion and compe i i eness o succeed in he wo ld o wo k.
Da a a ailabili y
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be made a ailable by he co esponding au ho ,
wi hou undue ese a ion.
Recei ed: 10 Janua y 2024; Accep ed: 27 Ap il 2024
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Au ho con ibu ions
M.F.M., A.G.S, E.A.G., C.S.S., Y.M.R. ha e pa icipa ed in he design o he s udy. M.F.M. has wo ked on he
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w i ing-p epa a ion o he o iginal d a and w i ing- e ision and edi ing. All au ho s ha e ead and accep ed
he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
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