Leadership and gender perspective in hospital physiotherapy units
Abstract
Analyze the gender stereotypes present in the leaders of the Hospital Physiotherapy Units, determine the level of acceptance of female leadership and identify which factors influence these perceptions. Observational, descriptive, exploratory and cross‑sectional study. The study subjects are the census of leaders of the Physiotherapy Units of public hospitals. The measurement instruments used are the Acceptance of Female Leadership Questionnaire (ACT‑LM), and the sociodemographic and job‑related variables. Most of the leaders of the hospital physiotherapy units were women (69.4%) physiotherapists. Gender stereotypes emerge in the dimension of Instrumental Characteristics, with respondents not fully agreeing that women were sufficiently competitive (18.7%) or ambitious (20.8%) to be successful in the world of work. These data were influenced by gender, showing that men have a higher regard for female leadership abilities than women themselves. In the dimension of Acceptance of Female Leadership, 17.4% of those surveyed did not fully agree that women can rise to the same extent as men. Most of the leaders of the physiotherapy units in public hospitals in Spain are women, this is reversed in favor of men in highly complex hospitals. The stereotype persists, especially among women, that they do not have enough ambition and competitiveness to succeed in the world of work.
Full text
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Leade ship and gende pe spec i e
in hospi al physio he apy uni s
Me cedes Fe ando Ma gelí
1,2, Ai o Ga ay Sánchez
1,3, Elena And ade‑Gómez
4*,
Ca men Sua ez‑Se ano
5 & Yolanda Ma cén‑Román
2,3
Analyze he gende s e eo ypes p esen in he leade s o he Hospi al Physio he apy Uni s, de e mine
he le el o accep ance o emale leade ship and iden i y which ac o s in luence hese pe cep ions.
Obse a ional, desc ip i e, explo a o y and c oss‑sec ional s udy. The s udy subjec s a e he census
o leade s o he Physio he apy Uni s o public hospi als. The measu emen ins umen s used a e
he Accep ance o Female Leade ship Ques ionnai e (ACT‑LM), and he sociodemog aphic and
job‑ ela ed a iables. Mos o he leade s o he hospi al physio he apy uni s we e women (69.4%)
physio he apis s. Gende s e eo ypes eme ge in he dimension o Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics, wi h
esponden s no ully ag eeing ha women we e su icien ly compe i i e (18.7%) o ambi ious (20.8%)
o be success ul in he wo ld o wo k. These da a we e in luenced by gende , showing ha men ha e a
highe ega d o emale leade ship abili ies han women hemsel es. In he dimension o Accep ance
o Female Leade ship, 17.4% o hose su eyed did no ully ag ee ha women can ise o he same
ex en as men. Mos o he leade s o he physio he apy uni s in public hospi als in Spain a e women,
his is e e sed in a o o men in highly complex hospi als. The s e eo ype pe sis s, especially among
women, ha hey do no ha e enough ambi ion and compe i i eness o succeed in he wo ld o wo k.
Keywo ds Gende , Communica ion, Leade ship, Heal h P o essions, Physio he apy
Gende is a undamen al aspec ha has been widely s udied om di e en pe spec i es and in di e en a eas,
including managemen and leade ship1. Gende s e eo ypes e e o gene alized belie s and expec a ions abou
cha ac e is ics, abili ies, in e es s, and beha io s ha a e assumed o be app op ia e o men and women in a
ce ain socie y2.
In ecen decades, he e has been an inc ease in he pa icipa ion o women in all a eas o wo k. Howe e ,
inequali y pe sis s in he deg ee o occupa ion o managemen posi ions3,4. The ela ionship be ween leade ship
and gende has been e ol ing, om “The Wall”, which e e ed o men wo king and women a home, o he
“Glass Ceiling”, which e e s o in isible ba ie s, linked o gende inequali ies oo ed in socie y, which hinde
he p o essional p og ession o women5. Subsequen ly, “The Laby in h”6 eme ges, which e e s o he g ea es
numbe o obs acles ha women mus o e come o access leade ship posi ions un il he “Glass Cli ” ha wa ns
ha women access posi ions in which he e is g ea e isk o ailu e7.
In heal h p o essions, gende con inues o be a de e mining ac o ha is e lec ed in he p o essional ajec-
o ies o men and women8. Gende s e eo ypes pe mea e no only p o essionals, bu also pa ien s, pe pe ua ing
hemsel es in he o ganiza ional cul u e o he heal hca e ield9. The low p esence o women in managemen and
decision-making posi ions can lead o a lack o unde s anding o women’s wo king condi ions and he speci ic
needs o women in e ms o heal h ca e. This can lead o hese issues being neglec ed in heal h policies, hus
comp omising gende equali y in he exe cise o he igh o heal h9.
In oday’s socie y, gende s e eo ypes emain en enched, occupying a signi ican space bo h in he media
and in he ield o esea ch. In he heal hca e ield, ecen s udies ha e indica ed ha gende s e eo ypes con inue
o be an obs acle o women leade s10, who mus ace challenges o demons a e hei compe ence and leade -
ship skills. In he ield o physio he apy, he e is ha dly any na ional o in e na ional esea ch ha speci ically
add esses gende s e eo ypes in leade ship11.
In nu sing, an eminen ly emale p o ession, he in luence o gende on leade ship has been widely s udied12,
concluding ha gende s e eo ypes con inue o be a ba ie o he de elopmen o nu ses’ leade ship. In his
OPEN
1Miguel Se e Uni e si y Hospi al, Za agoza, Spain. 2GIIS086 G oup, Ins i u o In es igación Sani a ia A agón,
Za agoza, Spain. 3Depa men o Ana omy and Human His ology, Facul y o Medicine, Uni e si y o Za agoza,
Za agoza, Spain. 4Depa men o Nu sing, Facul y o Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o La Rioja, C/Duquesa de la
Vic o ia, nº 88, 26004 Log oño, La Rioja, Spain. 5Depa men o Physio he apy, Facul y o Nu sing, Physio he apy
and Podia y, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain. *email: [email p o ec ed]
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p o ession, he in luence ha aspec s such as age, lack o aining and wo k en i onmen ha e on he possibili ies
o leade ship de elopmen in women has been s udied12.
Acco ding o 2022 da a om he Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics13, physio he apy is also a p edominan ly
emale p o ession, 61.64% o women compa ed o 38.35% o men, i is impo an o analyze he cu en si ua ion
o leade ship in physio he apy in he heal hca e ield o iden i y and apply a eas o imp o emen ha p omo e
gende equi y.
The inclusion o he gende pe spec i e in esea ch allow us o isualize he poli ical and ins i u ional in lu-
ences ha con ibu e o he pe sis ence o hese inequali ies14. Howe e , o da e, in he ield o physio he apy,
esea ch on leade ship11 and gende 15 is sca ce and li le explo ed.
The main objec i e o his s udy is o analyze he gende s e eo ypes p esen in he leade s o Hospi al Physi-
o he apy Uni s, as well as o de e mine hei le el o accep ance o emale leade ship. Likewise, i seeks o iden-
i y he ac o s ha in luence hese pe cep ions, o con ibu e o p og ess owa ds mo e inclusi e and equi able
leade ship in he ield o physio he apy.
Me hods
S udy design
A s udy has been ca ied ou wi h quan i a i e me hodology, h ough an obse a ional, desc ip i e, and c oss-
sec ional design.
Pa icipan s
The s udy popula ion was heal h p o essionals who pe o med managemen and leade ship oles in he Physi-
o he apy Uni s o he Gene al Hospi al ne wo k o he Spanish public Heal h Sys em. Gi en ha his is a ela i ely
small popula ion, i was conside ed ha he census would cons i u e he s udy popula ion.
Inclusion c i e ia:
• Heads o he Physio he apy Uni s o he Gene al Hospi als o he Public Heal h Sys em.
The exclusion c i e ia included hose heads o manage s o he Physio he apy Uni s in:,, p i a e hospi als,
p i a ely managed public hospi als, mili a y and NGO hospi als, specialized public hospi als, medium and long-
s ay public hospi als, and men al heal h hospi als.
P ocedu e
P io o ca ying ou his esea ch, he Clinical Resea ch E hics Commi ee o A agon (CEICA) Fa o able Repo
was ob ained, ile numbe PI21/009, and a e he consen om he au ho o he ACT-ML ques ionnai e16 o
i s use, was eques ed and also ob ained.
Con ac wi h he s udy popula ion was made by eques ing pa icipa ion om he en i e popula ion h ough
he ep esen a i es o each egion, membe s o he Quali y G oup o he Gene al Council o Colleges o Physi-
o he apis s o Spain. To ob ain a highe esponse a e, elephone con ac was es ablished wi h he s udy subjec s
who had no been p e iously con ac ed, eques ing pa icipa ion. Fo his, he elephone numbe s egis e ed in
he Na ional Hospi al Ca alogue17 we e used.
Da a collec ion was ca ied ou using a ques ionnai e designed h ough Google Fo ms ha included he ACT-
ML ques ionnai e, sociodemog aphic and job- ela ed ques ions. In he in oduc ion p io o he ques ionnai e,
he objec i e o he s udy and he p i acy policy o he digi al pla o m we e desc ibed. Likewise, pa icipan s
we e in o med ha hei accep ance o pa icipa e ga e consen o he esea che s o use he da a ex ac ed om
he ques ionnai e. The design o he ques ionnai e was ca ied ou in such a way ha he ex ac ed da a ma ix
main ained he coding o he esponses.
The da a we e collec ed du ing he pe iod be ween June and Oc obe 2022. Once his pe iod ended, he da a
was ans e ed om he Excel documen p o ided by Google Fo ms o he SPSS s a is ical package (S a is ical
Package o he Social Sciences), e sion 28 o analysis.
Measu e ins umen
The measu emen ool selec ed o ca y ou his s udy was he ques ionnai e designed by D . Ma ía Lau a
Lupano Pe ugini16, “Accep ance o Female Leade ship” (ACT-ML), de eloped o e alua e un a o able a i udes
owa ds women leade s. This ins umen is an adap a ion o he one designed by Te bo g and Pe e s18 “Women
as Manage s Scale” (WAMS), he eason o i s selec ion was i s psychome ic p ope ies16 and he smalle size,
which p e en ed adding he sociodemog aphic ques ions o he ques ionnai e, i would be oo long and edious.
The ques ionnai e consis s o 7 i ems, answe ed using a 7-poin Like scale, anging om 1 “To al disag ee-
men ” o 7 “To al ag eemen ”.
I p esen s wo dimensions on he gende pe spec i e:
1. The “Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics” dimension: e alua es he ex en o which people conside ha women
p esen cha ac e is ics commonly associa ed wi h leade ship. 2. The “Accep ance o Female Leade ship” dimen-
sion: which e alua es he le el o accep ance o women as leade s.
Demog aphic and job- ela ed ques ions we e included o analyze hei ela ionship wi h he accep ance o
women leade s.
The e o e, he s udy a iables a e made up o h ee blocks:
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1. Sociodemog aphic a iables in ended o iden i y he p o ile o he s udy popula ion: age, sex, ma i al s a us,
p o ession, and academic le el.
2. Va iables ela ed o he job: yea s o wo k expe ience, yea s o expe ience in managemen /leade ship asks,
posi ion held, hospi al classi ica ion acco ding o numbe o beds, span o con ol, and numbe o ca ego ies
in cha ge.
3. Resul a iables o he measu emen ins umen selec ed o he s udy, Accep ance o emale leade ship, To al
scale, Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics and Accep ance o Female Leade ship.
Analysis o da a
Uni a ia e desc ip i e analysis o he quali a i e a iables was ca ied ou using equency dis ibu ion measu es
and pe cen ages o each ca ego y. To desc ibe he quan i a i e a iables, measu es o cen al endency (mean o
median) will be gi en, as well as measu es o dispe sion (s anda d de ia ion).
In ou census s udy, whe e he da a ob ained was om he en i e popula ion, i was no necessa y o make
s a is ical in e ences o make accu a e s a emen s. In e en ial s a is ical es s ha e been applied o e alua e he
in luence o sociodemog aphic and job a iables on he s udy ou comes and de e mine i he e we e s a is ically
signi ican di e ences o associa ions be ween hese a iables and hose o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e. The ela-
ionship be ween he esponse a iables and he quan i a i e a iables was explo ed using an ANOVA analysis i
he da a ollowed a no mal dis ibu ion, analyzed using he Shapi o Wilk no mali y es . The a iables ha did
no comply we e ea ed wi h he non-pa ame ic K uskal–Wallis es . To examine he ela ionship be ween he
esponse a iables and he quali a i e a iables, he Chi Squa e hypo hesis es was used. In all cases he esul s
we e conside ed o each s a is ical signi icance wi h p < 0.05.
E hics app o al and consen o pa icipa e
The Clinical Resea ch E hics Commi ee o A agon (CEICA) Fa o able Repo , ile numbe PI21/009, and
consen om he au ho o he ACT-ML ques ionnai e14 o i s use, we e eques ed and ob ained. All me hods
we e ca ied ou in acco dance wi h ele an guidelines and egula ions. In o med consen was ob ained om
all subjec s.
Resul s
A o al o 149 esponses we e ecei ed, esul ing in a esponse a e o 71.98% (149/207). Fi e o hem did no
mee he inclusion c i e ia (p ima y ca e, head o medical se ice, p i a ely managed hospi al) and hey we e
excluded om he analysis o he esul s, conside ing a o al o 144 esponses alid.
The esul s ob ained om he analysis o he sociodemog aphic a iables (Table1) indica e ha he leade s
o he hospi al physio he apy uni s ha e an a e age age o 49.6 (SD 6.1), he majo i y a e women (69.4%), hey
a e ma ied o li ing as a couple (77.1%) and hey ha e diplomas (59.7%) in physio he apy (91.0%).
The analysis o he a iables ela ed o he job posi ion (Table2) e eals ha he majo i y o esponde s
(77.8%) ha e mo e han 20yea s o wo k expe ience, 43.8% ha e been pe o ming managemen o leade ship
asks o be ween 1 and 5yea s, and i is wo h no ing ha 34.8% ha e been he e o be ween 6 and 15yea s.
I is also no ed ha he majo i y o hose su eyed (47.2%) ha e expe ience in hei cu en posi ion anging
om one o i e yea s.
Rega ding he p o ile o he people who o e see a le el 4 hospi al, conside ed la ge hospi als wi h high man-
agemen complexi y, i is wo h no ing ha only 46% a e women, compa ed o 69.4% o emale leade . P ac ically
78% o hose su eyed ha e a maximum o 50 people and a ound ou p o essional ca ego ies as a span o con ol.
The esul s ob ained om he analysis o he ou come a iables o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e (Table3) a e
p esen ed o each o he i ems in he ques ionnai e, as well as o he wo dimensions and he o al scale. I is
obse ed ha in all i ems, mos esponses all in o ca ego y “1” wi h he g ea es accep ance o emale leade s.
The e o e, all a e age sco es ha e alues sligh ly abo e one.
Conside ing ha he bes sco e on he scale would be “1”, we obse e ha he wo s alued i ems (wi h he
highes a e age alue) a e hose ha make up he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics dimension, wi h he esponden s
no ully ag eeing ha women a e su icien ly compe i i e (18.7%) o ambi ious (20.8%) o be success ul in he
wo ld o wo k.
Rega ding he dimension Accep ance o Female Leade ship, he highes a e age alue is gi en by 17.4% o
esponden s who do no o ally ag ee ha women can ad ance o he same ex en as men.
A e he analysis ca ied ou o iden i y he ac o s ha in luence he esul s ob ained in he ACT-LM Ques-
ionnai e, he esul s indica e ha he demog aphic a iables age, ma i al s a us, p o ession, and academic le el
ha e no s a is ically signi ican ela ionship wi h he esul s o he ACT-LM. On he con a y, he sex a iable
(Table4) shows s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween men and women in he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics
dimension and in he o al scale, being lowe in he male sex, which indica es ha men ha e g ea e conside a ion
on emale leade ship capabili ies han women hemsel es.
O he a iables ela ed o he job, he a iable span o con ol and he a iable numbe o ca ego ies in cha ge
ha e a s a is ically signi ican ela ionship wi h he ACT-LM ques ionnai e (Table5). In he con ol a ea, a s a is i-
cally signi ican di e ence is seen in he ins umen al subscale be ween he anges be ween “51–75” on he one
hand and “0–25” and “26–50” on he o he hand, which, since hey a e no co ela i e, do no allow us o ex ac
conclusions. In he a iable numbe o p o essional ca ego ies in cha ge, he signi ican di e ences occu in he
ins umen al subscale be ween 3 ca ego ies, wi h 2, 4 and 6 o mo e; in he accep ance subscale be ween 3 wi h
4 and 5 and in he To al Accep ance o Female Leade ship scale be ween 3 ca ego ies wi h 2, 4 and 5.
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Discussion
The esul s o his esea ch p o ide ele an in o ma ion o unde s and he si ua ion o emale leade ship in
public hospi als in Spain.
The p esence o 69.4% o emale leade s o he physio he apy uni s o public hospi als in Spain is a good
esul compa ed o he gene al s a is ics o emale physio he apis s in Spain which, acco ding o he epo o he
Gene al Council o Colleges o Physio he apis s19, was 62.4%. This is encou aging and aligns wi h he Eu opean
Pa liamen Resolu ion o 14 Ma ch 2017 aimed, among o he hings, a educing he unde - ep esen a ion o
women in managemen posi ions9. Un o una ely, his high pe cen age is no ep oduced when we alk abou
highly complex hospi als, in which he p esence o women in cha ge o hei managemen is educed o 46%.
This da a would coincide wi h he indings o Rincón4, Saadoun20 and LaPie e and Zimme man21 who epo ed
ha women a e less likely han hei male colleagues o aspi e o high-le el leade ship posi ions.
Rega ding wo k expe ience, 77.8% o he popula ion s udied has mo e han 20yea s o expe ience, which
indica es ex ensi e aining in clinical physio he apy. This esul coincides wi h he s a emen o physio he apy
leade ship expe s who s a e ha clinical expe ience is essen ial o be success ul in he leade ship o physi-
o he apy uni s22.
The posi ion held mos equen ly is ha o uni supe iso , wi h 70.83%, his co esponds o he o ganiza-
ion o mos hospi als, in which he physio he apy uni s depend on he nu sing di ec o a es. Special men ion
dese es he 8 (5.55%) physio he apy depu y di ec o o he Valencian egion, hei managemen is independen
o he nu sing, depending di ec ly on he hospi al managemen . Fu he mo e, he e a e no gende di e ences
in access o his posi ion.
I is ele an o no e ha physio he apis s p esen simila i ies be ween he yea s hey ha e been pe o m-
ing hei cu en posi ion and he yea s pe o ming managemen and/o leade ship asks, which indica es ha
hey do no hold o he managemen posi ions, e idencing ha he e is no mobili y in his p o essional a ea. In
p o essions such as nu sing, i is common o go h ough di e en posi ions and le els o leade ship. This ac
is conside ed an ob ious ba ie o he p o essional de elopmen o physio he apis s, bo h men and women,
in he ield o leade ship22, since hey ha e p ac ically no possibili y o accessing senio managemen posi ions.
The analysis o he accep ance o emale leade ship in he con ex o hospi al physio he apy uni s e ealed
a signi ican imp o emen wi h espec o he esul s ob ained by he au ho o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e16,
especially in men’s assessmen o emale leade ship, since i ob ained means o 2.34 (SD 1.15) in men and 1.92
(SD 0.94) in women. Ou esul s a e mo e consis en wi h cu en social ends o equali y, since he as majo -
i y o esponden s showed high accep ance o women leade s, e lec ing a posi i e e olu ion in he pe cep ion
o women’s leade ship capabili ies4.
Table 1. Sociodemog aphic a iables o he pa icipan s. n: numbe o popula ion subjec s. %: pe cen age o
popula ion.
Va iable n (%)
Sex
Male 43 (29.9%)
Female 100 (69.4%)
Non bina y 1 (0.7%)
Age
Mean (S anda d de ia ion) 49.6 (6.1)
Median 49
Minimum maximum 31/64
Ci il s a us
Single 21 (14.6%)
Ma ied, in a ela ionship 111 (77.1%)
Di o ced 11 (7.6%)
Widowed 1 (0.7%)
P o ession
Nu se 11 (7.6%)
Physio he apis 131 (91.0%)
Speech he apis 1 (0.7%)
Occupa ional he apis 1 (0.7%)
Academic le el
Diploma 86 (59.7%)
Deg ee 26 (18.1%)
Mas e 26 (18.1%)
Doc o 6 (4.2%)
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The i ems ha make up he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics dimension showed wo se esul s han hose o he
Accep ance o Female Leade ship dimension. This indica es ha , al hough leade s o physio he apy uni s mos ly
accep emale leade ship23, hey also e lec he belie ha women may lack, o some ex en , some cha ac e is ics
ha a e conside ed necessa y o e ec i e leade ship.
I is ele an o no e ha he women su eyed hemsel es showed a lowe a ing in bo h he wo dimensions
and in he o al scale, a di e ence ha was signi ican in he Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics dimension. This pe -
cep ion could be due o pe sonal ba ie s, since some s udies15 indica e ha women may ha e lowe sel -es eem
and eel less p epa ed o hold leade ship posi ions compa ed o men.
The concep o ambi ion also eme ged as a poin o e lec ion. The s anda ds o mo i a ion, high compe i i e-
ness and ambi ion necessa y o achie e success can con as wi h he idealiza ion o mo he hood and he oles
adi ionally assigned o women24. I is impo an o conside how hese gende s e eo ypes4 can in luence he
pe cep ion o women leade s and hei p o essional sel -assessmen .
In gene al, physio he apis s who occupy leade ship posi ions in public hospi als in Spain show a high le el
o accep ance o emale leade ship, bu he e a e s ill belie s ha can imp o e ega ding he accep ance o emale
leade s, conside ing ha women ha e he same leade ship cha ac e is ics han men and who ha e he same
possibili ies o p omo ion, a e hose wi h he g ea es oom o imp o emen . P omo ing gende di e si y in
Table 2. Va iables ela ed o he job posi ion. n: numbe o popula ion subjec s. %: pe cen age o popula ion.
Va iable n (%)
Yea s o wo k expe ience
< 1yea 0 (0.0%)
15yea s 0 (0.0%)
6–10yea s 3 (2.1%)
11–15yea s 7 (4.9%)
16–20yea s 22 (15.3%)
> 20yea s 112 (77.8%)
Yea s o managemen /leade ship expe ience
< 1yea 12 (8.3%)
15yea s 63 (43.8%)
6–10yea s 27 (18.8%)
11–15yea s 23 (16.0%)
16–20yea s 8 (5.6%)
> 20yea s 11 (7.6%)
Job ha pe o ms
Coo dina ion 19 (13.19%)
Uni supe iso 102 (70.83%)
Physio he apy depu y di ec o 8 (5.55%)
A ea supe iso 14 (9.72%)
Head 1 (0.69%)
Hospi al classi ica ion/No. o beds
Clus e 1/< 200 33 (22.91%)
Clus e 2/200–500 59 (40.97%)
Clus e 3/501–1000 39 (27.08%)
Clus e 4/> 1000 13 (9.02%)
Span o con ol
0–25 wo ke s 56 (38.9%)
26–50 wo ke s 56 (38.9%)
51–75 wo ke s 14 (9.7%)
> 76 wo ke s 18 (12.5%)
Numbe o p o essional ca ego ies unde you esponsibili y
1 ca ego y 6 (4.2%)
2 ca ego ies 27 (18.8%)
3 ca ego ies 33 (22.9%)
4 ca ego ies 43 (29.9%)
5 ca ego ies 23 (16.0%)
6 ca ego ies 9 (6.3%)
7 ca ego ies 1 (0.7%)
8 ca ego ies 2 (1.4%)
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leade ship is bene icial o socie y as a whole4, since i has been shown ha women end o ac om e hical alues,
such as bene olence and uni e salism25.
Despi e he p og essi e p og ess ha has occu ed in he p esence o women in leade ship posi ions, we s ill
ind oom o con inue esea ching and wo king in his di ec ion and hus elimina e all nega i e gende s e eo-
ypes abou leade ship and women.
This s udy highligh s he impo ance o ecognizing and challenging gende s e eo ypes, which pe sis oday,
o achie e gende equali y in he ield o physio he apy leade ship. Allowing people o exp ess and de elop
Table 3. Resul o he ACT-LM ques ionnai e. Fo each i em: numbe o popula ion subjec s, (%) pe cen age
o popula ion. SD s anda d de ia ion.
I em 1 234567Mean SD
Ins umen al Cha ac e is ics 1.5 0.99
Women a e no ambi ious enough o be success ul in he wo ld o wo k 114 (79.2%) 6 (4.2%) 5 (3.5%) 8 (5.6%) 6 (4.20%) 4 (2.8%) 1 (0.7%) 1.63 1.38
Women a e no compe i i e enough o succeed in he wo ld o wo k 117 (81.3%) 8 (5.6%) 4 (2.8%) 2 (1.40%) 6 (4.2%) 3 (2.1%) 4 (2.8%) 1.59 1.46
Women do no ha e he necessa y social and poli ical skills o manage-
men posi ions 134 (93.1%) 2 (1.40%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (1.40%) 1 (0.7%) 1 (0.7%) 4 (2.80%) 1.28 1.16
Accep ance o emale leade ship 1.27 0.72
Women should ha e he same oppo uni ies as men o pa icipa e in
managemen aining p og ams 140 (97.2%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (2.1%) 1.14 0.87
Women can ise o he same ex en as men 119 (82.6%) 5 (3.50%) 8 (5.60%) 5 (3.50%) 4 (2.80%) 1 (0.7%) 2 (1.40%) 1.48 1.21
The wo k ca ied ou by women leade s is jus as aluable as ha ca ied
ou by men leade s 134 (93.1%) 1 (0.7%) 4 (2.80%) 2 (1.40%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (2.1%) 1.23 0.97
Women p esen he abili y o acqui e he necessa y skills o become
leade s 136 (94.4%) 2 (1.40%) 1 (0.7%) 1 (0.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (2.80%) 1.22 1.03
To al scale 1.37 0.68
Table 4. In e en ial s a is ics o he ACT-LM scale wi h he sex a iable. Fo each g oup: mean (s anda d
de ia ion). S a is ical signi icance p < 0.05.
Cha ac e is ic
Subscales
To al scaleIns umen al Leade ship accep ance
Sex
Male 1.14 (0.41) 1.20 (0.58) 1.18 (0.38)
Female 1.66 (1.13) 1.29 (0.78) 1.45 (0.76)
p0.011* 0.072 0.027*
Table 5. In e en ial s a is ics o he ACT-LM scale wi h a iables ela ed o he job posi ion. Fo each g oup:
mean (s anda d de ia ion). S a is ical signi icance p < 0.05.
Cha ac e is ic
Subscales
To al scaleIns umen al Leade ship accep ance
Span o con ol
0–25 1.67 (1.11) 1.28 (0.87) 1.45 (0.83)
26–50 1.51 (1.06) 1.24 (0.48) 1.35 (0.60)
51–75 1.00 (0.00) 1.29 (0.93) 1.16 (0.53)
≥ 76 1.31 (0.67) 1.31 (0.74) 1.31 (0.47)
p0.049* 0.77 0.262
No. p o . ca ego ies in cha ge
1 1.89 (1.57) 2.00 (2.45) 1.95 (2.06)
2 1.35 (0.92) 1.23 (0.46) 1.28 (0.51)
3 1.94 (1.19) 1.36 (0.58) 1.61 (0.69)
4 1.33 (0.89) 1.13 (0.55) 1.22 (0.47)
5 1.46 (0.89) 1.10 (0.22) 1.25 (0.43)
6 o mo e 1.11 (0.38) 1.50 (0.91) 1.33 (0.59)
p0.010* 0.047* 0.034*
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wi hou limi a ions based on hei gende will con ibu e o g ea e equi y and di e si y in leade ship posi ions
and will ul ima ely bene i pa ien s, he p o ession, he heal hca e sys em and socie y as a whole.
A limi a ion o his s udy is ha he au onomy in heal h policy o he egions does no allow us o know exac ly
he compe encies o each o he leade ship posi ions ha appea in his s udy.
Conclusions
In conclusion, mos o he leade s o he physio he apy uni s in public hospi als in Spain a e women, al hough
his is e e sed in a o o men in highly complex hospi als. The e is s ill a s e eo ype ha women do no ha e
enough ambi ion and compe i i eness o succeed in he wo ld o wo k.
Da a a ailabili y
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be made a ailable by he co esponding au ho ,
wi hou undue ese a ion.
Recei ed: 10 Janua y 2024; Accep ed: 27 Ap il 2024
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Au ho con ibu ions
M.F.M., A.G.S, E.A.G., C.S.S., Y.M.R. ha e pa icipa ed in he design o he s udy. M.F.M. has wo ked on he
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w i ing-p epa a ion o he o iginal d a and w i ing- e ision and edi ing. All au ho s ha e ead and accep ed
he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
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