Fe nández-Eche e ía, C. e al.: HOW COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE DATA CAN... Kinesiology 55(2023)2:337-348
337
HOW COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE DATA CAN INFORM THE
TRAINING PROCESS? AN ACTION-RESEARCH STUDY BASED
ON THE CONSTRAINT-LED APPROACH
Ca men Fe nández-Eche e ía1, Ana Ramos2, Isabel Mesqui a2,
and Ma ía Pe la Mo eno A oyo3
1Facul y o Educa ion Sciences, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain
2Cen e o Resea ch, Educa ion, Inno a ion and In e en ion in Spo , Facul y o Spo ,
Uni e si y o Po o, Po o, Po ugal
3Facul y o Spo Science, Uni e si y o G anada, G anada, Spain
O iginal scien i ic pape
DOI 10.26582/k.55.2.17
Abs ac :
By implemen ing an inside ac ion- esea ch (AR) design h oughou a compe i i e olleyball season, his
s udy sough o examine quali a i ely how compe i i e da a, ex ac ed om ma ch analysis, may suppo
he de elopmen o a coaching in e en ion based on he p inciples o he cons ain -led app oach. Twel e
eli e playe s, one head coach and one assis an coach pa icipa ed in wo AR cycles, each one in ol ing he
p ocesses o planning, moni o ing, e lec ing, and ac - inding. The i s au ho , who was also he assis an
coach and he inside - esea che , collec ed da a o e 20 weeks using in e iews, aining ideo aped eco ds,
and ield no es. Da a we e analysed using hema ic analysis, and induc i e p ocedu es we e adop ed o
deepen an unde s anding o how a cons ain -led coaching in e en ion e ol ed o e he season. The esul s
highligh ed compe i i e da a as a ele an ool o suppo ing he unde lying pedagogical p ocess in he design
o ep esen a i e lea ning asks ia cons ain s manipula ion. G ounded on compe i i e da a, he lea ning
designs p og essed om an ini ial poin whe e cons ain s manipula ion was sca ce, non- ep esen a i e, and
wi hou s imula ing playe s’ p oblem-sol ing abili ies, o an endpoin whe e asks we e concei ed based on
he nex opposi ion’s ea u es (i.e., ask ep esen a i eness) and ocused on he de elopmen o unc ional and
co-adap a i e skills. In conclusion, he compe i i e da a suppo ed he de elopmen o a coaching p ac ice
based on he cons ain -led app oach. Me hodologically, he inside AR-design o e ed con ex ualized insigh s
in o how he pedagogical coaching in e en ion e ol ed o e he season. Thus, we highligh he impo ance
o sampling he mos ele an in o ma ion om compe i ion, h ough ma ch analysis epo s, so ha coaches
can design ep esen a i e and con ex ualized lea ning asks ongoingly aligned wi h playe s’ needs.
Key wo ds: ecological dynamics, spo s pedagogy, quali a i e analysis, olleyball
The ole o he in e ac ing cons ain s has
mos ly been add essed by he cons ain -led
app oach (CLA) (Da ids, Bu on, & Benne , 2008).
Adop ing a playe -en i onmen scale o analysis,
he CLA has emphasised he cons ain s manipula-
ion as a aluable way o acili a e he ac ion-pe cep-
ion coupling ha suppo s he playe s’ pe cep ual
a unemen o speci ic game- ela ed a o dances
(Gibson, 1979; Woods, McKeown, O’Sulli an,
Robe son, & Da ids, 2020a). In his ega d, ecen
sys ema ic e iews ha e highligh ed he ask as he
mos equen ly manipula ed cons ain by spo s
p ac i ione s (i.e., coaches, eache s, e c.) (Ramos,
Cou inho, Da ids, & Mesqui a, 2020a), ein o cing
he need o hem o ac as designe s o lea ning
(Woods, e al., 2020a). Such an idea p esupposes
In oduc ion
O e he las ew yea s, an ecological dynamics
amewo k has been adop ed o ex end he comp e-
hension o how playe s and he en i onmen in e ac
o shape collec i e spo s pe o mance in compe i-
ion (Da ids, A aújo, Sei e , & O h, 2015). F om
his ecological pe spec i e, he deg ees o eedom
(e.g., playe s) ha comp ise a sys em (e.g., eam),
a e embedded a di e en le els o analysis, in e -
ac ing as he unc ion o ask-indi idual-en i on-
men cons ain s (Da ids & A aújo, 2005). He e,
cons ain s a e de ined as bounda ies ha in luence
he eme gence o mo emen s/beha iou s (Newell,
1986), p o iding oppo uni ies o playe s o ac in
and in e ac wi h he en i onmen (i.e., a o dances;
Gibson, 1979)).
Kinesiology 55(2023)2:337-348Fe nández-Eche e ía, C. e al.: HOW COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE DATA CAN...
338
ha coaches can iden i y which key in o ma ional
cons ain s mus be manipula ed so ha ep esen -
a i e ac ion oppo uni ies could eme ge du ing
he pe o mance o lea ning asks, d i ing conse-
quen ly he explo a ion o e ec i e solu ions by
playe s.
To ease such pedagogical p ocedu e, spo s
p ac i ione s should suppo he sampling o
cons ain s h ough sou ces o compe i i e da a ha
enable hem o iden i y he mos c i ical in o ma-
ion demanded by compe i ion (Woods, McKeown,
Shu lewo h, Da ids, & Robe son, 2019). To da e,
he CLA p inciples ha e been used and assessed
wi hin a aining con ex , bu neglec ed in a compe -
i i e con ex (Ramos, e al., 2020b). Mo e s udies
ocused on he analysis o collec i e beha iou s
in compe i ion a e he e o e needed. Indeed, he
compe i i e en i onmen en ails unique ea u es,
p o iding alid and eliable in o ma ion abou he
echnical and ac ical beha iou s o compe i o s
(Eccles, Wa d, & Woodman, 2009). In his ega d,
he ma ch analysis (MA) (i.e., no a ional analysis)
depic s a aluable compe i i e da a sou ce ha , by
conside ing he c i ical e en s o compe i ion (e.g.,
iden i ying he equency o a speci ic opponen ’s
ac ion), u h ully in o ms spo s pe o mance
(Van Maa se een, Oudejans, & Sa elsbe gh, 2017).
Acco dingly, da a om MA suppo he design o
ep esen a i e lea ning asks, ha is, he manipula-
ion o ask cons ain s manipula ed co espond o
he c i ical in o ma ion o he compe i i e en i on-
men (Pinde , Da ids, A aújo, & Renshaw, 2011).
Mo eo e , MA enables playe s o be a uned o
he pe cep ual-mo o ela ionships demanded by
compe i ion (T a assos, Dua e, Vila , Da ids, &
A aújo, 2012). S ill, and pe haps he mos impo
-
an , he MA can explain o suppo why and how a
se o ask cons ain s may be manipula ed du ing
p ac ice, ein o cing a p ocess-o ien ed app oach
(Ramos, e al., 2021a).
Al hough he CLA emphasizes he impo -
ance o ask ep esen a i eness, he compe i i e
in o ma ion gi en by MA is equen ly neglec ed
du ing he design o ep esen a i e lea ning asks
in aining sessions. In ac , ypically he s udies
do no conside —o no epo —which a e he
ac ical o echnical issues ha such in e en ion
claimed o esol e (e.g., Oppici, Panchuk, Se piello,
& Fa ow, 2018). Thus, no wi hs anding i s unde-
niable con ibu ion, mos o he in es iga ions on
CLA scope end up losing i s p ac ical meaning o
spo s p ac i ione s (e.g., coaches, eache s, pe o -
mance analys s). Fo his eason, i seems pe inen
o explo e, and demons a e, how ask cons ain s
migh en ich he pedagogical p ocess. In his
espec , despi e some in es iga ions ha e s a ed
o explo e quali a i ely he in luence o CLA p in-
ciples on spo s pe o mance (e.g., Ramos, Da ids,
Cou inho, & Mesqui a, 2022), usually in es-
iga ions ocus on CLA ollow posi i is pa a-
digm and a quan i a i e app oach (Ramos, e al.,
2020b), limi ing he comp ehension o how such
in e en ion sca olds he pe o mance p epa a-
ion o compe i ion. The eby, quali a i e s udies
a e cu en ly equi ed o p o ide enewed con ex -
dependen insigh s in o he eal and deep impac o a
pedagogical in e en ion based on CLA p inciples.
In addi ion o he abo emen ioned, i is also
common ha CLA in es iga ions adop c oss-
sec ional designs conduc ed du ing b ie pa s o
aining sessions (e.g., he las 15 minu es o he
session; Cou inho, e al., 2020), becoming un ep-
esen a i e o he whole pedagogical in e en ion
pe o med o he coach. Fu he mo e, such in es i-
ga ions ypically apply in e en ion p o ocols meas-
u ing he di e ences be ween he ini ial and inal
pe o mance s ages (i.e., adop ing an ‘end-p oduc ’
pe spec i e). Doing so, he deep and con ex ual-
ized comp ehension o he hows and whys o he
aining p ocess (e.g., design, pedagogical in e -
en ion, eedback, e c.), lea ning de elopmen and
pe o mance enhancemen is also neglec ed. In
his sense, i is also u gen ha using a quali a i e
app oach he in es iga ions examine, moni o , and
e alua e longi udinally he coaching p ac ice so
ha he pe o mance ou comes can be in e p e ed
and comp ehended in-dep h a he han supe i-
cially explained.
Gi en hei cyclical and in e en ionis na u e,
ac ion- esea ch (AR) designs (Lewin, 1946) a e
likely o be ex emely help ul in his espec . In
ac , by a o ding ongoing and con ex ualized eed-
back abou he o e - ime in en ional changes o
he coaching pedagogical in e en ion acco ding
o playe s and/o eam needs, he AR designs can
b oadly con ibu e o b idging he knowledge gap
be ween aining and compe i ion, wi h he MA
da a media ing his in e play. Commonly, he AR
design is used o e alua e he pedagogical in e -
en ion o eache s wi hin he Physical Educa-
ion con ex (e.g., G ay, W igh , Sie w igh , &
Robe son, 2019), and despi e ecen ly Ramos e
al. (2022a) ha e conduc ed an inside AR, wi hin
he con ex o you h olleyball aining, he imple-
men a ion o his esea ch design in spo s aining
con ex emains sca ce. Fu he mo e, a lack o AR
designs a spo high pe o mance le els pe sis , in
which he in e play be ween aining and compe-
i ion is mainly guided o achie e ou comes, o
suppo coaching o compe i i e pe o mance
(Ramos, e al., 2021b).
Th ough an inside AR conduc ed o e a
compe i i e olleyball season, his s udy sough
o examine quali a i ely how compe i i e da a,
e ie ed om ma ch analysis, migh suppo he
de elopmen o a pedagogical coaching in e en-
ion based on he CLA p inciples.
Fe nández-Eche e ía, C. e al.: HOW COMPETITIVE PERFORMANCE DATA CAN... Kinesiology 55(2023)2:337-348
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Me hods
Con ex and pa icipan s
The s udy sample comp ised he head coach and
one assis an coach o an eli e senio emale olley-
ball eam consis ing o wel e playe s. Pu pose and
con enience sampling c i e ia we e used o selec
he head coach (Pa on, 2015). The head coach, who
olun ee ed o pa icipa e in he s udy, was iden i-
ied as an in o ma ion- ich case due o his ex en-
si e expe ience in olleyball coaching (25 yea s o
expe ience). He is a success ul high-le el olleyball
coach holding he highes le el o coaching ce i i-
ca ion (le el III). The i s au ho assumed he dual
ole o assis an coach and inside esea che . As
he assis an coach, she wo ked mainly as a scou ,
he eby p o iding— ia ma ch-analysis epo s—
i al compe i i e da a o he head coach abou he
echnical and ac ical s a us o he eam, as well
as he main ea u es o he nex opponen ha
should be add essed o e he aining week. As
he esea che , she comple ed a deg ee in spo s
sciences and a mas e ’s cou se on esea ch in social
sciences, whe e he ac ion- esea ch design was
explo ed in de ail. As he coach, she has six yea s o
compe i i e expe ience and holds he na ional le el
III coaching ce i ica ion. This s udy was conduc ed
h oughou a compe i i e season, las ing 20 weeks.
Pe week, playe s pe o med i e aining sessions
on a e age (a o al o 9 hou s) and pa icipa ed in
one o icial ma ch. Globally, 96 aining sessions
we e comple ed ac oss he season.
This s udy ollowed he Decla a ion o Helsinki
guidelines. Acco dingly, all he pa icipan s we e
no i ied abou he s udy’s scope and pu pose, and
in o med consen o ms we e signed. The head
coach was also in o med abou his igh o wi h-
d aw om he s udy a any ime. Con iden iali y
and anonymi y issues we e explained and ensu ed
o he pa icipan s h ough pseudonyms.
S udy design
This s udy adop ed he inside AR design whe e
he assis an coach (who was also he esea che )
e lec ed sys ema ically and c i ically on he head
coach in e en ion, hus p o iding use ul in o -
ma ion o imp o ing he pedagogical coaching
in e en ion (Ca & Kemmis, 1986). Gi en he
e lexi e, collabo a i e, and in e en ionis na u e
o he AR design, i was possible o moni o , e al-
ua e, and adap ongoingly he pedagogical in e -
en ion o he head coach (Gubacs-Collins, 2007).
Speci ically, his inside in ol emen a o ded a
p i ileged s andpoin conce ning he de elopmen
o a coaching pedagogical in e en ion amed upon
cons ain -led assump ions (Da ids e al., 2008;
Ramos, e al., 2020a).
O e all, wo AR cycles we e comple ed, wi h
each one including he s ages o planning, ac ing,
moni o ing, and e lec ing. Each AR cycle las ed
h ee mon hs and co esponded wi h he i s league
ound ( om Oc obe o Decembe ) and he second
league ound ( om Janua y o Ma ch), espec-
i ely. As sugges ed by Gilbou ne (1999), i s ly
we ocused on iden i ying and explo ing he peda-
gogical con ex du ing he p e-season—diagnosis
phase. Speci ically, we sough o pinpoin he
pedagogical and me hodological agili ies o he
aining p ocess. Acco dingly, and aligned wi h he
s udy’s pu pose, he i s and he second AR cycle
ocused on imp o ing he head coach’s pedagog-
ical in e en ion suppo ed by he CLA p inciples.
A he end o each AR cycle, any p oblems iden i-
ied by he assis an coach ha emained un esol ed
guided he subsequen pedagogical in e en ions o
he head coach.
The ole o he inside esea che
As al eady men ioned, he inside esea che
wo ked as he assis an coach playing an impo -
an ole in p o iding pedagogical sugges ions o
help de elop aining asks based on he peda-
gogical p inciples o CLA (Sulli an, Woods,
Vaughan, & Da ids, 2021). Speci ically, he in o -
ma ion p o ided, which was ailo ed o he eam’s
needs as well as he head coach’s equi emen s,
was ex ac ed om MA and ansla ed in o p ac-
ical e ms h ough wo di e en scou epo s:
he i s epo was dedica ed o he head coach’s
eam (i.e., he eam in ol ed in his s udy), while
he second epo was conce ned wi h he subse-
quen i al eams (Sa men o, B adley & T a assos,
2015). Thus, he i s epo p o ided con ex ual-
ized in o ma ion abou which eam-speci ic game
si ua ions need o be imp o ed, and how i can be
accomplished (e.g., he ecep ion in a speci ic ield
zone o he a ack e ec i eness when playing wi h
pe ec se ing condi ions) (O’Donoghue, 2006).
The i al epo s, on he o he hand, ocused on
p o iding con ex ualized in o ma ion abou hei
i al’s ac ical cha ac e is ics, namely he de ensi e
and o ensi e ac ical game pa e ns (e.g., double,
o iple block o ganiza ion de ensi ely, o playing
wi h an a acking combina ion o ensi ely) (G oom
& Cushión, 2004).
Coaching ins uc ional in e en ion
Each aining session included he design o
lea ning asks based on he CLA p inciples. Table
1 p o ides a de ailed desc ip ion o he main CLA
pedagogical p inciples conside ed, while Table 2
exempli ies how, suppo ed by MA epo s, he
planning o aining sessions e ol es o e he
season.
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Table 1. De ailed desc ip ion o he main CLA ins uc ional p inciples conside ed
Concep s
Cons ain manipula ion – asks cons ain s (e.g., ules, playing space, numbe o playe s, e c.) we e manipula ed o de elop
he abili y o playe s o ecognize and in e p e oppo uni ies o he mos app op ia e ac ions, encou aging hei echnical and
ac ical p oblem-sol ing skills wi hin dynamic and di e si ied lea ning en i onmen s.
A o dance design – he s uc u e o lea ning asks was designed o enhance playe s’ unde s anding abou how, whe e, when,
and why hey ha e he oppo uni y o pe o m an ac ion.
Rep esen a i e lea ning design – amed upon compe i i e da a, he lea ning asks we e designed so ha playe s could
sus ain and p ac ice he same pe cep ual-mo o ela ions demanded in compe i i e en i onmen s.
Co-adap a ion – lea ning asks we e buil so ha playe s can achie e he ask goal h ough he coope a ion among eamma es
– sel o ganizing p ocesses – o sa is y he in e ac ing indi idual- ask-en i onmen cons ain s
Task complexi y – he complexi y o he lea ning asks was inc eased acco ding o playe s ac ical le el o p omo e ins abili y
in playe s’ ac ions so ha hey could explo e adap a i e pe cep ual-mo o solu ions
Tablea 2. Example o a aining plan design o each phase o he compe i i e season (i.e., p e-season, 1s AR-cycle and 2nd AR-cycle),
based on compe i i e da a ex ac ed om MA
Coaching p ac ice Compe i i e da a ex ac ed om ma ch analysis
Desc ip ion G aph Ecological
dynamics
Task
ep esen a-
i eness
Collec i e
dynamics
P e-season
[Sep embe
o Oc obe ]:
De ence agains a acks om zones 4 and 2,
acco ding o he ollowing sequence: (i) line a ack,
(ii) c oss a ack.
- The ea u es o main o ensi e ends o he nex
i als a e no conside ed.
- The e is no ac ical eedback o he blocke s.
- The main ocus is o be echnically e icien .
None None None
1s AR-cycle
[Oc obe o
Decembe ]:
Condi ional 6x6 game- o m om 0 o 15 poin s. The
allies s a acco ding o he ollowing sequence o
ou dis inc ball: (i) se ice om side A, (ii) se ice
om side B, (iii) eeball om side A, (i ) eeball
om side B.
Task cons ains – Se ie 1 – blocking line a
zone 2, blocking diagonal a zone 4, sco ing in
coun e a ack was double-awa ded (2 poin s), he
un o ced e o s emo ed 1 poin .
Task cons ain s – Se ie 2 – blocking diagonal a
zone 4 and 2, sco ing in coun e a ack emained
double-awa ded (2 poin s), bu iple- ewa ded i
he de ense a zone 1 ails (3 poin s). The se ice
e o emo ed 1 poin . I is only allowed o ail 4
a acks o e he coun e a ack
Team depic s
low de ence
pe cen ages in
zone 1 when
opponen s
we e a acking
in zone 2
(i.e., c oss-
a acking).
Asynch ony
be ween
blocking and
de ensi e lines
Opponen s’
se ing
pa e ns,
pe cen ages o
a ack by zone
and playe s’
o a ion
Inc emen s in
de ense e icacy
when pe o ming
he c oss-
blocking a zone 4
2nd AR-cycle
[Janua y o
Ma ch]:
Condi ional 6x6 game- o m om 20/20 o 25 poin s.
Se ies 1 and 3, side B was se ing, se ies 2 and 4
side A was se ing.
Task cons ain s: he eam in he coun e a acking
phase can only sco e on 1x1 si ua ions and
block-ou . Sco ing om he a ack-co e age
si ua ion is double-awa ded (2 poin s) i he a ack
was pe o med by he middle-blocke .
No e: he playe s o e he side-ou phase we e
in i ed o explo e he same a ack endencies as
he nex i als.
Pe cen age
o a ia ion
in eam
pe o mance
a de ensi e
ac ions agains
di e en ypes
o a acks (e.g.,
line, diagonal,
ip, oll-sho )
Dis ibu ion
o a ack
pe cen ages
om each
playe
conside ing
he zone
o a ack.
Ri al’s playing
con igu a ions
ega ding he
1s and 2nd
de ensi e lines
Low sco e
pe cen ages in
he coun e a ack
phase. Low
pe cen age o
ball eco e ed
by he a ack-
co e age sys em.
The a ack
e icacy o he
eam inc eases
when plays in 1x1
si ua ions and/o
using he middle-
blocke s
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Ins uc ional and ea men alidi y
To gua an ee ha he CLA pedagogical p in-
ciples we e implemen ed, he coaching pedagog-
ical in e en ion was alida ed by h ee ex e nal
esea che s. All he ex e nal esea che s had p io
expe ience as coaches and wi h he CLA p inciples.
Acco dingly, a checklis , comp ised o six i ems,
was adap ed om he s udies by P áxedes, Ál a ez,
Mo eno, Gil-A ias and Da ids, (2019) and Ramos
e al. (2020a). O e all, 10 aining sessions, hence
mo e han 10% o he o al sample, we e andomly
analyzed o he p esence o absence o he i ems
included in Table 2 (Tabachnick Fidell, & Ullman,
2007). A 100% ag eemen be ween he esea che s
alida ed he applica ion o he CLA pedagogical
p inciples by he head and assis an coach.
Da a collec ion
The p esen s udy used se e al da a collec-
ion echniques o ex end cu en unde s andings
abou how compe i i e da a migh con ibu e o
he enhancemen o a coaching pedagogical in e -
en ion g ounded on CLA p inciples. Acco dingly,
he da a we e collec ed h ough: (a) in e iews, (b)
aining ideo ape eco ds, and (c) ield no es.
(a) In e iew
Due o i s use ulness in dealing wi h hemes
ha equi e pa icipan s o alk abou hei expe i-
ences, semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e conduc ed
by he inside esea che wi h he head coach a
h ee di e en momen s o e he season (B aun &
Cla ke, 2013). The i s in e iew was conduc ed a
he beginning o he p e-season and aimed o eluci-
da e he head coach’s unde s anding o he global
o ganiza ion, me hodology, planning and de elop-
men o he aining p ocess. The second in e iew
was pe o med a he end o he i s AR cycle wi h
he pu pose o: (i) unde s and whe he he compe i-
i e da a was playing an impo an ole in he design
o lea ning asks using he CLA p inciples, and (ii)
diagnose any issues ha need u he a en ion.
Finally, he hi d in e iew was conduc ed a he end
o he second AR cycle and sough o comp ehend
how he head coach pe cei ed he impac o compe -
i i e da a on de eloping he didac ical con en s o
aining sessions amed upon he CLA p inciples.
All in e iews comp ised 12 ques ions ela ed o
di e en hemes (e.g., s uc u e o aining, ype
and aim o lea ning asks, e c.). The in e iews we e
eco ded using a digi al oice eco de , being a e -
wa ds ansc ibed e ba im by he i s au ho o
ob ain an accu a e and comple e da a collec ion.
Du ing he in e iews, he inside esea che ac ed
as an ac i e lis ene wi h a neu al a i ude, os e ing
a elaxed en i onmen and hiding he opinions o
encou age he head coach o con ey his ealis ic and
ue hough s (Smi h & Spa kes, 2005).
(b) T aining ideo ape eco ds (TVR)
To gain in-dep h access o he e en s ha
occu ed in aining sessions, he assis an coach
eco ded and obse ed one session e e y week,
so o ob ain ele an aining da a ha enabled a
con ex ualized in e p e a ion and unde s anding o
he head coach’s decisions and playe s’ beha iou s
(Mesqui a, e al., 2015). Following he ecommen-
da ions o Pe ei a, Mesqui a, and G aça (2009), who
indica e ha choosing a mid-week wo kou in he
mic o-cycle is desi able, he weekly aining session
was eco ded on Thu sdays. O e all, 90 minu es
o p ac ice we e obse ed pe aining session, in
a o al o 2160 minu es obse ed h oughou he
season. The ideo eco de was loca ed a he
bo om o he aining cou , a a heigh o 7-m,
o ensu e op imal ision and sound, as well as o
enable he obse a ion o he in e ac ions among all
he pa icipan s (Mesqui a, e al., 2015).
(c) Field no es (FNs)
The FNs we e used o cap u e any c i ical inci-
den s in aining sessions. They he e o e e lec he
mos c i ical obse a ions, pe cep ions and pe sonal
expe iences ha help s eng hen he comp ehen-
sion o how he head coach e ol ed he design o
he lea ning ask and i s didac ical con en s. The
FNs we e collec ed du ing aining sessions and
echnical-s a mee ings, and hey we e w i en by
he inside esea che ac oss he wo AR cycles.
Table 3. Ins uc ional checklis
Elemen s o aining sessions P esen Absen
1. Compe i i e da a suppo ed he ongoing manipula ion o wi hin-lea ning asks
2. The lea ning asks p o ide he oppo uni y o playe s o explo e di e en ac ical
solu ions and/o op imize he same ac ical op ion wi hin a iable en i onmen al scena ios
3. The asks we e designed acco ding o he main ac ical ea u es o he nex opponen
4. The speci ic needs o he eam a e conside ed o c ea e challenging lea ning si ua ions
5. The design o lea ning asks add essed a ac ical p oblem ha encou aged collec i e
in e ac ions o achie e he lea ning ask goal
6. The lea ning asks encompassed he manipula ion o cons ain s in e ms o ules,
numbe o playe s, space and/o ime

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Da a analysis
The da a om in e iews, TVR and FNs we e
analyzed o e each AR cycle ollowing hema ic
analysis p ocedu es (B aun & Cla ke, 2012).
Explici ly, hema ic analysis was chosen because
i allows o sys ema ically iden i y, analyze, and
epo pa e ns o meaning ( hemes) wi hin a b oad
da a se (Te y, Hay ield, Cla ke, & B aun, 2017).
The i s phase in ol ed a epea ed eading o he
ansc ip s, ollowed by an induc i e and open da a
coding o cap u e pe cep ions, meanings and look
o pa e ns (i.e., d a o ca ego ies and subca ego-
ies). The second phase e e ed o he iden i ica ion
o possible links be ween codes o o m cong uen
hemes and sub hemes (i.e., ocused coding). Du ing
his analy ical p ocess, he condi ions, con ex ,
s a egies o ac ion/in e ac ions, and ou comes we e
analyzed o o m a con ex ualized unde s anding o
e en s. The hi d phase comp ised a back-and- o h
wo k p ocess among da a and heo y. The concep-
ual amewo k o CLA and ecological dynamics
(Sulli an, e al., 2021; Woods, e al., 2020b) was
used o examine and e lec in-dep h abou he da a.
Impo an ly, an explici e o was made o sea ch
o pa e ns and unde s and how hey can in o m
heo y, a he han o cing da a o i he cu en
concep ualiza ions.
T us wo hiness
To a ou he change o e ime, he inside AR
equi es a balance be ween closeness and dis ance
o he inside esea che (Gubacs-Collins, 2007).
Thus, he i s au ho sough o minimize he
impac o he p esence by being hones and ans-
pa en abou he pu pose o he ac ions (McNi &
Whi ehead, 2009). In addi ion, h ee o he us -
wo hiness p ocedu es we e used: (i) da a ian-
gula ion, which includes he i e a i e and cyclical
collec ion o da a om di e en sou ces (i.e., in e -
iews, TVR and FNs) (Denzin, 2012), (ii) e i i-
ca ion o ansc ip s om in e iews, o add,
emo e, o change any incong uen in o ma ion,
(iii) a g oup o h ee specialis s in olleyball (wi h
expe ience in coaching and quali a i e me hodol-
ogies) conduc ed collabo a i e in e p e i e anal-
ysis in egula mee ings o con inually ede ine
he o ma ion o codes, sub hemes and hemes. In
addi ion, he inside esea che unde wen a speci ic
o ma i e p ocess in quali a i e me hodology. This
p ocess was impo an o minimize he isk o indi-
idual esea ch biases and hus enhance he alidi y
o in e p e a ions (Pa on, 2015).
Resul s
The da a analysis gene a ed h ee main hemes
ha ep esen he e olu ion o he head coach’s peda-
gogical in e en ion, namely: ‘Ecological design’
(i.e., he manipula ion o ask cons ain s and explo-
a ion o ac ion oppo uni ies by playe s), ‘Rep e-
sen a i e use o compe i i e da a’ (i.e., he head
coach’s abili y o design ep esen a i e lea ning
asks, based on compe i i e da a, e ie ed om
MA epo s, so ha playe s can es ablish a cohe en
pe cep ual-mo o link be ween aining p ac ice and
compe i i e en i onmen s), and ‘Tac ical dynamics’
(i.e., he head coach’s abili y o p omo e unc ional
and co-adap a i e ac ical beha iou s).
P e-season [Sep embe o Oc obe ]:
Ecological lea ning asks? Wha is i ?
Ecological designs
Th oughou he p e-season, he head coach
p esen ed di icul ies in in oducing and manip-
ula ing cons ain s du ing lea ning ask designs,
adop ing ixed and he eby less adap i e ac ical
con igu a ions o play in compa ison o he compe-
i ion equi emen s. Pa icula ly, a poo manipu-
la ion o spa ial cons ain s was iden i ied du ing
he game phase o he coun e a ack. The ollowing
exce p s ep esen his idea:
“T aining de ense (coun e -a ack phase)
wi hou de e mining he zone ha he blocke s
should co e agains di e en ypes o opponen ’s
a acks o wi hou es ablishing he spa ial espon-
sibili ies in he de ensi e sys em ha need o be
de eloped as a unc ion o block.”
(FN, aining session 2)
“When playe s we e p ac icing he a ack
ac ion, he design o he lea ning asks did no
conside he space ha bo h blocke s and de ende s
mus occupy in line and c oss a acks, mainly in
wha he de ende o zone 1 ega ds. Indeed, o his
pa icula zone he a acks only came om zone 4
(c oss-a ack).”
(FN, aining session 3)
Rep esen a i e use o compe i i e da a
Du ing his ini ial phase, he head coach
conduc ed aining sessions wi h un ep esen a i e
lea ning asks, ha is, wi hou any in en ion o
simula e he demands o compe i i e en i onmen s.
The ollowing exce p exempli ies his absence o
ask ep esen a i eness:
“No asks ha e been p oposed o c ea e game
si ua ions ha simula e au hen ic game con ex s.
A he end o he aining session, a 6x6 game ask
was p oposed wi hou any in o ma ion abou he
con ex , u u e i als, o ac ical o echnical objec-
i es.
(FN and TVR, aining session 3)
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adap abili y skills. The ollowing exce p exem-
pli ies he modi ica ion o lea ning ask designs
ocused on he a ack ac ion:
“When you p opose ha playe s make h ee
consecu i e sho s, wi h ball a i ing om h ee
di e en di ec ions (e.g., a e ac ions like se ice,
de ense, o block), he only hing you a e doing
is indi idually empowe ing each o he playe s
acco ding o hei in-game ole … and a his poin ,
you make su icien adap a ions so ha each playe
is able o p ac ice speci ically he ac ions needed
conside ing hei unc ion inside he eam.”
(In e iew, 1s AR cycle)
Mo eo e , in his phase, he head coach began
o change he composi ion o he eams and add
game ules (i.e., ask cons ain s manipula ion),
pa icula ly du ing small-sided games. The nex
exce p exempli ies how he in oduc ion o ech-
nical- ac ical a iabili y in he a ack ac ion, ia
cons ain s manipula ion, encou aged explo a ion
o a o dances and he adop ion o sel -o ganizing
p ocesses on he block and de ensi e ac ions (i.e.,
coun e a ack phase):
“The coach, unde s anding ha he playe s
o he nex i al eam had dis inc a ack cha ac-
e is ics, p oposed a lea ning ask o p ac ice he
de ensi e sys em (i.e., 5x5 wi hou middle-blocke s).
Speci ically, one eam played in side-ou phase and
mus pe o m h ee di e en ac ions o a ack (i.e.,
line, c oss and ip), while he o he eam played in
coun e -a ack phase blocking and de ending he
di e si ied a ack ac ions. Addi ionally, he coach
p oposed ha he playe s who a acked he ball
had o o a e a e he ball con ac o p omo e line
o c oss a acks, oll sho s, o ips om di e en
playe s.”
(FN, aining session 12)
Rep esen a i e use o compe i i e da a
F amed upon he compe i i e da a, analyzed by
he inside esea che and subsequen ly epo ed o
he head coach, he s a s o ecognize he impo -
ance o conside ing and sc u inising he oppo-
nen s’ ac ical game pa e ns. Thus, guided by he
MA epo s, he designs o lea ning asks s a ed
o include pe cep ual-mo o s imuli as simila as
possible o he compe i i e en i onmen s. The nex
exce p cla i ies his p ocess:
“[…] om he s udy o he i al eam, we iden i-
ied which we e hei p e e ed a ack zones. Thus,
du ing he aining sessions, we p ac iced, in an
isola ed ashion, di e en de ensi e sys ems ha
could be used o o e come he opponen s a acking
ac ions (e.g., he ypes o block ha we could use
in each zone, wha second de ensi e line we could
apply) […] he e o e, I would say ha unde s anding
“Du ing he wo k o he i s and second de en-
si e lines in a 6x6 game- o m, he head coach did
no in o m playe s abou he a acking sys em o
he u u e endencies o he opponen s’ a acks.”
(FN and TVR, aining session 3)
Tac ical dynamics
Th oughou he p e-season, he coach did no
usually in oduce challenging and complex lea ning
asks o p omo e co-adap a i e in e ac ions be ween
playe s. Indeed, he coach p esc ibed asks wi h
simplis ic and non-con ex ualized lea ning goals.
As such, he playe s we e no challenged o ei he
sol e ac ical p oblems o de elop hei collec i e
sel -o ganiza ion endencies. Thus, in his phase,
he p ac ice was me ely ep oduc i e. The ollowing
exce p s suppo his idea:
“The coach ended he aining session designing
a 6x6 game- o m ha was ini ia ed h ough a
se ice ac ion, bu in which he ac ical p oblem
was no add essed ha such game- o m in ended
o esol e no i s goals we e speci ied.”
(FN, aining session 2)
1s AR cycle [ om Oc obe o Decembe ]—
Mo ing owa ds a mo e ecological
coaching in e en ion
Ecological designs
A his s age, he head coach s a ed o manip-
ula e he ask cons ain s conside ing he eam’s
ac ical needs. The compe i i e da a, ex ac ed om
ma ch-analysis by he assis an coach, seemed o
guide his ini ial change in he pedagogical in e -
en ion o he head coach. The nex exce p empha-
sizes he s a o his p ocess:
“Du ing his i s ound o compe i ion, he
head coach obse ed, h ough he compe i i e
da a analysis, ha he de ense had dec eased i s
pe o mance in e ms o e icacy, and also no ed
a lack o coo dina ion be ween he blocking and
de ending lines (e.g., he playe s canno unde -
s and i hey mus mo e o wa d o dig a ip when
block co e he line a ack). To add ess his issue,
he coach designed a lea ning ask adap ed o he
di e en ac ical block ac ion (i.e., co e ing he line
o he c oss a ack). Speci ically, he head coach
s a ed ha i he blocke s co e he line a ack, he
de ende mus mo e o wa d, while i he block
co e s he c oss a ack, he de ende mus hold
hei ini ial posi ion).”
(FN, aining session7)
Indeed, suppo ed by he ma ch epo s elab-
o a ed by he assis an coach, he head coach
p og essi ely unde s ood he impo ance o d illing
di e en game scena ios o en ich he playe s’
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he i al eams ga e us a weekly plan o he ac ical
execu ion o he ma ch, his was an aspec ha I
ca ed abou a lo ”
(In e iew, 1s AR cycle)
Tac ical dynamics
To highligh he eam’s co-adap a i e beha -
iou s du ing he coun e a ack phase, as well as
o o e come he s eng hs o opponen s’ game
pa e ns, in he i s AR cycle, he head coach
s a ed o p opose accoun abili y c i e ia o he
echnical and ac ical domains, ia ask cons ain
manipula ion, ha mus be achie ed collec i ely.
The nex wo exce p s exempli y he ope a ionali-
za ion o his pedagogical in e en ion:
“I am hinking abou modi ying he lea ning
asks ega ding he coun e a ack phase once he
MA epo s indica e ha we ha e se ious di icul-
ies o sco ing du ing his game phase… bu mo e
impo an han sco ing in his game phase is o
ail less.”
(In e iew, 1s AR-cycle)
“The head coach, acknowledging ha he
eam was displaying di icul ies in sco ing du ing
he coun e a ack phase e en o e he aining
session, decided o design lea ning asks o speci -
ically con ol he numbe o un o ced e o s du ing
his game phase. To exempli y, he lea ning ask
designed ein o ced he sco e in-coun e a acking
( ewa ded wi h wo di ec poin s), while pe o ming
4 un o ced e o s pe eam emo ed one poin .”
(FN and TVR, aining session 8)
2ndAR cycle [ om Janua y o Ma ch]—
Reaching an ecological coaching
in e en ion
Ecological designs
A he end o he season, he head coach aised
his in en ionali y in selec ing he mos speci ic
cons ain s so ha he design o lea ning asks
encompassed he p ac ice o a b oad a ie y o game
scena ios ea u ing compe i i e en i onmen s, like
playing in-sys em (i.e., all hi e s a ailable) o ou -
sys em (i.e., only ou side-hi e s and/o opposi e
a ailable). Speci ically, and as he nex exce p s
desc ibe, a ha poin he lea ning asks included
he manipula ion o space using dis inc ma e ials:
“In he las pa o he aining session, he head
coach designed a lea ning ask ocused on he p ac-
ice o di e en de ensi e playing con igu a ions
in ou -sys em game scena ios. Such d ill encom-
passed he de ensi e ac ion wi h non-cohesi e
blocks, 1x1-block and block-ou si ua ions (using
a i ball o enla ge he blocking a ea).”
(FN, aining session 19)
Fu he mo e, he head coach s imula ed he
playe s’ explo a ion o dis inc game- ela ed eso-
lu ions and a en ional ocus, o ins ance, by ask
cons ain manipula ion, p omo ing he iden i i-
ca ion o who was he bes and wo s opponen s’
blocke s. The ollowing exce p s exempli y his
ype o lea ning ask:
“The head coach, being awa e o he playe s’
cha ac e is ics namely hei low a acking heigh ,
p oposed a d ill o a acking he sho -diagonal o
block ou (explaining ha bo h a ack ypes should
be pe o med agains a high-block) because some
playe s we e no able o pe o m hese ypes o
a acks consis en ly, and i would be an impo an
echnical- ac ical skill o he nex ma ch.”
(FN and TVR, aining session 18)
“He designed a lea ning ask o inc ease he
a iabili y o ou se ing du ing he coun e a -
acking phase, wi h he se ac ion depending on he
posi ion ha playe occupies on he cou , he hi e
a ailabili y, and he le el o opponen blocke s. By
doing so, he head coach sough o emphasize he
a ious, and bes , a acking op ions in each one o
he playe s’ o a ions.”
(FN, aining session 21)
Rep esen a i e use o compe i i e da a
A his poin , an e olu ion was obse ed in he
design o ep esen a i e lea ning asks once hey
we e concei ed conside ing he cha ac e is ics o
he eam’s game model. Acco dingly, he planning
o he aining sessions in ol ed lea ning asks
ocused on p ac icing eal-game si ua ions (i.e., he
a ack s. de ence d ill was designed acco ding o
he indi idual and collec i e ea u es o he nex
opponen ) The ollowing exce p exempli ies his
de elopmen in designing ecological lea ning asks:
“A he end o he session, he head coach
p oposed a 6x6 ask being ep esen a i e o a eal-
game si ua ion by simula ing he ini ial o a ion o
he nex i al on one side o he cou . He e, he ga e
de ailed eedback abou he s onges o a ions, he
possible a ack op ions, and he cha ac e is ics o
some playe s o conside ( o ins ance, he Swedish
playe in slide a ack) a he blocking and de ensi e
lines. Mo eo e , he also indica ed he zone o se e
in each one o he six o a ions.”
(FN and TVR, aining session 18)
“Head coach: I ha e no ed ha we p ac iced a
lo o de ence si ua ions agains he ideal line and
c oss block, bu h ough he analysis o compe i-
i e da a we unde s ood ha he p oblem is in he
blocke and no in he de ende .
Resea che : And wha do you plan o do abou
i ?
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Head coach: I am wo king on i … ying o
conduc mo e eal-game si ua ions…”
(In e iew, 2nd AR cycle)
Tac ical dynamics
In he las pa o he season, he head coach
designed e e mo e lea ning asks wi h speci ic and
challenging goals so ha playe s could unc ionally
coope a e on he sha ing o collec i e ac ion oppo -
uni ies. The ollowing exce p suppo s his idea:
“So a , we ha e ocused a lo on analyzing he
i al… i would be in e es ing in he iewpoin o
wha is happening, i we look mo e deeply a ou
eam in his second ound o he league… i would
allow us o ocus on how o imp o e and plan ou
game plans add essing and adap ing ou s eng hs
and weaknesses acco ding o he i als’ ea u es.”
(In e iew, 2nd AR cycle)
Suppo ed by he MA epo s, he head coach
obse ed he di icul ies o his eam when playing
agains a cohesi e double block o e he coun e -
a ack. To e e se his end, he coope a i e wo k
was unde lined by designing a lea ning ask ha
awa ded he c ea ion o o ensi e condi ions ha
could a ou 1x1 game si ua ions. The nex exce p
cla i ies his p ocess:
“He designed lea ning asks o p omo e g ea e
a iabili y in o ensi e ac ions and consequen ly
a ou ing ou coun e a acking phase wi h 1x1 si u-
a ions. Also, he explo es he block-ou si ua ions,
and unde lines he impo ance o ou a acking-
co e age sys em. Thus, in his lea ning ask, he
eam only could sco e in 1x1 coun e a acking
si ua ions (double awa ded i he middle-blocke
sco ed) o block-ou ac ion.”
(FN, aining session 19)
Discussion and conclusions
By implemen ing an AR design o e a compe -
i i e olleyball season, his s udy examined how
compe i i e da a, ex ac ed om MA, suppo ed
he de elopmen o a coaching in e en ion based
on he CLA p inciples. O e all, esul s showed ha
compe i i e da a p o ed o be a ele an sou ce
o in o ma ion o suppo he implemen a ion o
an ecological pedagogical p ac ice. Speci ically,
he planning and s uc u e o aining sessions,
p og essed om an ini ial poin whe e he manip-
ula ion o cons ain s was sca ce, non- ep esen a-
i e and did no s imula e playe s’ p oblem-sol ing
abili ies, o an end poin whe e i was concei ed
based on he nex opponen ’s ea u es and he de el-
opmen o unc ional and co-adap a i e echnical
and ac ical skills. F om a me hodological iew-
poin , he inside AR design a o ded con ex u-
alized insigh s ha allowed daily adjus men s in
designing ecological asks and con ex ualized in e -
p e a ions o he pedagogical p ocess.
Th oughou he p eseason he assis an coach
iden i ied he CLA p inciples dis ega ded in aining
sessions. In his phase, playe s we e no encou -
aged o explo e unc ional ac ical beha iou s o
dis inc ac ion oppo uni ies o sol e game p ob-
lems ea u ing compe i i e en i onmen s. Mo e-
o e , ac ical coope a i e in e ac ions among eam-
ma es we e no emphasized, and he head coach’s
eedback was mainly indi idualized and ocused on
echnical issues. In eason o his ini ial ep oduc-
i e p ac ice, ou indings sugges ed ha playe s’
a en ional ocus—in ac ical e ms—was unde -
alued, limi ing hei iden i ica ion and in e p e-
a ion o he mos ele an ac ion oppo uni ies
(a o dances). As he ocus o he head coach was
placed on a echnical-o ien ed and decon ex ualized
p ac ice, he ac ical domain o pe o mance was
neglec ed i s ly by he head coach and in conse-
quence by playe s.
To e e se his end, du ing he 1s AR cycle,
he assis an coach s a s o sha e ele an compe -
i i e da a (e.g., a ack endencies and e icacy,
se ing pa e ns, e c.), h ough ma ch-analysis
epo s, so ha he head coach could p og essi ely
add ess p inciples o ecological dynamics and
CLA du ing he planning and design o aining
sessions, imp o ing i s quali y. To exempli y, he
assis an coach in o med he echnical s a abou
he low pe cen ages on indi idual and collec-
i e de ence, a di e en cou zones, and agains
dis inc opponen s. Hence, by using in o ma ional
ask cons ain s (e.g., es ablishing a sco ing sys em
du ing lea ning asks ocusing on de ence), a desi -
able le el o ins abili y was in en ionally in oduced
o help s imula e playe s’ p oblem-sol ing skills.
Also, gi en he di icul ies o he eam in sco ing
in he coun e a acking phase, he coach double
ewa ded he poin s eached in his phase du ing
he small-sided condi ioned game o ms pe o med
in aining.
S ill, du ing he 1s AR cycle, he assis an coach
s a ed p o iding speci ic in o ma ion abou he
echnical and ac ical ea u es o he subsequen
i al, like he mos e ec i e sco ing zones o
a ack. Th ough his in o ma ion, he head coach
could en ich he ep esen a i eness o lea ning
asks, and na ow playe s’ a en ional ocus on he
pe cep ual a unemen o ele an ac ion oppo u-
ni ies, o ins ance, by manipula ing he a acking
zones in blocking-de ensi e d ills. This ecological
coaching in e en ion is aligned wi h he ecen idea
by Woods e al. (2019) o sampling cons ain s; ha
is, wi h he need o design indi idualized p ac ice
ask cons ain s based on compe i i e da a du ing
he pe o mance p epa a ion.
S ill, du ing he 1s AR cycle, he head coach
s a ed o be awa e o he eams’ echnical- ac ical