A mul i- egional Inpu -Ou pu analysis o ozone p ecu so emissions embodied in
Spanish in e na ional ade
Román, Rocíoa*; Cansino, José M.a; Rueda-Can uche, José M.b
a Uni e sidad de Se illa (Spain) and Uni e sidad Au ónoma de Chile (Chile).
Uni e si y o Se ille.
Facul ad de CC. Económicas y Emp esa iales
A da Ramon y Cajal 1
41018 Se illa
bEu opean Commission, DG Join Resea ch Cen e
Edi icio EXPO, Inca Ga cilaso, 3,41092- Se ille
E-mail: josem. can [email protected] opa.eu
*Co esponding au ho :
Rocio Román
Uni e si y o Se ille.
Facul ad de CC. Económicas y Emp esa iales
Ramon y Cajal 1
41018 Se illa
Spain
+34 954551657
[email protected]
2
A mul i- egional Inpu -Ou pu analysis o ozone p ecu so emissions embodied in
Spanish in e na ionl ade
1. In oduc ion
Many coun ies and in e na ional o ganiza ions a e conce ned abou he e ec s ha
c i ical le els o ozone ha e on human heal h and he en i onmen , and he e o e he
links be ween g eenhouse gases and ai pollu ion.1 Bo h issues sha e common sou ces
o emissions — p ima ily om uel combus ion in indus y and households, anspo
and ag icul u e — bu also h ough c oss-issue pollu an e ec s. Rypdal e al. (2005)
ad ised on he need o include oposphe ic ozone and ae osol p ecu so s in o clima e
ag eemen s.
A p esen , ozone is one o he mos p oblema ic pollu an s in Eu opean Union (EU) in
e ms o ha m o human heal h. High le els o ozone cause espi a o y and
ca dio ascula heal h p oblems and lead o p ema u e mo ali y. Acco ding o he
Eu opean En i onmen Agency EEA (2014), a ound 14-17% o he u ban popula ion in
he EU is exposed o ozone concen a ions abo e EU e e ence le els (120 µg/m3 pe
eigh -hou pe iod) du ing 2010-2012. Howe e , hese igu es a e wo se when he Wo ld
Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) e e ence le els a e conside ed, as hey a e s ic e han EU
a ge alues. In ha case, mo e han 95% o he u ban popula ion in Eu ope is exposed
o ozone concen a ions abo e WHO e e ence le els (100 µg/m3 pe eigh -hou pe iod)
(WHO, 2006). In o de o p o ide he Eu opean Commission (EC) wi h e idence-based
ad ice on he heal h aspec s o ai pollu ion, he epo published by he WHO/Eu ope
(2013) in ela ion o he e ec s o ai pollu ion on heal h concludes ha , in he case o
ozone, he ha m ul e ec s o heal h can occu a ai pollu ion concen a ions lowe
hose es ablished by he WHO 2005 Guidelines (WHO, 2006). Fo his eason, he
WHO epo ecommends a e ision o he Eu opean Union Ai Pollu ion policy ha
upda es he limi s o he main pollu an s ha a e ha m ul o heal h.
1 The s ong dependence o ozone le els on a mosphe ic condi ions sugges s ha he
p ojec ed changes in clima e leading o wa me empe a u es could also esul in
inc eased g ound-le el ozone concen a ions in many egions.
3
In EU, he Ai Quali y Di ec i e (2008/50/EC), which eplaced nea ly all he p e ious
EU ai quali y legisla ion, — complemen ed by Di ec i e 2004/107/ EC — se legally
binding limi s o g ound-le el concen a ions o ou doo ai pollu an s. Also, he
Na ional Emissions Ceiling Di ec i e (NEC Di ec i e), adop ed on 23 Oc obe 2001,
se s uppe limi s o each Membe S a e o he o al emissions in 2010 o he ou main
pollu an s esponsible o acidi ica ion, eu ophica ion and g ound-le el ozone
pollu ion.
Addi ionally, ozone pollu ion is conside ed a global p oblem as i has been deal wi h by
he Con en ion on Long- ange T ansbounda y Ai Pollu ion. In ac , he Hemisphe ic
T anspo o Ai Pollu ion -HTAP- Task Fo ce has ecen ly shown ha in e con inen al
anspo con ibu es signi ican ly o ai pollu ion in e ms o ozone emissions
concen a ion. The e o e, he le el o ozone pollu ion a any gi en loca ion depends no
only on local and egional sou ces, bu also on sou ces om o he con inen s (UNECE,
1999; 2007).
E ec i e in e na ional commi men s mus be suppo ed by igo ous measu es o
pollu an emissions by coun y. This idea was se ou in A icle 4 o Uni ed Na ions
F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change (UNFCCC) (UN, 1992) wi hin he con ex
o global wa ming. This a icle es ablishes ha coun ies ha e bo h common and
di e en esponsibili ies ega ding his issue. Coun ies pu p essu e on global ozone
emissions concen a ions no only because o hei domes ic p oduc ion bu also because
o hei domes ic consump ion. Howe e , ac ual in e na ional ozone emissions
commi men s a e based on he p oduc ion pe spec i e (emissions in en o ies) and no
on he consump ion-based pe spec i e, ha is, he emissions embodied in he
consump ion o impo ed and domes ically p oduced goods and se ices by he
esiden s o one speci ic coun y.
Some p e ious pape s conside one o bo h o hese wo pe spec i es o analyzing he
emissions embodied in he ade o one coun y o a ea , i.e. Webe e al. (2008), Ma in
e al. (2012), Homma e al. (2012), Diez zenbache e al. (2012) o Sa o (2012), bu hey
a e mainly ocused on he g eenhouse gas emissions o jus on CO2 emissions.
Howe e , as a as we know, he e is no p e ious li e a u e analyzing he ozone
p ecu so emissions om hese wo pe spec i es o he case o Spain.
4
As poin ed ou ecen ly by he Eu opean En i onmen Agency (EEA,2014), u he
s udies a e needed o p ope ly alloca e he ai emissions p oduced in he EU o EU and
non-EU coun ies. In ac , he heal h e ec s o ozone p ecu so emissions a e becoming
one o he p io i y issues in he go e nmen s’ agenda (WHO, 2007). E ec s on
ag icul u e a e also o in e es o ecen li e a u e (see Kuma e al., 2011 o
Cali o nia-USA, Oksanen e al., 2013 o India and Yi e al., 2016 o China).
The aim o his pape is o analyze he ozone p ecu so emissions by sec o s o Spain in
2009, embodied in Spanish in e na ional ade wi h i) he EU and ii) he es o he
wo ld (non-EU coun ies). The in e es in ocusing on Spain is wo old, Spain is he EU
Membe S a e wi h he highes le el o non-me hane ol aic o ganic compounds
emissions (one o he main ozone p ecu so ) and Spain did no comply wi h he
emission ceiling o his pollu an in 2010, despi e he EU commi men s on ozone
p ecu so emissions se ou in he Na ional Emissions Ceilings Di ec i e (NEC
Di ec i e). The esul s will lead us o p o ide some policy ecommenda ions ocused on
he mos pollu ing sec o s om he Spanish in e na ional ade pe spec i e.
As he li e a u e sugges s, mul i- egional inpu -ou pu models (MRIO) a e he mos
app op ia e ool o he calcula ion o accoun o emissions o ai , ei he om he
p oduc ion pe spec i e o om he consump ion pe spec i e (Mille and Blai , 2009,
Wiedmann, 2009, Zhou and Imu a, 2011, Su and Ang, 2014, Zhang e al., 2015, Hong
e al, 2016, B izga e al. 2016 and Jiang e al., 2016). To he bes o ou knowledge, he
only p e ious pape on ozone p ecu so emissions using a mul i- egional inpu ou pu
model is A o e al. (2012). This pape con ibu es o he li e a u e in h ee a eas. Fi s ly,
he pape is ocused on he Spanish economy, o e ing mo e de ailed in o ma ion abou
sec o s and coun ies in ol ed in he ozone p ecu so emissions embodied in Spanish
in e na ional ade. Secondly, he mos ecen a ailable e sion o en i onmen al
accoun s o Wo ld Inpu -Ou pu Da abase (WIOD) has been used, i.e. 2009 (A o e al.,
2012, used he yea 2008). And hi dly, some gene al policy ecommenda ions a e
p o ided based on he esul s.
The a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. Sec ion 2 explains he me hodological app oach and
b ie ly desc ibes he da abase, i.e. WIOD. The esul s a e epo ed by ype o ozone
p ecu so gas and by a ea in Sec ion 3. The esul s a e discussed in Sec ion 3. The
conclusions and ecommenda ions o policy analysis a e gi en in Sec ion 4.
5
2. Me hodology
2.1 Inpu -ou pu analysis
Inpu -ou pu analysis (IOA) e ol es a ound he so called inpu -ou pu ables, which
e lec he supply and demand o he economy in e ms o p oduc s, indus ies and inal
use s. IOA is a use ul me hod o be e unde s and and accoun o he links be ween
consump ion and p oduc ion sec o s (Leon ie , 1970). By using he so-called Leon ie
quan i y model (Rueda-Can uche, 2010), he o al ou pu o an economy X can be
b oken down in o inal and in e media e demand, as indica ed in (1):
X AX Y= +
(1)
whe e X is he o al indus y ou pu ec o o n indus ies (n x 1); Z = AX is a ma ix
desc ibing he in e media e p oduc s o indus ies; A is a ma ix (n x n) o inpu -ou pu
coe icien s showing he inpu s needed pe uni o ou pu by each indus y; and Y s ands
o a inal demand ma ix (n x 1) showing he consump ion, in es men and expo s o
all goods and se ices. Wi hin his amewo k, indus y-by-indus y IO ables om he
WIOD da abase ha e been used (Die zenbache e al., 2013) wi h he same numbe o
indus ies and commodi ies (n).
Reo de ing (1), i yields:
( )
1
X I A Y LY
−
= − ⋅=⋅
(2)
whe e I is he iden i y ma ix (n x n) and (I-A) -1 is he so-called Leon ie in e se ma ix,
L (n x n), which shows he o al equi emen s o he economy o he p oduc ion o
goods and se ices o sa is y a ce ain le el o inal demand.
Leon ie -s yle IOA accoun ing has become an inc easingly ac i e a ea o esea ch o a
a ie y o en i onmen al indica o s, including CO2 (Kanemo o e al., 2014; Chen &
Zhang, 2010). The En i onmen al Inpu -Ou pu (EIO) model allows us o analyze he
link be ween emissions, p oduc i e sec o s and he inal demand. By mul iplying bo h

6
sides o equa ion (2) by he emission coe icien s (C), which a e he emissions pe uni
o ou pu , he ollowing equa ion esul s:
( )
1
c C I A Y CLY
−
= ⋅ − ⋅= ⋅⋅

(3)
whe e c is an n x 1 ec o ep esen ing he o al emissions sec o and 𝐶
󰆹 is a diagonal
ma ix n x n ha ep esen s he emission coe icien s o he economic sec o s. These
emission coe icien s ha e been calcula ed as he o al emissions o each indus y o e
he o al ou pu .
2.2 Mul i- egional inpu -ou pu analysis
The mul i- egional inpu -ou pu analysis is based on a se o in e connec ed inpu -ou pu
ables o a ious coun ies (Mille & Blai , 2009). While equa ion (3) e e s o one
single coun y wi h n indus ies, simila equa ion o a h ee- egion model wi h n
indus ies in each egion, namely: Spain (u), es o he EU ( ) and es o he wo ld (w)
is shown as ollows:
ˆ00
ˆ
00
ˆ
00
uu u uw
u
u uu u uw
u w ij
u w i js
wu w ww
w wu w ww
w
C
c LLL YYY
c C L L L Y Y Y CLY
c LLL YYY
C


  


  
= ⋅ ⋅ =⋅⋅


  

  


  



(4)
i being he egion whe e he in e media e p oduc s ha e been p oduced; j he egion ha
has impo ed he in e media e p oduc s and has inco po a ed hem in o inal p oduc ion
and s he egion whe e he inal p oduc s a e consumed.
The equa ion (4) is ede ined allowing o a ully- ledged decomposi ion o he inal
demand by egion.
7
ˆˆˆ ˆˆˆ
ˆˆˆ ˆˆˆ
ˆˆˆ ˆˆˆ
uu u uw uu u uw
u uu u u u wu u u u u w
u
u w u w
uu u wu u w
wu w ww wu w ww
ww uu w u w wu w u w w w
CLY CLY CLY CLY CLY CLY
c
c CLY CLY CLY CLY CLY CLY
cCLY CLY CL Y CLY CLY CL Y
  

 

= +
 

 

 

  
ˆˆˆ exp exp
ˆˆˆ exp
ˆˆˆ exp
uu u uw uuu
uuwu wuww u w
u w u
uw w ww w
uww
wu w ww w w
wuww ww ww
CLY CLY CLY gdom g g
C L Y C L Y C L Y gimp gdom g
gimp g gdom
CLY CLY CL Y
+




   

   
+ =++

   

   

   

(5)
This equa ion (5) allows us o calcula e he ollowing igu es.
a)
u
u
gdom
is equal o he emissions embodied in Spanish inal and in e media e p oduc s
ha a e consumed by Spanish esiden s and is calcula ed as ollows:
u uu u uw
u uuuu uuwu
gdom C L Y C L Y C L Y=++
 
(6)
b)
u
gexp
is equal o he emissions embodied in Spanish inal and in e media e p oduc s
ha a e consumed by EU coun ies and is calcula ed as ollows:
expu uu u uw
uu u uw
g CLY CLY CLY=++
 
(7)
c)
u
w
gexp
is equal o he emissions embodied in Spanish inal and in e media e p oduc s
ha a e consumed by non-EU coun ies and is calcula ed as ollows:
exp
u uu u uw
w uuwu wu ww
g CLY CLY CLY=++
 
(8)
The e o e, he o al emissions p oduced in egion u, Spain, (PEu) a e:
exp exp
u uu
u u w
PE gdom g g= ++
(9)
Addi ionally, equa ion (6) allows us o calcula e he ollowing i ems:
d)
u
gimp
is equal o he emissions embodied in EU inal and in e media e p oduc s ha
a e consumed by Spanish esiden s and is calcula ed as ollows:
8
u u w
uu u wu
gimp CLY CLY CLY=++
 
(10)
e)
u
w
gimp
is equal o he emissions embodied in non-EU coun ies inal and in e media e
p oduc s ha a e consumed by Spanish esiden s and is calcula ed as ollows:
u wu w ww
wwuuw uw wu
gimp CLY CLY CL Y=++
 
(11)
Then, he emissions oo p in o egion u, Spain, (EFu) is calcula ed as he o al
emissions embodied in all inal and in e media e p oduc s consumed by Spanish
esiden s:
uuu
u u w
EF gdom gimp gimp= ++
(12)
Fu he mo e, he di e ence be ween equa ions (9) and (12) is he so-called emission
ade balance (ETB) which is he di e ence be ween he emissions ac ually p oduced in
Spain (9) and he Spanish oo p in (12). As men ioned be o e, he ETB is no hing mo e
han he di e ence be ween he emissions embodied in expo s (EEE) minus he
emissions embodied in impo s (EEI).
exp exp ( )
exp exp
uuu uuu
u uu u w u w
uuuu
w w
ETB PE EF gdom g g gdom gimp gimp
g g gimp gimp EEE EEI
=−= + + − + + =
=+−−=−
(14)
A posi i e ETB alue means ha he EEE a e la ge han he EEI and, he e o e, he
coun y's emissions due o i s na ional expo ed p oduc ion a e g ea e han he coun y's
emissions p o oked by i s impo ed p oduc ion. Meanwhile, a nega i e ETB alue
means ha he emissions p o oked by he na ional expo ed p oduc ion a e lowe han
he emissions embodied in impo ed p oduc ion.
Mo eo e , he o al emissions embodied in ade o egion u, Spain, (TETu) allow us o
calcula e he o al emissions in ol ed in he in e na ional ade o one egion (u),
including hose om expo s and impo s o inal and in e media e p oduc s. The TET
allows us o de e mine he global emissions gene a ed by he in e na ional ade o one
coun y o a ea. The TET can be calcula ed as ollows:
9
exp exp
uuuu
u w w
TET g g gimp gimp EEE EEI=+++=+
(15)
2.3. Da abase
The da a used in his pape come om he Wo ld Inpu -Ou pu Da abase (WIOD), as
desc ibed in Die zenbache e al. (2013) and Timme e al. (2015). This is a ee
da abase inanced by he Eu opean Union and de eloped wi h he aim o analyzing he
e ec s o globaliza ion on ade pa e ns, en i onmen al p essu es and he
socioeconomic de elopmen o a la ge g oup o coun ies.
The da a include wo ld inpu -ou pu ables o he 27 Eu opean Union coun ies and 13
o he non-EU economies and also he co esponding na ional IO ables. The WIOD
cu en ly co e s he pe iod 1995-2013 and includes 35 indus ies and 59 commodi ies.
Howe e , da a on ene gy and emissions ha e no been upda ed up o 2013 ye so he
analysis has been ca ied ou o he mos ecen yea , i.e. 2009 ha we e a ailable he
en i onmen al da a. In ac , he p ecu so gases o oposphe ic ozone conside ed ha e
been: ni ogen monoxide (NOX), non-me hane ol aic o ganic compounds (NMVOC),
me hane (CH4) and ca bon monoxide (CO).
3. Resul s
The analysis has been ca ied ou in de ail o 35 sec o s, dis inguishing he emissions
embodied in he Spanish ade wi h he EU-27 and non-EU coun ies sepa a ely and
conside ing he ou ozone p ecu so s (see Tables 1 and 2). The non-EU coun ies
conside ed ha e been Aus alia, B azil, Canada, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Ko ea,
Mexico, Russia, Tu key, Taiwan and Uni ed S a es.
Inse he e Table 1
Inse he e Table 2
16
In ligh o he majo indings men ioned abo e, he esul s a e discussed by sec o s.
Fi s ly, he Ag icul u e sec o is conside ed apa om he es due o he impo ance o
he Spanish economy. Then, he es o he sec o s a e discussed dis inguishing on one
hand, hose ha a e now implemen ing se e al measu es o educing emissions and on
he o he hand, hose wi hou cu en policy measu es and he e o e, some policy
ecommenda ions a e p o ided. In bo h o cases, pape ocus on new measu es
mi iga ion o ien ed.
The Ag icul u e sec o is one o he main pollu ing sec o s conside ing he esul s o
he ou ozone p ecu so s. This sec o con ibu es no ably o he inc ease in he
emissions embodied in Spanish ade (TET) wi h EU and non-EU coun ies. In ac , he
esul s show ha he emissions embodied in Spanish inal and in e media e p oduc s o
he Ag icul u e sec o expo ed (EEE) a e highe han hose impo ed om he EU
coun ies (EEI) and he e o e he ETB is posi i e. In he case o EU coun ies, he
Ag icul u e sec o con ibu es mos o he emissions embodied in Spanish ade (TET)
o NMVOC, CH4 and NOX. Howe e , when non-EU coun ies a e conside ed, he
emissions embodied in he inal and in e media e p oduc s o he Ag icul u e sec o
consumed by Spanish esiden s (EEI) a e highe han o hose p oduced in Spain and
expo ed (EEE) o non-EU coun ies (wi h he excep ion o NMVOC emissions).
These esul s show ha he Ag icul u e sec o should be he main ocus o Spanish
en i onmen al policies. Fi s ly, he ag icul u al sec o is he main me hane emi e due
o li es ock a ming. Mi iga ion policies in he ag icul u al sec o would no only impac
on emission le els bu also on gua an eeing ood esou ces o people. Addi ionally, i
should be bo ne in mind ha c i ical le els o O3 could damage plan s and lead o a
educ ion in ag icul u al c ops yields. Fo example, China - he main emi e globally-
has ecen ly de eloped well-o ien ed measu es in he ag icul u al sec o o mi iga e
me hane emissions. In pa icula , cleane p oduc ion echnologies ha e been widely
p omo ed, encou aging he imp o emen o a ming p ac ices, a ional applica ion o
e ilize and he adop ion o di e si ied c op sys ems (Gan e al., 2011). The e o e, he
Chinese Twel h (2011-2015) and Thi een h (2016-2020) Fi e-Yea Plans ha e
ocused e o s on such good p ac ices.
Ac ions in he Ag icul u e sec o a e also necessa y o a oid NOx emissions, as he
esul s show. In esponse o he p oblems caused by ni ogen emissions om

17
ag icul u e, he Eu opean Union adop ed he Ni a e Di ec i e in 1991 and many
coun ies s a ed o de elop polices o educe ni ogen emissions. Taxes on e ilize s
we e used in some coun ies bu we e inally abandoned, as was he case o Aus ia,
Finland and No way. Al hough axes migh be an e ec i e ins umen in educing
ni ogen emissions, he p oblem o ni a e pollu ion om ag icul u e is a classic
example o how di icul i is o add ess such di use pollu ion h ough ‘ i s -bes ’
ins umen s. Taxing ni a e i sel is no an e icien solu ion since he p oblem which he
ins umen seeks o add ess – emissions o a ious media – is ela ed o he applica ion
o ni a e in a he complex ways: he me hod o cul i a ion, he c op being cul i a ed
(and he iming he eo ), he ype o soil and he wea he . Ins ead o axes, al e na i e
policies ha e been implemen ed in some coun ies such as codes o good p ac ice in he
use o e ilize s. These codes a e o ien ed o mi iga e no only NOX emissions bu also
o he ozone p ecu so s, such as me hane, NMVOC and CO. Fo example, he adop ion
o hese codes o en i onmen al p ac ices has been a p essu e measu e in se e al
indus ies such as Chemical sec o (King and Lenox, 2000). The e o e, his p ac ice
should be conside ed by he Spanish Go e nmen due o he Spanish ag icul u al sec o
appea ing as a key sec o in he esul s ob ained in Sec ion 4.
Addi ionally, he e a e o he e ec i e ools ha can also exe p essu e ia consume s
and he gene al public such as ce i ica ion ( o in e nal p ocesses) and eco-labels ( o
inal p oduc s). The adop ion o hese p ac ices se es as a way o legi imize ex e nally
he i ms' en i onmen al beha io . When hese ools a e implemen ed, he g oup o
leade companies a e mo i a ed o ce i ica e hei p ocesses o /and inal p oduc s and
he e o e, he es o compe i o s y o imi a e hem in a sho /medium e m. These
ools a e no only e ec i e in he case o he Ag icul u e sec o bu also in o he sec o s
such as chemicals, basic me als o anspo sec o . Any case, li e a u e highligh ed he
di icul y o c ea ing sel - egula ion wi hou explici sanc ions (King and Lenox, 2000).
The EU au ho i ies did no egula e he use o pes icide p oduc s om an en i onmen al
p o ec ion pe spec i e un il 2009 (Eu opean Union, 2009). Howe e , hese measu es did
no en e in o o ce in Spain un il 2012 (Spanish Royal Dec ee, 1311/2012). This
egula ion es ablishes he way ha e ilize s should be handled and mixed in o de o
minimize emissions. Addi ionally, his egula ion obliges he p oduce s o manage he
con aine s as i hey we e haza dous was e and de ails how hey should discha ge
18
pollu ed wa e esul ing om washing he con aine s. Fu he mo e, he egula ion limi s
he sale o hese p oduc s only o hose p oduce s ha exhibi he handle ca d and he
ea men s mus be eco ded in he exploi a ion egis e o each a m. Also, he e is a
sys em o inspec ion and sanc ion in he e en ha p oduce s do no ollow he
egula ion. The e o e, Spanish legisla ion is now going in he igh di ec ion conside ing
he impo ance o he ag icul u al sec o in e ms o ozone p ecu so emissions as he
esul s show in his pape .
A e ecommending he measu es men ioned abo e, a e lec ion on i s easibili y
should be done. Expo s om ag icul u e sec o sha ed 10% o o al expo up o 2013 -
las a ailable da a (INE, 2016a and ICEX, 2012). This sec o employed 4.3 % o o al
Spanish wo ke s a he end o 2015 (INE, 2016 b) and con ibu ed o 2.3 % o GDP up
o 2014 (INE, 2016c). The p o i able con ibu ion o ag icul u e p oduc s o Spanish
expo s/impo s balance could eplace o e en obscu e he en i onmen al objec i e o
educing he nega i e emissions o his sec o .
T anspo sec o (mainly inland and ai anspo ), ene gy sec o and e ine y indus y
migh ecei e g ea a en ion om Spanish au ho i ies al hough mi iga ion policies
linked wi h hei ac i i ies we e pu in o ce in he pas . Rega ding policy agenda o he
nex yea s some policy ecommenda ions a e exposed below. O he sec o s like
Communi y se ices and he basic me als sec o ecei ed less a en ion in he pas . We
e e o hem a he end o his sec ion.
The Inland anspo sec o is ele an o NOx emissions, and, o a lesse ex en , he ai
and wa e anspo sec o . In he case o inland anspo , he eplacemen o adi ional
ma e ials by ligh weigh polyme s in au omobile cons uc ion educes he uel
consump ion pe kilome e and he e o e he emissions. Also, he inclusion o chemical
addi i es in uels such as ad-blue (i.e., u ea) can imp o e e iciency and educe he
gene a ion o pollu an s. Fe ón-Vilchez e al. 2015) conduc ed a mini case s udy
ocused on a Spanish oad eigh anspo indus y. They ounded ha manage s
decided o in oduce ad-blue o educe NOx in he exhaus sys em o ucks bene i ing
om economies o scale in pu chasing his componen in e nalisa ing en i onmen al
cos s. In ac , hanks mainly o chemicals, a cu en ca emi s jus 10% o he pollu an s
emi ed in 1950 (In e emp esas, 2009).
19
Toge he wi h enhancing ma e ials used in a ehicle’s design, lowe le els o NOX
emissions gene a ed by oad anspo could be achie ed using wo pilla s. The i s is
he igh use o NOX abso be de ices, mainly in ca s powe ed by diesel. Such de ices
allow he educ ion o oxides o ni ogen (NO and NO2) emissions om a lean-bu n
in e nal combus ion engine by means o adso p ion. Al hough hese de ices a e
becoming common in de eloped coun ies hey a e no gene ally in widesp ead use
globally. The second pilla consis s o inc easing he use o elec ic ehicles o hyb id
ehicles (powe ed wi h elec ici y, pe ol and na u al gas o hyd ogen), all o which a e
lowe emi e s.
Ai anspo should also be analyzed o i s con ibu ion o NOx emissions. Ai c a
emi gases and pa icles di ec ly in o he uppe oposphe e and lowe s a osphe e, a
al i udes loca ed be ween 9 km and 13 km, al e ing hei composi ion and concen a ion
o gases. The ha m ul e ec s o hese emissions ha e la gely been s udied as one o he
ozone p ecu so s (MAGRAMA, 2015) p omo ing global wa ming and pho ochemical
smog (Be end, 2015). Imp o emen s in some o he s uc u al componen s o ai c a
ha e shown ha i is possible o educe NOX emissions by 50%. This has happened wi h
he SMART Fixed Wing Ai c a (SFWA) p og am aimed a de eloping new p oduc s
ela ed o he wings o he ai c a (CSJU, 2008). The leading ai c a manu ac u e s -
Boeing Co. and Ai bus G oup- ha e begun o e ol e hei mos success ul models in
ha di ec ion -B737 (Max e sion) and A320 (a Neo e sion) (Ai bus G oup, 2015).
The educ ion o NOX emissions associa ed wi h ai anspo would be g ea e i , in
addi ion o he in oduc ion o his imp o emen o he wings o ai c a , ai po s
imposed s ic e emissions equi emen s on he ai c a ha ope a e ou o hem.
Ano he sec o ha migh ecei e poli ical a en ion is he ene gy sec o . The Elec ici y
sec o is pa icula ly ele an o he NOx emissions in ol ed in Spanish ade. Due o
o eign ene gy dependency and in o de o a oid la ge NOX emissions, highe sha es o
non- ossil uel sou ces in he ene gy ma ix migh be a solu ion. Fo many coun ies,
mainly in he EU and o cou se in Spain, his would imply a mo e in ensi e use o
enewable ene gy sou ces due o legal decisions agains nuclea powe deploymen .
Howe e , his is no he only ecommenda ion in he ield o ene gy policy. Li e a u e
shows ha he e is oom o enhancing ene gy e iciency in e ms o ene gy con e sion
20
om p ima y o seconda y ene gy. This is ue no only o de eloped coun ies bu also
o de eloping ones (Chikka u , 2008; Remme e al., 2011).
The Re ine y indus y is also e ealed as ano he d i e o NMVOC and CO emissions.
This indus y has al eady shown signi ican esul s in educing emissions o some
g eenhouse gases. This has been he case o SOX o example by he ins alla ion o
desulphu iza ion de ices in e ine y plan s. These plan s eco e he sulphu and con e
i in o a co-p oduc ha is hen sold o he coppe indus y, and used o he ex ac ion
o his mine al by he sol en ex ac ion me hod (SX-EW).
In he case o emissions o ozone p ecu so agen s, ecommenda ions o he e ining
indus y should go in wo di ec ions; imp o ing ene gy e iciency and changing he ype
o uel used. In he case o Spain, since he 1990s, e ine s ha e educed ene gy
consump ion by 16% (Spanish En i onmen Depa men , 2004). Howe e , he mos
impo an change is he eplacemen o he use o liquid uels by gaseous uels.
In adi ional echnology, he gases gene a ed in he e ining p ocess a e used as uel in
he in e nal p ocesses o indus ial plan s. Now he echnology allows he e ining
indus y o use he uel gas gene a ed in he e ining oil p ocess o powe ing he
u bines and elec ici y wi hou using wa e . The e o e, i is now possible o cap u e and
educe he esidual uel gas by using i as a by-p oduc . By combining he e ine y uel
gas e o mula ed wi hou s eam o wa e , he new echnology educes emissions o NO
and NO2 among o he gases (In e emp esas, 2015). This u e should become a p io i y
ac ion.
The Communi y se ices sec o should ecei e policy a en ion because i no only
p o okes he main me hane emissions besides he Ag icul u e sec o , bu also o he
ele an pollu an emissions such as land ill gas (LFG). This gas is c ea ed om he
decomposi ion o o ganic ma e in land ills o municipal solid was e (MSW). This gas
consis s o app oxima ely 99% CH4 and CO2, and a small amoun o di e en o ganic
compounds o me hane (NMVOC). The e o e, he policy egula ion should be o ien ed
o cap u e, con e and use his gas as an ene gy sou ce. Fo example, he use o LFG
helps o educe odou s and o he haza ds associa ed wi h LFG emissions and helps
p e en he me hane om mig a ing in o he a mosphe e. I also p e en s he local smog
inc easing and mi iga es global clima e change.
21
The Basic Me als sec o is ele an when conside ing he CO emissions embodied in
Spanish ade wi h he EU. In ac , his indus y includes wo impo an ac i i ies:
cemen and lime p oduc ion. Cemen is a basic ma e ial o building and ci il
enginee ing cons uc ion and lime and i s de i a i es a e used as a binde in building
and cons uc ion. This explains why he cons uc ion sec o appea s as an impo an
emi e o NMVOC. As sugges ed by JRC (2013), some policy ecommenda ions could
be pu in o o ce. S a ing wi h he cemen indus y, a echnique o educe he indus y's
ene gy use and emissions, exp essed pe uni mass o cemen p oduc , is o educe he
clinke con en o cemen p oduc s. This can be done by adding ille s and addi i es, o
example, sand, slag, limes one, ly ash and pozzolana, in he g inding s ep. This
echnique would educe emissions o ai . In Eu ope, he a e age clinke con en in
cemen is 80–85%.
Addi ionally, he elec ical ene gy use can be minimized in he Basic me al sec o
h ough he ins alla ion o powe managemen sys ems and he u iliza ion o ene gy-
e icien equipmen such as high-p essu e g inding olls o clinke comminu ion and
a iable speed d i es o ans as well as, in some cases, eplacing old aw ma e ial mills
wi h new mills. These powe managemen sys ems could esul in he sa ing o
esou ces and educ ion o emissions and was e. The clinke bu ning p ocess is usually
op imized o educe he hea consump ion, o imp o e he clinke quali y and o inc ease
he li e ime o he equipmen ( he e ac o y lining, o example) by s abilizing p ocess
pa ame e s. Reduc ion o emissions, such as NOx and dus , is a seconda y e ec o his
op imiza ion.
Focusing now on he Lime indus y, because o he wide ange o exhaus gas
condi ions, a a ie y o dus collec o s a e used, including cyclones, we sc ubbe s,
ab ic il e s, elec os a ic p ecipi a o s and g a el bed il e s. Fo example, ypical
cyclones emo e abou 90% o he dus om lime kilns. The e o e, dus collec o s
should be ecommended.
All p e ious policy ecommenda ions would impac on he supply side o ma ke s,
o cing indus ies o adop mi iga ion p ac ices. Bu he demand side o he ma ke
migh also ecei e a en ion in o de o con ibu e o mi iga e he ozone p ecu so
emissions. Ob iously, ac ion is needed o enhance he gene al knowledge abou he
p oblems caused by ozone, o example he ozone p ecu so oo p in could be included

22
in ood p oduc s labels in o de o d i e consume decisions and change hei pa e ns
owa ds cleane p oduc s.
5. Concluding ema ks
The main conclusions ha can be d awn om he analysis o he esul s a e he
ollowing:
a) The Ag icul u e sec o seems o be he mos ele an one conside ing he o al
emissions embodied in Spanish ade wi hin he EU. This sec o con ibu es
75%, 58% and 26% o CH4, NMVOC and CO emissions espec i ely. Despi e
o his, mi iga ion measu es easibili y would depend on he way in which a
deba e abou en i onmen al e sus economic objec i es is sol ed.
b) In e ms o he ETB, Spanish ade wi h he EU shows ha he NMVOC and CO
emissions embodied in Spanish expo s a e much highe han hose embodied in
Spanish impo s om his a ea. Again, he Ag icul u e sec o seems o be ela ed
o hese emissions, as is he Basic me al sec o . Cu en egula ion in ela ion o
he use o pes icide p oduc s in Spain seems o deal wi h his p oblem. Howe e ,
mo e ac i e en i onmen al egula ions ocused on he Ag icul u e sec o a e
needed, such as he in oduc ion o codes o good p ac ice in he use o
e ilize s and he p omo ion o cleane p oduc ion echnologies.
c) The mos impo an sec o ha con ibu es o he o al emissions embodied in
Spanish ade wi hin he non-EU a ea is he Coke, Re ined Pe oleum sec o
which accoun s o 59% and 53% o CO and NMVOC emissions espec i ely.
Addi ionally, he Ag icul u e sec o is also ele an in e ms o CH4 (44%) and
NOX (25%) emissions.
In e ms o he ETB, Spanish ade wi h he non-EU a ea shows ha Spanish
egula ion should ocus on he na ional consump ion pa e n in o de o educe Spanish
p essu e on ozone p ecu so emissions wo ldwide, especially in he case o CO and CH4
emissions. Ce i ica ion o eco-labels men ioned ha e oom o u he deploymen s in
Spain.
23
Acknowledgemen s
The i s wo au ho s a e e y g a e ul o he inancial suppo ecei ed om P ojec
SEJ-132 by he Andalusian Regional Minis y o Inno a ion, om he Roge To né
Founda ion h ough he Chai on Ene gy and En i onmen al Economics a he
Uni e si y o Se ille, and om he ECO2014-56399-R P ojec o he Spanish Minis y
o Economy and Compe i i eness. They also acknowledge he unding p o ided by he
Uni e sidad Au ónoma de Chile (Chile) and om he p ojec Nº 018/FONDECYT/16
o Chile’s Depa men o Educa ion. The au ho s a e also g a e ul o he use ul
commen s and anonymous e iewe s om he Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion. The iews
exp essed in his a icle a e he sole esponsibili y o he au ho s and should no be
a ibu ed o he Eu opean Commission o any o i s se ices.
Re e ences
Ai bus G oup (2015). New Sha kle s and A320 Neo. Úl imo Acceso: 16/ eb e o/2015.
h p://www.ai bus.com/ai c a amilies/passenge ai c a /a320 amily/ echnology-and-
inno a ion
A o, I.; Gen y, A.; Rueda-Can uche, J.M.; Villanue a, A. and And eoni, V. (2012).
Global Resou ces Use and Pollu ion, Volume 1 / P oduc ion, Consump ion and T ade
(1995-2008). JRCc scien i ic and policy epo s. Eu opean Commission.
Be end, N. (2015). Con ibu ion o Ai Pollu ion o COPD and Small Ai way
Dys unc ion. O icial Jou nal o he Asian Paci ic Socie y o Respi ology; 2. Accessed
No embe .
B izga, J; Feng, K. and Hubacek, K. (2016). Household ca bon oo p in s in he Bal ic
S a es: A global mul i- egional inpu –ou pu analysis om 1995 o 2011. Applied
Ene gy, In P ess, Co ec ed P oo , A ailable online 17 Feb ua y 2016.Chen, C.Q. &
Zhang, B. (2010). G eenhouse gas emissions in China 2007: In en o y and inpu -ou pu
analysis. Ene gy Policy, 38: 6180-6193.
Chikka u , A.P. (2008). A esou ce and echnology assessmen o coal u iliza ion in
India; Pew Cen e on Global Clima e Change Wo king Pape s: A ling on, Uni ed S a es.
Die zenbache , E., Pei, J., and Yang, C. (2012). T ade, p oduc ion agmen a ion, and
China's ca bon dioxide emissions. Jou nal o En i onmen al Economics and
Managemen 64 (1), pp. 88–101.
Die zenbache , E., Ba , L. S eh e , R., Timme , M. and V ies, G. (2013). The
cons uc ion o Wo ld Inpu -Ou pu Tables in he WIOD P ojec , Economic Sys ems
Resea ch, 25(1), pp. 71-98.
EEA (2014). Eu opean En i onmen Agency. Ai quali y in Eu ope — 2014 epo .
Denma k.
Eu opean Union (2009). Reglamen o (CE) n.º 1107/2009, del Pa lamen o Eu opeo y del
Consejo, de 21 de oc ub e de 2009, ela i o a la come cialización de p oduc os
24
i osani a ios y po el que se de ogan las Di ec i as 79/117/CEE y 91/414/CEE del
Consejo, y la Di ec i a 2009/128/CE, del Pa lamen o Eu opeo y del Consejo, de 21 de
oc ub e de 2009, po la que se es ablece el ma co de la ac uación comuni a ia pa a
consegui un uso sos enible de los plaguicidas.
Fe ón-Vilchez, V., De la To e Ruiz, J.M. and O iz de Mandojana (2015). How much
would en i onmen al issues cos ? The in e nalisa ion o en i onmen al cos s in he
Eu opean anspo indus y. N. En i onmen al Enginee ing and Managemen Jou nal,
Vol. 45(9), 2149-2162.
Homma, T., Akimo o, K. and Tomoda, T. (2012). Quan i a i e e alua ion o ime-se ies
GHG emissions by sec o and egion using consump ion-based accoun ing. Ene gy
Policy, Volume 51, pp. 816-827
Hong, J; Shen, G.Q.; Guo, S; Xue, F. and Zheng, W. (2016). Ene gy use embodied in
China׳s cons uc ion indus y: A mul i- egional inpu –ou pu analysis. Renewable and
Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews, 53, 1303-1312.
INE (2016 a). Me cancías impo adas y expo adas po sección, capí ulo a ancela io y
año.
h p://www.ine.es/jaxi/Tabla.h m?pa h=/ 41/a121/a1998/l0/& ile=x10031.px&L=0
INE, (2016 b). Encues a de población ac i a.
h p://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/ope acion.h m?c=Es adis ica_C&cid=1254736176
918&menu= esul ados&idp=1254735976595
INE, (2016 c). Con abilidad nacional de España.
h p://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do? ype=pcaxis&pa h=%2F 35%2Fp008& ile=inebase&L
=0
Ins i u o Español de Come cio Ex e io (ICEX); La emp esa expo ado a española
2007-2010
h p://www.icex.es/icex/es/na egacion-p incipal/ odos-nues os-se icios/in o macion-
de-me cados/es udios-de-me cados-y-o os-documen os-de-come cio-
ex e io /4591630.h ml
Jiang, W.Q.; Li, J.S; Chen, G.Q; Yang, Q; Alsaedi, A; Ahmad, B. and Haya , T. (2016).
Me cu y emissions embodied in Beijing economy. Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion, 129,
15, 134-142.
Kanemo o, K; Mo an, D.; Lenzen, M. and Geschke, A. (2014). In e na ional ade
unde mines na ional emission educ ion a ge s: New e idence om ai pollu ion.
Global En i onmen al Change, 24, 52-59
King, A. A., Lenox, M. J. (2000). Indus y sel - egula ion wi hou sanc ions: The
chemical indus y's esponsible ca e p og am. Academy o Managemen Jou nal, 43(4),
698-716.
25
Leon ie , W. (1970). En i onmen al epe cussions and he economic s uc u e: an inpu -
ou pu app oach, Re iew o economics and s a is ics, 52 (3), pp. 262-271.
Ma in, G; Mazzan i, M. and Mon ini, A (2012). Linking NAMEA and Inpu ou pu o
‘consump ion s. p oduc ion pe spec i e’ analyses: E idence on emission e iciency
and agg ega ion biases using he I alian and Spanish en i onmen al accoun s.
Ecological Economics, 74, 71-84.
Mille , RE. and Blai , PD. (2009). Inpu -ou pu analysis, Founda ions and Ex ensions,
2ª edición. Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, Camb igde.
Oksanen, E; Pandey, V; Pandey, A.K., Keski-Saa i, S; Kon unen-Soppela, S. and
Sha ma, C. (2013). Impac s o inc easing ozone on Indian plan s. En i onmen al
Pollu ion, 177, 189-200.
Rypdal, K; Be n sen, T; Fugles ed , J.S.; Aunan, K.; To ange , A.; S o dal, F; Pacyna,
J.M. and Nygaa d, L. 2005. T oposphe ic ozone and ae osols in clima e ag eemen s:
scien i ic and poli ical challenges. En i onmen al Science & Policy, 8 (1), 29-43.
Rueda-Can uche, JM. and Amo es, AF. (2010). Consis en and unbiased ca bon dioxide
emission mul iplie s: Pe o mance o Danish emission educ ions ia ex e nal ade,
Ecological Economics, 69, pp. 988-998.
Sa o, M. (2012). Embodied Ca bon in T ade: A Su ey o he Empi ical Li e a u e.
Cen e o Clima e Change Economics and Policy Wo king Pape no. 89
UNECE (1999). Go henbu g P o ocol o Aba e Acidi ica ion, Eu ophica ion and
G ound-le el Ozone. Uni ed Na ions Economic Commission o Eu ope (UNECE)
Con en ion on Long- ange T ansbounda y Ai Pollu ion (LRTAP).
www.unece.o g/en /l ap/mul i_h1.h m (accessed 18 Ma ch 2010).
In e emp esas (2009). A ailable a
h p://www.in e emp esas.ne /Quimica/A iculos/27913-La-quimica-en-Espana- educe-
un-63-po -cien o-sus-emisiones.h ml) Accesed no embe , 2015.
In e emp esas (2015). A ailable a
h p://www.in e emp esas.ne /Quimica/A iculos/137456-Cepsa-aumen a-e iciencia-
educe-emisiones- e ine ia-Gib al a -San-Roque-median e.h ml) Accessed no embe ,
2015.
JRC (2013). JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE. Ins i u e o P ospec i e Technological
S udies. Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion Uni . Eu opean IPPC Bu eau . Bes
A ailable Techniques (BAT) Re e ence Documen o he P oduc ion o Cemen , Lime
and Magnesium Oxide. A ailable a :
h p://eippcb.j c.ec.eu opa.eu/ e e ence/BREF/CLM_30042013_DEF.pd .Accessed
no embe , 2015