b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
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6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
www.else ie .es/bsec
E alua ion
o
he
physical
and
mechanical
beha iou
o
ammed
ea h
by
inco po a ion
o
ecycled
glass
Jacin o
Cani ella,
Juan
Jesús
Ma in-del-Rioa,
Ma io
Solísb,
José
Daniel
Rod íguez-Ma iscalb,
Vicen e
Flo es-Alésa,∗,
F ancisco
Pon igac
aDepa men
o
A chi ec u al
Cons uc ion
II,
Uni e sidad
de
Se illa,
A .
Reina
Me cedes
4,
41012
Se illa,
Spain
bDepa men
o
Mechanics
o
Con inuous
Media
and
Theo y
o
S uc u es,
Uni e sidad
de
Se illa,
Camino
Descub imien os,
s/n
–
Isla
Ca uja,
41092
Se illa,
Spain
cDepa men
o
Applied
Physics
II,
Uni e sidad
de
Se illa,
A .
Reina
Me cedes
4,
41012
Se illa,
Spain
a
i
c
l
e
i
n
o
A icle
his o y:
Recei ed
5
Ma ch
2025
Accep ed
2
May
2025
A ailable
online
2
June
2025
Keywo ds:
Rammed
ea h
Comp essi e
s eng h
Non-des uc i e
es ing
Agg ega e
subs i u ion
C ushed
glass
a
b
s
a
c
Compac ed
soil
walls
p o ide
en i onmen al
benefi s
due
o
hei
low
impac
and
embodied
ene gy.
Al hough
hei
mechanical
s eng h
is
lowe
han
o he
ma e ials,
hey
mee
sa e y
equi emen s.
Cu en
ends
p omo e
ci cula
economy
solu ions,
such
as
was e
euse.
This
s udy
assesses
ecycled
glass
in
lime-
and
cemen -s abilized
ammed
ea h
as
a
eplacemen
o
na u al
sand
o
enhance
was e
managemen
and
soil
p ope ies.
Ul asonic
inspec ion
confi ms
inc eased
comp essi e
s eng h
and
densi y,
especially
in
cemen -s abilized
mix-
u es.
S a is ical
analysis
e eals
a
di ec
co ela ion
be ween
c ushed
glass
con en
and
imp o ed
p ope ies.
The
op imal
eplacemen
a e
is
75%
o
lime
and
100%
o
cemen .
The
supe io
pe o mance
in
cemen -s abilized
samples
is
due
o
a
pozzolanic
eac ion
absen
in
lime
mix u es.
Bo h
binde s
show
significan
educ ions
in
he mal
conduc i i y,
imp o ing
ene gy
e ficiency
wi hou
comp omising
s uc u al
in eg i y.
Ul asound
p o es
eliable
o
p edic ing
comp essi e
s eng h
and
s i ness,
suppo ing
he
iabili y
o
his
app oach.
The
inco po a ion
o
ecycled
glass
in
compac ed
soil
o e s
a
sus ainable
con-
s uc ion
al e na i e,
balancing
en i onmen al
benefi s
wi h
enhanced
mechanical
and
he mal
pe o mance.
©
2025
The
Au ho s.
Published
by
Else ie
Espa˜
na,
S.L.U.
on
behal
o
SECV.
This
is
an
open
access
a icle
unde
he
CC
BY-NC-ND
license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).
∗Co esponding
au ho .
E-mail
add ess:
fl[email p o ec ed]
(V.
Flo es-Alés).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.bsec .2025.100442
0366-3175/©
2025
The
Au ho s.
Published
by
Else ie
Espa˜
na,
S.L.U.
on
behal
o
SECV.
This
is
an
open
access
a icle
unde
he
CC
BY-NC-ND
license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
E aluación
del
compo amien o
ísico
y
mecánico
de
la
ie a
compac ada
con
inco po ación
de
id io
eciclado
Palab as
cla e:
Tie a
apisonada
Resis encia
a
la
comp esión
Ensayos
no
des uc i os
Sus i ución
de
á idos
Vid io
i u ado
e
s
u
m
e
n
Los
mu os
de
suelo
compac ado
o ecen
beneficios
ambien ales
po
su
bajo
impac o
y
ene gía
inco po ada.
Aunque
su
esis encia
mecánica
es
meno
que
o os
ma e iales,
cumplen
con
los
equisi os
de
segu idad.
Las
endencias
ac uales
omen an
soluciones
alin-
eadas
con
la
economía
ci cula ,
como
la
eu ilización
de
esiduos.
Es e
es udio
e alúa
el
uso
de
id io
eciclado
en
ie a
compac ada
es abilizada
con
cal
y
cemen o
como
sus i u o
de
la
a ena
na u al
pa a
mejo a
la
ges ión
de
esiduos
y
las
p opiedades
del
suelo.
La
inspección
ul asónica
confi ma
un
aumen o
en
la
esis encia
a
comp esión
y
la
densidad,
especial-
men e
en
mezclas
es abilizadas
con
cemen o.
El
análisis
es adís ico
e ela
una
co elación
di ec a
en e
el
con enido
de
id io
i u ado
y
la
mejo a
de
p opiedades.
La
asa
óp ima
de
sus i ución
es
75%
pa a
cal
y
100%
pa a
cemen o.
El
mejo
desempe˜
no
en
mezclas
con
cemen o
se
debe
a
una
eacción
puzolánica
ausen e
en
las
de
cal.
Ambos
aglome an es
educen
significa i amen e
la
conduc i idad
é mica,
mejo ando
la
eficiencia
ene gé ica
sin
a ec a
la
in eg idad
es uc u al.
El
ul asonido
esul a
fiable
pa a
p edeci
la
esis encia
y
igidez,
alidando
es a
es a egia.
La
in eg ación
de
id io
eciclado
en
suelo
compac ado
es
una
al e na i a
sos enible,
combinando
beneficios
ambien ales
con
mejo as
mecánicas
y
é micas.
©
2025
Los
Au o es.
Publicado
po
Else ie
Espa˜
na,
S.L.U.
en
nomb e
de
SECV.
Es e
es
un
a ´
ıculo
Open
Access
bajo
la
CC
BY-NC-ND
licencia
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licencias/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).
In oduc ion
The
cons uc ion
wi h
soil
may
seem
a
simple
echnology
[1],
bu
hese
echniques
ha e
been
de eloped
and
imp o ed
o
p o ide
be e
p ocess
pe o mance.
I
is
also
a
cleane ,
heal h-
ie
and
less
ene gy-consuming
p ocess
han
o he s,
such
as
b ick
making,
in
which
a
fi ing
phase
is
necessa y.
The
ech-
niques
di e
by
he
applica ion
and
handling
o
he
ma e ial.
Two
la ge
g oups
can
be
dis inguished,
one
o
hem
in
which
he
cons uc ion
wi h
ea h
suppo s
a
load
and
he
o he
whe e
he
soil
is
only
a
fille .
In
he
fi s
g oup
a e
echniques
such
as
ammed
ea h,
adobe,
cob
and
comp essed
ea h
block
(CEB).
The
CEB
is
simila
o
adobe,
bu
in
his
case,
he
soil
is
subjec ed
o
high
s a ic
p essu e,
which
inc eases
he
com-
p essi e
s eng h
o
he
ma e ial.
They
a e
building
blocks
made
om
a
mix u e
o
soil,
sand
and
clay,
and
may
also
con-
ain
lime
o
cemen
as
a
s abilize .
Since
hey
a e
buil -on-si e
he
echnical
equi emen s
a e
low
in
compa ison
o
CEBs.
Mo eo e ,
ammed
ea h
walls
a e
made
by
dynamic
p essu e
wi h
low
ene gy
pe
impac ,
hence
he
o mwo k
does
no
need
o
wi hs and
ex eme
o ces.
In
bo h
cases
hey
sha e
simila
physical–mechanical
p ope ies.
The
ea hen
walls
ha e
an
ad an age
p o iding
a
high
he mal
insula ion
capaci y
[2,3],
hey
egula e
he
en i on-
men
o
he
house
in
a
na u al
way.
The
CEB
and
ammed
ea h
a e
no
fi ed,
so
hey
p ese e
he
o iginal
p ope ies
o
he
ea h
walls,
egula e
humidi y
and
accumula e
hea .
This
compac ing
echnique
can
also
be
ca ied
ou
in
si u,
whene e
he
cons uc ion
si e
allows
i ,
by
means
o
a
com-
p ession
machine.
To
p oduce
he
CEB
and
ammed
ea h,
only
abou
1%
o
he
ene gy
equi ed
o
make
a
con en ional
b ick
is
needed,
wi h
minimal
CO2emissions.
Ano he
ad an age
is
ha
comp essed
ea h
walls
main ain
a
cons an
ela i e
humidi y
o
a ound
50%,
equi ing
less
ene gy
o
hea
hem
han
in
a
adi ional
building
[4].
The
inco po a ion
o
agg ega es
om
was e
is
an
al e na-
i e
ha
has
been
in es iga ed
wi h
he
aim
o
imp o ing
he
p ope ies
o
he
final
p oduc
and
inc easing
i s
sus ainabili y
[5–7].
The
possibili y
o
inco po a ing
c ushed
glass
is
a
sim-
ple
and
clean
op ion
ha ,
acco ding
o
p e ious
esea ch,
will
imp o e
he
he mal
insula ion
capaci y
[8].
Was e
glass
has
adi ionally
been
used
in
compac ed
soil,
as
a
subs i u e
o
sand
in
conc e e
[9]
and
geo echnical
p oduc s,
mos ly
as
a
fille
ma e ial,
as
a
plas ici y
modifie
[10],
al hough
in
hose
cases
whe e
an
alkaline
ac i a o
is
inco po a ed,
such
was e
can
also
de elop
chemical
s abilisa ion
capaci y
depending
on
i s
pa icle
size
[11–13].
O he
au ho s
ha e
epo ed
educ-
ions
in
he mal
conduc i i y
o
a ound
38%
o
ligh weigh
conc e es
wi h
he
inco po a ion
o
45%
glass
[14].
The
mean
alue
o
he
he mal
conduc i i y
o
ammed
ea h
wall
can
be
defined
in
he
ange
0.5–1.7
W/mK
[15],
which
indica es
a
ela i ely
poo
he mal
pe o mance
o
ammed
ea h
walls.
In
ela ion
o
he mal
conduc i i y,
he
he mal
conduc i i y
coe ficien
o
glass
om
domes ic
sou ces
is
es i-
ma ed
a
an
a e age
alue
o
0.8
W/mK,
al hough
his
can
a y
depending
on
he
cha ac e is ics
and
o igin
o
he
ma e ial
[8],
so
i s
inco po a ion
in o
ammed
ea h
elemen s
con ibu es
o
he
he mal
conduc i i y
o
hese
being
a
he
lowe
end
o
he
ange
[16,17].
The
inco po a ion
o
glass
in
comp essed
ea h
walls
has
also
been
s udied
in
o de
o
imp o e
pa icle
s abilisa ion
and
o
ob ain
an
inc ease
in
mechanical
capabili ies
[18].
Fo
example,
powde ed
glass
has
been
used
by
an
alkaline
ac i-
a ion
p ocess
[6,11]
o
achie e
subs an ial
imp o emen s
in
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
3
Table
1
–
Chemical
analysis
o
he
AFN
clay,
acco ding
o
manu ac u e
da a-shee
and
A e be g
limi s.
Chemical
analysis
(%)
Plas ici y
SiO2Al2O3Fe2O3TiO2CaO
MgO
Na2O
K2O
MnO
L.O.I.
L.L.
P.I.
57.59
17.63
6.38
0.39
3.40
2.14
0.18
3.16
0.08
8.75
34
15
L.O.I.:
los
on
igni ion;
L.L.:
liquid
limi ;
P.L.:
plas ici y
index.
Table
2
–
Mine alogical
composi ion
o
he
AFN
clay.
Mine als %
by
weigh
O hoclase
(K- eldspa ) 5
Qua z
39
Albi e
(Na- eldspa )
>1
Hema i e
2
Calci e
4
Musco i e 37
Chlo i e
13
comp essi e
s eng h
and
du abili y.
Alkaline
ac i a ion
has
also
been
used
o
imp o e
he
consolida ion
o
ea h
mo a s
o
es o a ion
[19]
wi h
alid
esul s
o
low
alkaline
con-
cen a ions.
Alkaline
ac i a ion
has
also
been
conside ed
o
ammed
ea h
[20]
and
o
CEB
[21]
bu
wi hou
including
he
inco po a ion
o
ecycled
o
powde ed
glass
[22].
In
bo h
cases,
i
is
highligh ed
ha
his
ype
o
chemical
eac ion
p o ides
a
be e
bonding
ma ix
and
he e o e
a
highe
mechanical
pe o mance.
Since
he e
is
sca ce
esea ch
on
he
inco po a ion
o
ecycled
glass
in
cons uc ion
echniques
using
compac ed
ea h,
he
aim
o
his
esea ch
is
he
analysis
o
he
physical–mechanical
pe o mance
o
inco po a ing
c ushed
glass
in
s abilised
ammed
ea h.
Physical
and
mechanical
p ope ies
will
be
e alua ed,
depending
on
di e en
pe cen -
ages
o
subs i u ion
o
he
fine
ac ions
o
na u al
agg ega e.
The
esea ch
aims
o
de e mine
whe he
he e
a e
signifi-
can
imp o emen s
in
he
a o emen ioned
p ope ies
and,
i
so,
wha
pe cen age
o
glass
subs i u ion
would
be
op imal,
assessing
i s
ad an ages
and
disad an ages.
Ma e ial
and
me hods
The
soil
used
in
his
s udy
was
a ificial
manu ac u ed
om
sepa a ed
ac ions
so
ha
a
homogenei y
is
achie ed
be ween
di e en
ba ches.
The
soil
is
composed
by
a
mix
o
g a el,
coa se
and
fine
sands
and
clay.
The
lime
was
pu chased
om
a
local
company
while
he
clay
came
om
a
specialised
man-
u ac u e
(Sio-2®),
who
supplied
i
in
powde
o m
so
ha
i
could
be
easily
mixed
d y
wi h
all
he
agg ega es.
The
chemi-
cal
analyses
o
he
clay
AFN
om
Sio-2
a e
depic ed
in
Table
1.
The
mine alogical
composi ion
o
he
clay
is
shown
in
Fig.
1
and
i s
quan ifica ion
in
Table
2.
C ushed
glass
was
s udied
as
subs i u e
o
sand,
main ain-
ing
he
es ablished
pe cen age
o
g a el.
The
c ushed
glass
was
p o ided
by
Ra sa
S.A.,
a
glass
ecycling
company.
The
glass
was
c ushed,
by
a
mechanical
g inding
machine.
Agg e-
ga e
sizes
la ge
han
4
mm
we e
emo ed.
A
soil
ype
was
designed
ha
was
composed
o
15%
g a el,
50%
coa se
sand,
20%
fine
sand
and
15%
clay,
which
we e
d y-
mixed
p io
o
he
p epa a ion
o
he
specimens.
Acco ding
o
UNE-EN
9333-1
sie ing
me hod,
hese
p opo ions
comply
wi h
a
pa icle
size
dis ibu ion
o
good
compac ness,
since
as
can
be
seen
in
Fig.
2A,
he
cu e
co esponding
o
he
soil
has
no
discon inui ies
and
emains
close
o
i s
co espond-
ing
Fulle
and
i s
fineness
modulus
(4.29)
is
simila
o
ha
o
i s
Fulle
(4.79).
The
c ushed
glass
ha
will
eplace
he
sand
ac ions
is
ep esen ed
in
Fig.
2B,
whe e
he
simila i y
o
bo h
agg ega es
is
obse ed.
The
expe imen al
design
conside ed
he
pa ial
and
o al
subs i u ion
wi h
c ushed
glass
o
he
sand
ac ions.
As
he
in en ion
is
o
analyse
he
beha iou
o
glass
as
a
subs i u e
o
agg ega e,
50,
75
and
100
pe cen ages
we e
sough
in
o de
o
obse e
possible
changes
in
beha iou .
In
addi ion,
a
e -
e ence
dosage
wi hou
glass
was
conside ed.
This
glass
is
a
by-p oduc
om
lamina ed
pans
o
glass
and
was
chemically
cha ac e ized
by
means
o
X- ay
fluo escence
(XRF)
in
a
Pana-
ly ical
X- ay
fluo escence
spec ome e
(AXIOS)
wi h
Rh
ube
o
elemen al
solid
sample
analysis
(Table
3).
The
analyses
we e
ca ied
ou
on
pea l
p ocessed
a
1200◦C
using
li hium
me abo a e
and
li hium
e abo a e
as
fluxes
in
a
a io
o
34/66.
The
flux/sample
a io
used
was
9/1.
This
soil
was
s abilized
by
Po land
cemen
(C)
and
hyd aulic
lime
HL5
(L),
bo h
in
a
pe cen age
o
5%
by
mass
o
d ied
soil,
being
wi hin
he
op imal
ange
s a ed
by
se e al
au ho s
[23–25].
These
condi ions,
as
well
as
he
names
o
each
dosage,
a e
lis ed
in
Table
4.
The
mixing
mois u e
o
op imum
mois u e
con en
(OMC)
is
c i ical
o
achie e
op imum
compac ion.
Acco ding
o
p e-
ious
esea ch,
he
de e mina ion
o
his
mois u e
con en
is
usually
pe o med
by
means
o
he
UNE-103500
s anda d
o
modified
P oc o
es
[26]
o
hei
equi alen s
acco ding
o
ASTM
D698-12
s anda d
[27].
In
his
case,
ou
P oc o
es s
ha e
been
p epa ed
o
wo
ypes
o
s abiliza ion
and
o
he
cases
o
100%
glass
and
no
glass
subs i u ion,
shown
in
Fig.
3.
In
Fig.
3A
and
B,
i
can
be
seen
ha
he
mois u e
con en s
a e
e y
simila
o
all
cases
and
a e
a ound
8%,
excep
o
he
cemen
wi h
glass,
which
is
educed
o
7%.
Since
he
di e -
ences
a e
so
small
and
conside ing
he
di ficul y
o
p ecisely
con olling
his
ma gin
du ing
manu ac u e,
i
was
decided
o
wo k
wi h
an
OMC
equal
o
8%.
Once
he
s a ing
pa ame e s
we e
defined,
he
manu ac-
u e
and
cu ing
o
he
es
specimens
was
de eloped.
Fi s ,
each
soil
and
glass
ac ion
we e
o en-d ied
o
24
h
a
less
han
100◦C,
so
ha
he
mine alogical
componen s
we e
no
a ec ed
and
o
ensu e
ha
all
mix u es
s a ed
om
he
same
mois u e
con en
be o e
mixing.
The
agg ega e
ac ions
co esponding
o
each
dosage
we e
hen
d y-mixed,
and
he
s abilize
(cemen
o
lime)
was
added
o
achie e
a
uni o m
mix u e.
Acco ding
o
he
d y
weigh
p oduced
and
ha ing
p e iously
checked
he
mois u e
con en
o
he
agg ega es,
he
4
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
Fig.
1
–
X- ay
di ac og am
o
he
AFN
clay.
Fig.
2
–
Pa icle
size
dis ibu ion
o
soil
(A)
and
soil
wi h
p ocessed
glass
(B).
Table
3
–
Chemical
analysis
o
glass.
Elemen s
SiO2Na2O
CaO
MgO
Al2O3K2O
SO3Fe2O3TiO2MnO
P2O5LOI
%
72.21
13.05
9.98
3.46
0.76
0.34
0.3
0.26
0.07
0.03
0.01
0.46
D.L.
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
C.L.
0.03
0.02
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.04
0.02
Rel.E.
0.019
0.073
0.0100
0.029
0.011
0.038
0.137
0.023
0.106
0.050
0.026
T aces
F
Ba
S
P
Zn
Pb
C
S
Z
Mn
Sn
Cs
Cu
Ppm
1211
1200
1076
144
84.8
66.6
64.5
59.5
57.1
52.1
32.2
27
26
D.L.:
de ec ion
limi ;
C.L.:
cuan ifica ion
limi ;
Rel.E.:
ela i e
e o .
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
5
Table
4
–
Dis ibu ion
and
desc ip ion
o
each
dosage
o
he
expe imen al
phase
(-R,
s ands
o
e e ence
g oup).
Ba ch
Numbe
samples
S abiliza ion
Glass
C-R
6
Cemen
(5%)
–
C-50
6
Cemen
(5%) 50%
C-75
6
Cemen
(5%)
75%
C-100
6
Cemen
(5%)
100%
L-R
6
Lime
(5%)
–
L-50
5
Lime
(5%)
50%
L-75
6
Lime
(5%)
75%
L-100
6
Lime
(5%)
100%
Fig.
3
–
Op imum
mois u e
con en
and
maximum
densi y
o
cemen
(A)
and
lime
(B).
Fig.
4
–
P epa a ion
o
samples
om
p isma ic
shape
moulds.
6
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
necessa y
wa e
was
added
un il
he
OMC
was
eached.
The
mixing
was
ca ied
ou
in
a
pan
conc e e
mixe
ha
allows
wo king
adequa ely
wi h
low
wa e –s abilize
a ios
and
d ie
ex u es.
The
mix u e
was
hen
compac ed
in
he
moulds
in
ou
laye s
o
abou
5
cm
hickness.
Once
he
fi s
3
laye s
had
been
compac ed,
a
plas ic
film
was
applied
be o e
he
las
laye
was
compac ed.
In
his
way,
a
15
×
15
×
15
cm
es
specimen,
called
A,
and
ano he
15
×
15
×
5
cm
specimen
wi h
he
same
compac ion,
called
B,
could
be
ob ained
o
he
es s
(Fig.
4).
In
o de
o
main ain
uni o mi y
in
he
a e
o
compac ion
o
all
he
specimens,
he
p ocedu e
de eloped
by
he
au ho s
[28]
was
ollowed,
bu
adap ed
o
he
use
o
a
jackhamme ,
o
which
he
me hodology
desc ibed
by
[24,29]
is
aken
as
a
e e ence.
Basically,
i
consis s
o
es ablishing
a
ela ionship
be ween
he
specific
compac ion
ene gy
o
he
s anda d
P oc-
o
es
and
ha
o
he
mechanical
ools
used.
Fo
his
pu pose,
he
hamme
manu ac u e ’s
da a
we e
conside ed,
wi h
he
numbe
o
blows
(b)
pe
minu e
(nb)
being
26
b/min,
acco d-
ing
o
an
in e media e
speed
configu a ion,
and
he
ene gy
pe
impac
being
j
=
1
J.
By
equa ing
he
specific
compac ion
ene gies
om
he
P oc o
and
he
expe imen ,
Eq.
(1)
can
be
ob ained,
which
desc ibes
he
ime
equi ed
o
compac
a
5
cm
laye
o
ma e ial
wi h
he
hamme
desc ibed.
In
ou
case
min =
14.26
s,
so
he
compac ion
ime
was
con olled
a
15
s
pe
laye ,
du ing
which
he
hamme ,
which
had
a
compac ion
su ace
o
5
×
5
cm,
co e ed
he
en i e
su ace
o
15
×
15
cm
o
he
es
specimen.
min =Vm
VOMC
nOMC
nb
m
×
g
×
h
j,
(1)
Vmbeing
he
olume
o
he
specimen
laye
(m3),
VOMC he
olume
o
he
s anda d
P oc o
es
laye
(m3),
nOMC he
num-
be
o
blows
pe
P oc o
laye
–
which
is
26
blows,
nbis
he
numbe
o
blows
pe
minu e
o
he
hamme ,
m
is
he
mass
o
he
P oc o
hamme
(2.5
kg),
g
is
he
accele a ion
o
g a -
i y
in
m
s−2,
h
is
he
heigh
a
which
he
P oc o
hamme
alls
(0.305
m)
and
j
is
he
ene gy
pe
blow
o
he
hamme
(Joules).
A e
finishing
h ee
successi e
laye s,
which
o med
he
ype
A
es
sample,
be o e
pou ing
he
mix u e,
he
plas ic
film
was
placed
o
sepa a e
he
ou h
5
cm
laye ,
hus
defining
he
ype
B
es
sample.
A e
demoulding,
he
samples
we e
le
o
d y
du ing
28
days
unde
he
same
en i onmen al
condi ions
(20
±
2◦C
and
65
±
5%
ela i e
humidi y).
The
es s
ca ied
ou
on
each
ype
o
specimen
a e
desc ibed
below.
Specimens
B
we e
in ended
o
es s
o
de e mine
he
bulk
densi y
and
open
po osi y,
by
means
o
a
wa e
sa u a ion
me hod
in
acuum,
ollowing
he
p ocedu e
p o ided
in
UNE-
EN-1936
s anda d
[30].
The
he mal
conduc i i ies
o
he
samples
we e
de e -
mined
by
using
a
es
se -up
manu ac u ed
by
PHYWE
Sys eme
GmbH
&
Co.
KG
[31].
This
same
se -up
has
been
used
by
se e al
esea che s
o
measu e
he
he mal
conduc-
i i y
o
conc e es
[32]
and
ea h
building
ma e ials
[33].
The
equipmen
consis s
o
a
40
cm
side
house,
he mally
insula ed,
which
con ains
a
hea
sou ce
in
i s
in e io .
The
side
walls
o
he
house
ha e
21
cm
squa e
openings,
and
he
samples
o
be
es ed
can
be
fixed
om
he
inside
agains
he
openings
using
ensioning
sc ews.
Since
he
on al
a ea
o
ou
samples
( ype
B
specimens,
15
×
15
cm2)
was
smalle
han
he
ape u es
on
he
side
walls,
he
samples
we e
moun ed
in
a
4
cm
hick
polyu e hane
ame.
Du ing
he
expe imen s,
ype
K
he mocouples
we e
used
o
measu e
he
ai
empe a u e
in
he
labo a o y
(Tai ),
he
empe a u e
a
he
cen e
o
he
ex e nal
su ace
o
he
sam-
ple
(Tou )
and
he
empe a u e
a
he
cen e
o
he
in e nal
su ace
o
he
sample
(Tin).
A
iny
amoun
o
he mal
g ease
(HY710,
Shenzhen
Halnziye
Elec onics
Co.)
was
applied
a
he
con ac
poin s
be ween
he
he mocouple
ips
and
he
solid
su aces
o
imp o e
he
he mal
con ac .
All
empe a u es
we e
eco ded
o e
ime
using
a
high- esolu ion
da a
logge
(TC-08,
Pico
Technology)
connec ed
o
a
PC,
un il
s eady-s a e
condi ions
we e
eached
(6–8
h).
A
ha
momen ,
he
hea
flux
h ough
he
sample
pe
uni
a ea
q
(W/m2)
can
be
ob ained
as
q
=Tou −
Tai
Rs
=Tin −
Tou
e/(2)
whe e
Rsis
he
su ace
he mal
esis ance
o
he
ai
bounda y
laye
nex
o
he
sample,
and
e
and
a e
he
hickness
and
he
he mal
conduc i i y
o
he
sample,
espec i ely.
He e,
acco d-
ing
o
he
s anda d
ISO
6946:2017
[34],
he
con en ional
alue
Rs=
0.13
m2K/W
o
ho izon al
hea
flow
h ough
a
plane
su -
ace
will
be
assumed.
The
he mal
conduc i i y
o
he
sample
can
hen
be
ob ained
as,
=e
Rs
×Tou −
Tai
Tin −
Tou (3)
Ul asonic
pulse
eloci y
(UPV)
es s
we e
pe o med
on
A
samples
wi h
a
Pundi
Lab
sys em
om
P oceq
company,
equipped
wi h
wo
54
kHz
piezoelec ic
senso s.
The
p o-
cedu es
es ablished
in
he
UNE-EN
12504-4
s anda d
we e
ollowed
in
his
es ing
[35].
Since
en
eadings
a e
aken
a
each
loca ion,
a
a iabili y
ange
o
±2%
om
he
mean
alue
was
he e o e
aken.
A e
his
check,
some
a ypical
alues
we e
disca ded,
so
ha
he
a e age
o
all
he
fil e ed
ead-
ings
in
each
UPV
di ec ion
and
loca ion
s udied
was
ob ained.
This
c i e ion
was
aken
in o
accoun
o
de e mine
he
ul a-
sonic
pulse
eloci ies
UPV-X
and
UPV-Y,
o
hose
di ec ions
pe pendicula
o
he
compac ion
di ec ion,
and
UPV-Z
o
he
compac ion
di ec ion.
In
addi ion,
h ee
heigh s
we e
di e en-
ia ed
in
he
X–Y
plane,
depending
on
whe he
he
ansduce s
we e
loca ed
a
he
base
(B),
in
he
middle
(M)
o
a
he
op
(T)
o
specimen
A
(Fig.
5).
Measu emen s
a
14
and
28
days
we e
aken
in
o de
obse e
and
check
he
e olu ion
and
ce ain
ends
[28].
Howe e ,
he
mechanical
es
was
only
possible
o
ca y
ou
a
28
days,
hence
lec u es
o
UPV
a
14
days
will
se e
as
a
simple
checking
o
he
in e nal
e olu ion
o
he
samples.
Table
5
desc ibes
he
lis
o
UPV
a iables
ini ially
conside ed
in
his
esea ch.
The
comp essi e
s eng h
o
A- ype
specimens
was
ob ained
a e
cu ing
o
28
days.
The
comp ession
es s
we e
ca ied
ou
using
a
uni e sal
monoaxial
es ing
machine.
The
loading
his o y
was
es ablished
conside ing
UNE-
EN
14580:2006
S anda d
[36].
The
ampli udes
o
he
loading–unloading
p ocesses
we e
defined
by
load
le els,
bu
hey
we e
displacemen
con olled
a
1
mm/min
a e.
The
UPV
measu emen s
in
he
cemen
and
lime
samples,
and
he
co esponding
50%,
75%
and
100%
subg oups,
we e
used
o
de e mine
he
dynamic
modulus
o
elas ici y
“MOE”
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
7
Fig.
5
–
Dis ibu ion
o
loca ion
o
senso s
o
UPV
and
A- ype
specimens.
Table
5
–
Desc ip ion
o
he
di e en
UPV
eadings
aken
in
acco dance
wi h
loca ion,
age,
and
di ec ion.
UPV
XT14
UPV
YT14
UPV
XM14
UPV
YM14
UPV
XB14
UPV
YB14
UPV
ZM14
UPV
XT28
UPV
YT28
UPV
XM28
UPV
YM28
UPV
XB28
UPV
YB28
UPV
ZM28
Loca ion
Top
•
•
•
•
Middle
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bo om
•
•
•
•
Age
(days)
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
Axis
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
Z
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
Z
E
(MPa)
acco ding
o
Eqs.
(4)
and
(5),
which
depend
on
UPV
(m/s)
and
densi y
(kg/m3).
The
ela ionship
be ween
UPV
and
MOE
in
ammed
ea h
ma e ials
has
been
alida ed
by
p e ious
esea ch
[37]:
E
=p 2
K,
(4)
K
=1
−
(1
+
)
(1
−
2 ),
(5)
whe e
is
Poisson’s
a io,
whose
alue
was
se
a
0.35
as
p o-
posed
by
o he
au ho s
[37,38].
Finally,
a
s a is ical
analysis
o
he
esul s
(independen
samples
T-S uden
es )
is
ca ied
ou
o
es ablish
he
possible
exis ence
o
s a is ically
significan
di e ences
in
he
physical
and
mechanical
alues
be ween
he
g oups
o
e e ence
speci-
mens
and
hose
co esponding
o
he
di e en
deg ees
o
glass
subs i u ion.
I
he
es
is
posi i e,
i
could
be
a fi med
ha
he
subs i u ion
o
sand
by
glass
has
a
s a is ically
decisi e
influence
on
he
analysed
p ope y.
Resul s
and
discussion
Physical
esul s
Table
5
shows
he
desc ip i e
s a is ics
o
he
bulk
densi y
and
open
po osi y
alues
ob ained
o
he
di e en
mixes.
Excep
o
he
case
o
po osi y
o
he
cemen -based
mixes,
he
educed
s anda d
de ia ion
and
coe ficien
o
a ia ion
alues
desc ibe
a
ep esen a i e
and
uni o m
da a
se .
I
can
also
be
s a ed
ha
he
a e age
alues
a e
as
expec ed
o
his
ype
o
ma e ial
[24,39],
he
densi ies
being
simila
o
hose
es ab-
lished
by
he
P oc o
es
(Fig.
2)
o
he
dosages
wi hou
glass
and
100%
eplacemen .
Fig.
6
shows
ha
in
he
case
o
cemen ,
he
median
densi y
inc eases
sligh ly
wi h
inc easing
he
deg ee
o
glass
subs i u ion,
eaching
2.01
g/cm3.
Consequen ly,
he
po osi y
dec eases
o
a
minimum
o
21.18%,
which
defines
a
low
po osi y
wall,
in
line
wi h
he
minimum
ange
es ablished
o
bo h
new
[40]
and
his o ical
[41]
compac ed
soil-based
ma e ials.
In
con as
o
his
end,
he
beha iou
o
he
lime-
8
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
Fig.
6
–
Rep esen a ion
o
d y
densi y
(A)
and
open
po osi y
(B)
acco ding
o
he
ype
o
s abiliza ion
me hod
and
he
pe cen age
o
glass.
Table
6
–
S a is ical
esul s
o
physical
p ope ies
o
samples.
N
Densi y
(g/cm3)
Po osi y
(%)
AV
SD
VC
AV
SD
VC
C-R
5
1.96
0.08
0.04
23.50
2.87
0.12
C-50
5
1.96
0.04
0.02
23.79
2.23
0.09
C-75
5
1.99
0.08
0.04
24.23
2.21
0.09
C-100
5
2.01
0.03
0.02
21.18
2.40
0.11
L-R
6
1.91
0.04
0.02
26.72
0.98
0.04
L-50
5
1.92
0.03
0.02
25.77
0.99
0.04
L-75
4
1.85
0.03
0.01
28.86
1.05
0.04
L-100
6
1.82 0.02
0.01
27.56
0.86
0.03
N:
numbe
o
da a;
AV:
a e age;
SD:
s anda d
de ia ion;
VC:
a ia ion
coe ficien .
based
specimens
shows
a
p og essi e
educ ion
in
densi y
as
a
highe
pe cen age
o
glass
eplacemen
is
used,
down
o
a
minimum
o
1.82
g/cm3.
The
po osi y,
howe e ,
p esen s
he
minimum
a
he
50%
subs i u ion
(L-50:
25.77%),
being
in
any
case
always
highe
han
hose
using
cemen .
F om
his
dosage
o
glass
onwa ds,
he
samples
inc ease
hei
po osi y
un il
hey
each
alues
o
mo e
han
30%
o
L-75.
The e o e,
wi h
ega d
o
he
physical
beha iou ,
he e
seems
o
be
a
di e en ial
esponse
depending
on
he
s abilize
used,
and
he
deg ee
o
glass
subs i u ion
induces,
om
a
desc ip i e
poin
o
iew,
an
influence
on
densi y
and
po osi y
(Table
6).
The
s a is ical
analysis
on
he
physical
p ope ies
shows
ha
when
cemen
is
conside ed,
he e
is
no
significan
a ia-
ion
in
densi y
and
po osi y
o
any
o
he
glass
subs i u ions
(C-50,
C-75
and
C-100)
wi h
espec
o
he
e e ence
(C-R).
How-
e e ,
when
lime
is
used,
he e
a e
significan
a ia ions
in
densi y
o
L-75
[ (8)
=
26.127,
p
=
.000]
and
L-100
[ (10)
=
4.6989,
p
=
.0008]
and
in
po osi y
o
L-75
[ (8)
=
−3.4699,
p
=
.008].
This
means
ha ,
when
cemen
is
used,
i
canno
be
s a is ically
p o en
ha
he
subs i u ion
o
glass
has
a
decisi e
influ-
ence
on
he
physical
p ope ies,
al hough,
as
shown
in
Fig.
5,
he e
is
a
sligh
p og essi e
inc ease
in
he
densi y
a e ages
and
consequen
educ ions
in
po osi y.
When
c ushed
glass
is
used,
pozzolanic
eac ions
can
occu
in
he
p esence
o
he
calcium
hyd oxide
o
he
cemen ,
which
gene a es
new
com-
pounds
(hyd a ed
calcium
silica es)
ha
a e
deposi ed
in
he
po es
o
he
ma e ial
[42].
When
using
lime,
as
he e
a e
mo e
p onounced
a ia ions
a
highe
glass
subs i u ions
(75%
and
100%),
i
is
s a is ically
possible
o
s a e
ha
glass
can
deci-
si ely
al e
he
physical
p ope ies.
Mechanical
esul s
Table
7
shows
he
desc ip i e
s a is ics
o
he
simple
com-
p essi e
s eng h
alues
a
28
days
ob ained
o
he
di e en
pe cen ages
o
glass
subs i u ion,
acco ding
o
each
ype
o
binde .
In
all
cases,
he
mechanical
s eng h
is
highe
o
cemen ,
as
has
been
epo ed
in
o he
s udies
[43],
wi h
he
di e ence
be ween
he
wo
being
o
he
o de
o
100%
and
eaching
mo e
han
200%
when
he
glass
subs i u ion
is
100%.
In
gene al,
he
dispe sion
o
esul s
is
as
expec ed
o
his
ype
o
he e ogeneous
ma e ials,
wi h
CVs
be ween
15
and
25%,
excep
in
he
case
o
C-75
and
C-100,
which
ise
o
30%
[28,44,45],
while
o
lime
(Fig.
7A)
he
dispe sion
is
smalle ,
wi h
he
pe cen iles
being
mo e
clus e ed
a ound
he
mean
o
each
g oup.
Rega ding
he
use
o
lime,
i
is
obse ed
(Fig.
7)
ha
he e
is
a
maximum
UCS
in
he
subs i u ion
L-75,
wi h
an
a e -
age
o
1.83
MPa,
he
s anda d
de ia ion
and
he
coe ficien
o
a ia ion
being
lowe
han
in
he
case
o
cemen .
This
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
9
Table
7
–
S a is ical
esul s
o
unconfined
comp ession
s eng h
o
samples.
N
UCS
(MPa)
AV
SD
VC
%
C-R
6
2.19 0.50
0.23
–
C-50
6
3.00
0.69
0.23
–
C-75
6
3.90
1.20
0.31
–
C-100
6
4.07
1.23
0.30
–
L-R
6
0.78
0.30
0.38
109
L-50
5
1.61
0.39
0.24
86
L-75
6
1.83
0.25
0.14
113
L-100
6
1.31
0.21
0.16
210
N:
numbe
o
da a;
AV:
a e age
m/s;
SD:
s anda d
de ia ion;
VC:
a ia ion
coe ficien ;
%:
pe cen age
di e ence
o
mean
alues
be ween
cemen
and
lime
samples.
Fig.
7
–
Rep esen a ion
o
UCS
acco ding
o
he
ype
o
s abiliza ion
me hod
and
he
pe cen age
o
glass
(A).
Rela ion
be ween
UCS
and
densi y
acco ding
o
he
ype
o
chemical
s abilize
(B).
end
is
no
ollowed
by
cemen ,
which
shows
a
p og essi e
inc ease
in
mechanical
s eng h
un il
comple e
subs i u ion
wi h
glass.
The
be e
mechanical
beha iou
o
he
cemen
specimens
can
be
ela ed
o
he
highe
densi y
and
lowe
po osi y
(Figs.
6
and
7B).
As
o he
s udies
ha e
epo ed,
he
fine
pa icles
o
glass
p o ide
highe
adhesion
due
o
he
poz-
zolanic
e ec
[42,46,47].
The
hypo hesis
o
he
o ma ion
o
hyd a ed
neosilica es
by
alkaline
ac i a ion
can
also
be
con-
side ed.
Acco ding
o
Ha ison
e
al.
[48]
alkaline
ac i a ion
occu s
wi h
glass
when
i s
size
is
less
han
20
m,
which
imp o es
he
mechanical
beha iou
when
he
chemical
eac-
ion
akes
place.
In
addi ion,
he
use
o
c ushed
glass
p o ides
an
agg ega e
wi h
angula
shapes
ha
imp o es
mechanical
pe o mance
o
agg ega e
compac ion
[49]
and,
oge he
wi h
he
o ma ion
o
he
hyd a ed
componen s
o
he
cemen ,
allows
highe
le els
o
mechanical
s eng h
o
be
achie ed.
Acco ding
o
he
UCS
s a is ical
s udy,
when
conside -
ing
he
use
o
cemen ,
he e
is
significan
a ia ion
o
75%
glass
subs i u ion,
C-75
[ (10)
=
−3.2205,
p
=
.0092]
and
C-100
[ (10)
=
−3.4587,
p
=
.0061].
Fo
lime,
he
a ia ion
is
mo e
p onounced
in
all
glass
subs i u ion
g ades,
L-50
[ (9)
=
−3.9959,
p
=
.0031],
L-75
[ (10)
=
−6.6071,
p
=
.00012]
and
L-
100
[ (10)
=
−3.5738,
p
=
.0051].
The e o e,
i
can
be
s a ed
ha
he
pa ial
subs i u ion
o
agg ega es
by
c ushed
glass
has
a
di ec
ela ionship
wi h
he
change
in
mechanical
beha iou
and
ha
i
is
in
lime
whe e
hese
changes,
a
he
s a is ical
le el,
a e
mo e
app eciable.
The mal
p ope ies
Fig.
8
shows
he
a e age
alues
o
he
he mal
conduc i i y
(l)
o
each
dosage
o
c ushed
glass,
showing
a
g adual
educ ion
wi h
inc easing
glass
con en ,
excep
in
he
pa icula
case
o
he
use
o
lime
o
L-100,
which
emains
significan ly
he
same
as
o
L-75.
The mal
conduc i i y
o
d y-s a e,
non-glass
ammed
ea h
wi hou
addi ions
[50,51]
is
in
he
ange
o
ha
epo ed
in
his
esea ch.
On
he
o he
hand,
glass
has
a
epo ed
he mal
conduc i i y
o
0.4–0.9
W/mK
[52],
depending
on
i s
composi ion,
being
significan ly
lowe
han
ha
no mally
epo ed
o
he
ammed
ea h
(0.6–1.6
W/mK,
acco ding
o
Re .
[51]),
i
is
possible
ha
he
use
o
glass
educes
he
alue
o
16
b
o
l
e
í
n
d
e
l
a
s
o
c
i
e
d
a
d
e
s
p
a
ñ
o
l
a
d
e
c
e
á
m
i
c
a
y
i
d
i
o
6
4
(2
0
2
5)
100442
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V.
Flo es-Alés,
J.M.
Alducin-Ochoa,
J.J.
Ma in-del-Rio,
M.
To es-González,
V.
Jiménez-Baya i,
Physical–mechanical
beha iou
and
ans o ma ions
a
high
empe a u e
in
a
cemen
mo a
wi h
was e
glass
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J.
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h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/J.JOBE.2019.101158.
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Rod íguez-Ma iscal,
M.
Zieli´
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M.
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M.
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Aniso opy
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ea h
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I.R.
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Simple
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o
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Young’s
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o
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