Ad ances in His o ical S udies, 2015, 4, 51-64
Published Online Ma ch 2015 in SciRes. h p://www.sci p.o g/jou nal/ahs
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4236/ahs.2015.41006
How o ci e his pape : Ramí ez-Al a ado, M. del M. (2015). Images o he His o y o Communica ion: The Fi s Eng a ings
om he Ame icas. Ad ances in His o ical S udies, 4, 51-64. h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4236/ahs.2015.41006
Images o he His o y o Communica ion:
The Fi s Eng a ings om he Ame icas
Ma ía del Ma Ramí ez-Al a ado
Depa men o Audio isual Communica ion, Ad e ising and Li e a u e, Communica ion Facul y, Uni e si y o
Se ille, Se ille, Spain
Email: delma[email p o ec ed]
Recei ed 4 Decembe 2014; accep ed 16 Janua y 2015; published 30 Ma ch 2015
Copy igh © 2015 by au ho and Scien i ic Resea ch Publishing Inc.
This wo k is licensed unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion In e na ional License (CC BY).
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Abs ac
The pu pose o his wo k is o make an in-dep h s udy o he image as a o m o ep esen a ion o
he eali y which e lec s his o y in a unique way, and o discuss he di e en ac o s ha may
ha e impac on he co ela ion be ween eali y and i s ep esen a ion by an image. Fo ha pu -
pose, he i s eng a ings ci cula ed in Eu ope o Ame ican na i es will be used as an example, o
de e mine hei cha ac e is ics, and hei au ho s. The s udy demons a es how he images a e
de e mined by he in e p e a ions, belie s and p e ious knowledge o he a is s o publishe s o
he 92 s udied images, none o whom had di ec knowledge o he Ame ican eali y.
Keywo ds
Ame ica, Communica ion, Images, Na i e Ame icans, P in ing
1. In oduc ion
The undamen al s udy objec i e o he p esen a icle is o del e in o he way images gi e a singula accoun o
he eal and imagina y en i onmen in which a socie y de elops a a ce ain momen in his o y. In his sense, he
images cons i u e a na a ion ha e lec s no only elemen s o eali y, bu also he common hough s uc u es o
hei c ea o s and hei con empo a ies. The i s images ci cula ed in Eu ope o he Ame ican na i e, om he
end o he i een h cen u y and h oughou he six een h cen u y, will be used as examples o de e mine hei
cha ac e is ics and hei au ho s.
The e a e di e en aspec s which gi e impo ance o his momen in he his o y o communica ion and wha
eme ges in Eu ope in he passage om he i een h o he six een h cen u y. Two o hese aspec s a e closely
ela ed o he image: he in en ion o mo able ype p in ing and he imp o emen o he echniques o applying
eng a ing o he p in ed page, undamen ally xylog aphy o wood eng a ing. The possibili y o mul iple ep o-
M. del M. Ramí ez-Al a ado
52
duc ion o he image p oduced a de ini i e up u e wi h he adi ion o he p e ious cen u ies in ha i allowed
knowledge, copied in w i en o m, o be ans o med in o in o ma ion accessible o he majo i y. In his way he
p ess and he eng a ing acili a ed access o he image and, he eby, ac ed as a hub o an iconog aphic di e si-
ica ion and densi ica ion o g ea impo ance. The inc ease o images was e iginous and he book ma ke ex-
panded impo an ly wi h he educ ion o he sale p ice o he edi ions, which we e achie ing la ge p in - uns.
In his espec , a de e mining ac o was ha e y ew people knew how o ead in Eu ope in he six een h cen-
u y, and he ein lay he impo ance acqui ed by images in popula cul u e and he ise o illus a ion o p in ed
books. E en a he end o he se en een h cen u y, only 29 pe cen o Eu opean adul s knew how o ead (Bu ke,
1991: 123).
The e is ano he aspec which is impo an in his ansi ion om he Middle Ages o he Mode n. The de e-
lopmen o he a i icial pe spec i e, by he a is s o he Renaissance, came o be one o he mos impo an pil-
la s o he social o de o mode ni y. The c ea i e o ex o he Renaissance in Eu ope p oduced an impo an
b eak om he mediae al ep esen a ions o he isible wo ld: he a is had o pu sue he imi a ion o wha was
eal. Fo his, apa om ha ing c ea i e alen , i was necessa y o know he p inciples o a i icial pe spec i e
ed by ideas o igina ing om ma hema ics and geome y. Since hen, hese p inciples ha e se ed as guides o
he econs uc ion, on he objec i ely bi-dimensional pic o ial su ace, o a igu a i e plane in which space was
p esen ed as homogeneous and uni a ily s uc u ed.
As ui o he his o ical and cul u al con en ions om he i een h cen u y, he a i icial pe spec i e became
he e e ence model o he iconic ep esen a ions o mode ni y. The sea ch o ealism in he Renaissance e-
sul ed in a ep esen a ion wi h a high deg ee o iconici y. The imi a ion o eali y had o be ep esen ed in such
as way so ha “ he human eyes a e decei ed” (as indica ed in many ea ies). The mos pe ec pain ing was ha
which managed o decei e he obse e “making ha which is ic ion pass o eali y”.
Agains his backg ound, he las es iges o he mediae al adi ions began o in e lace wi h he di e se
changes p oduced in Eu ope, and wi h he ans o ma ions in he wo ld o de gene a ed as a esul o he g ea
ansa lan ic oyages. And hus he e appea ed he Ame ican con inen which needed o be explained in all i s
dimensions. Th ough he i s con ac s o he a elle s and na iga o s, wi h a eali y ha was unknown o hem,
many ideas a ose ha we e s ongly ela ed o he old and mediae al adi ions. These i s desc ip ions we e in-
cluded in he le e s and i s accoun s o he na iga o s and also exp essed in di e se images o ex ao dina y
in e es which a e deal wi h in his a icle. Wo k was unde aken wi h eng a ings ha we e p oduced by Eu o-
peans om he end o he i een h cen u y and du ing he six een h and which, in many cases, achie ed wide
ci cula ion as illus a ions in ch onicles o he ime o in loose shee s. Such a pe spec i e has been e y use ul, in
ha i allowed an app oach o he p oblem o using images o de ine a eali y, p e iously unknown in Eu ope,
condi ioned by he app ecia ions o hose who desc ibed ha eali y o he i s ime and o hose who we e i s
i s d augh smen.
2. Theo e ical Conside a ions. The Ame ican Con inen as a New Re e ence
The expansion o he wo ld o include a new con inen om he end o he i een h cen u y, wi h all i s epe -
cussions, c ea ed he p oblem o he concep ion and de ini ion, h ough images, o a cul u al eali y ha was
unknown in Eu ope. Almos wi hou excep ion, he i s ch onicle s picked-up he ideas o he mediae al bes i-
a ies and a el books ha we e amilia o hem and which spoke o imagina y beings which popula ed he new
lands.
In his oyage logs Columbus himsel con i ms unde s anding he e e ences made by he na i es, o men wi h
dog’s heads, wa io women and beings wi h one eye who we e dispe sed among he emo e opical islands.
E iden ly, wha he Admi al belie ed he hea d om he lips o he Taino people ag eed wi h he cha ac e iza-
ions o hose mons ous beings amilia in Eu ope since be o e he Middle Ages (Colón, 1989). These beings o
di e se s amp, p o agonis s o he legends sp ead a ha ime, we e now ans e ed o a emo e and unknown
se ing. The a elle s who se oo on he new lands a e he a i al o Columbus, con ibu ed o ci cula ing he
ideas abou hose Indies ad en u ously ound o he Wes and popula ed wi h many-colou ed mons e s. Thus,
hey did no ake long in en isaging Pygmies, Sa y s, Cynocephalos, Cyclopes and Panocios, among o he s,
p o ec ed by he jungle g eene y o ha ex ensi e “New Wo ld”. On occasion, legends we e gi en a new wis
and e u ned s eng hened o Eu ope. One example is he ans o ma ion o he Tehuelche Indians (pe haps he
only inhabi an s o he sou he n pa o he con inen ha could ha e been he o igin o he s o y o he gian s,
M. del M. Ramí ez-Al a ado
53
wi h hei a e age heigh o se en y- wo inches) in o he s unning gian s who swelled he my hical compendium
o he Ame ican lands.
The ep esen a ion o he na i e which ci cula ed wi hin Eu ope h oughou he six een h cen u y s ongly
calls a en ion in his espec . Ini ially, his ep esen a ion adhe ed o a dual iconog aphic o mula: good sa age
o cannibal. A i s , Columbus himsel , and he ch onicle s, con ibu ed o sp eading ha dicho omizing con-
cep ion o he na i e as being an innocen o he Golden Age o , on he con a y, as a beas ly an h opophagous
and concupiscen sodomi e. Among many o he ph ases ha can be men ioned, he goodness o he Taino people
is exp essed by Columbus in he ollowing e ms: “They a e people, no a all bad no wa like, naked all, men
and women, as hei mo he s bo e hem” (Tuesday, 6 No embe 1492). In he same epo s o he i s oyage,
Ch is ophe Columbus ou lines wi h peculia nuance he o he ho i ic ace o hese inhabi an s wi h swee
speech, singula innocence and beau i ul o ms: “ wo men displayed ha hey lacked some pieces o lesh on
hei body and hey ga e o unde s and ha he cannibals p epa e hem as snacks” (Monday, 17 Decembe 1492)
(Colón, 1985: 69).
La e , in a communica ion sen by Columbus o An onio To es om he island o La Isabela on 30 Janua y
1494, he Admi al eques s a licence om he Ca holic Kings so ha a su icien numbe o ca a els lea e o
he new lands loaded wi h li es ock and ools necessa y o wo k he land: “such hings could be paid o in
sla es, cannibals, people so ie ce and handsome [...] ha hey would be be e han any o he sla es” (Colón,
1985: 177). Du ing he ou h oyage, Columbus complemen s ha ision o he Ea hly Pa adise, desc ibed a
ew yea s be o e in his hi d oyage, when a i ing a wha he called “land o g ace” ( he No h coas o Vene-
zuela) popula ed wi h you hs o nice ges u e, beau i ul bodies, good appea ance, as u e and ingenious: “ano he
ailed people, who a e men: he de o mi y o hei g imace says i ” (Colón, 1985: 219).
To his concep ion is added he s o y o one o he mos widely ci cula ed le e s in Eu ope a he beginning o
he six een h cen u y, he ex o which se ed as inspi a ion o a la ge numbe o eng a ings and illus a ions
and which was e en ansla ed in o se e al languages: he well-known missi e Mundus No us sen o he Flo -
en ine, Lo enzo di Pie ancesco de Médici, by Ame igo Vespucci om Lisbon. In his le e , he a elle de-
ailed knowing an Indian who had ea en mo e han h ee hund ed men. In he houses o a illage, he igh ened
Vespucci saw “sal ed human lesh hanging om he beams, as we would s ing up he a and mea o a pig”
(Vespucci, 1986: 62). As will be seen, wi h ime, he deba e was accen ua ed, se ing as an in o ma i e suppo
o he ep esen a ion o he inhabi an o he Indies acco ding o he p esen ed models.
The image o he cannibal o he “New Wo ld” sp ead h ough Eu ope, unde he s ill cu en ace o he
blood hi s y Ta a s and Mongols hi een h cen u y, ba ba ous beings, sine lege and wi hou sec who, wi h ime,
we e seen by Wes e ne s as po en ial allies in he igh agains Islam. Th ee cen u ies la e , al eady in he six-
een h, ha dual concep ion o “ he o he ” as angel o as demon would epea i sel in he app ecia ion o he
Ame ican na i e.
The impo ance o he images o he Ame ican na i e was al eady clea in he Eu ope o he six een h cen u y.
Fo example, Gonzalo Fe nández o O iedo a emp ed o pe sonally make some illus a ions o he Ame ican
eali y, complaining o his own lack o alen and no ha ing a Leona do o a Ma egna close by o ake cha ge o
so necessa y a ask. The same occu ed wi h F ay Diego de Ocaña, who c ossed he Ame ican con inen in
sea ch o alms o his con en o Guadalupe in Ex emadu a. Acco ding o he ske ches which a e conse ed in
he Lib a y o O iedo in Spain, F ay Diego a emp ed o d aw na i es in a ealis ic manne , bu seeking g ea e
a is ic quali y in his d awing, s okes we e supe imposed un il hese Indians became igu es wi h Eu opean ea-
u es, d essed in he Spanish ashion, and co e ed wi h a mou and helme (Ga cía Sáez, 1990: 420-430).
The F ench also el his need and, in 1564, hey named Jacques Le Moyne de Mo gues as o icial pain e o
he expedi ion ha Jean Ribaul and René de Laudonniè e we e o ganizing o he coloniza ion o Flo ida. Also,
an English pain e , John Whi e, was chosen by Wal e Raleigh o pa icipa e in one o he i s English incu -
sions in o No h Ame ica, speci ically in he se lemen o Vi ginia. The d awings o Le Moyne and he wa e -
colou s o John Whi e s ill su i e and a e o g ea impo ance in unde s anding he ision o he i s Eu opean
colonis s in No h Ame ica. In hese images, o unques ionable e hnological alue and wi hou equal in he es
o he con inen , he ep oduc ion o ce ain Eu opean s anda ds o deco um and beau y a e also seen. As J. H.
Ellio indica es, Whi e obse ed hose people “ h ough he eyes o someone who had a di ec in e es in p omo -
ing he p ocess o English coloniza ion, and hus selec ed hose scenes o he li e o he na i es which con ibu ed
o c ea ing he bes possible image o Ame ica in he minds o possible, u u e immig an s” (B y, 1992: 10).
This in en ion o John Whi e was ein o ced by Theodo de B y in his collec ion o a el s o ies, when im-
M. del M. Ramí ez-Al a ado
54
p o ing he de ails o he d awings o he Englishman h ough he use o eng a ing on coppe pla es. The skil ul
handling o his echnique allowed he sha pening o de ails and he “Eu opeaniza ion” o he indigenous cha -
ac e is ics ob ained by Whi e in his d awings, in o de o make hem mo e app op ia e o Eu opean consump-
ion. Many o he eng a ings o Theodo de B y, inspi ed by Whi e and Moyne, po ay he igu es o he na-
i es as G eek and Roman s a ues.
The wo ks o Theodo de B y a e undamen al because, h ough eng a ed images o he highes quali y, hey
managed o consolida e he amous an i-Spanish Black Legend in Eu ope du ing he ansi ion om he six-
een h o he se en een h cen u y. The ci cula ion o he His o ia del Mondo Nuo o by he Milanese, Gi olamo
Benzoni, in olumes ou , i e and six o he G ands Voyages-Ame icae con ibu ed o his heme o a g ea ex-
en . Al hough his wo k was published on a ious occasions h oughou he six een h cen u y and was ansla ed
in o se e al languages, i was ne e ansla ed in o he Spanish, no p in ed in Spain, due o i s con emp uous
e e ences o he Conquis ado s. Howe e , i achie ed a ema kable impac h ough he wo k o he Ge man
publishe . The p esen a ion o he six h olume o he collec ion o ips o Theodo de B y, in which he i s
pa o he wo k o Benzoni is ep oduced, says:
The e ollow au hen ic illus a ions o all he new, s ange and ex ao dina y s o ies and accoun s, which
uly happened in he Kingdom o Pe u [...]. Wi h he au hen ic desc ip ion and explana ion o hese en-
g a ings, pu o de ly a he oo o each igu e. All ca e ully, delica ely and a is ically eng a ed in coppe
and b ough o ligh again by Theodo de B y o Liège (B y, 1992: 216).
Miguel de Mon aigne saw B azilian Indians in he ci y o Rouen bu , as can be ead in his w i ings, he always
con inued belie ing in hose Tupinambá cannibals ha he Eu opeans knew h ough he eng a ings which illus-
a ed he wo ks o he F ench ch onicle s. He would la e w i e an in e es ing essay en i led, De los caníbales,
published in 1580 in he F ench ci y o Bo deaux and o which e e ence will be made la e (Mon aige, 1965).
F om his essay i is deduced ha he w i e had access o di e en ch onicles o he ime. The s ay o he B a-
zilian Indians in he F ench ci y o Rouen has been documen ed by many au ho s. Mon aigne’s con ac wi h
hese na i es is e iewed by Hugh Honou in The Eu opean ision o Ame ica (Honou , 1975: 7).
As an example, And é The e , cosmog aphe o he King o F ance, who was in B azil in he middle o he
six een h cen u y (and au ho o La Cosmog aphie Uni e selle illus a ed wi h a ious eng a ings included in
his s udy) (The e , 1982), was opposed o ha de ini ion o he na i e in luenced by he idea o he ba ba ous,
i a ional, iolen and ea some mediae al sa age, so deeply oo ed in he con empo a y images (al hough, mo e
p ecisely, hese cha ac e is ics a e seen in some o he chalcog aphies which we e included in his wo k):
… he e a e many who main ain he absu d opinion ha hese people who we call sa ages li e in he o es s
and ields in he manne o beas s, as hai y as bea s, dee o lions, e en ep esen ing hem hus in ich
pain ings; in sho , o desc ibe a sa age hey ha e gi en him an abundance o hai om head o oo , as an
insepa able acciden [...]. On he con a y, he sa ages [...] lea e he belly o hei mo he s as beau i ul and
p e y as he child en o ou Eu ope (Kapple , 1986: 186).
Such in o ma ion achie ed a wide ci cula ion. The desc ip ions o he Ame ican na i e made a his ime
widely de e mined he Eu opean iew o la e yea s, as can be obse ed o example in he di e en e e ences
made o he con inen and i s inhabi an s by a ious w i e s (Shakespea e, Hobbes, P é os , Rousseau, Goe he,
Schille ) and by Eu opean a is s o epu e (Goya, Gi ode , Delac oix, Do é) who ne e c ossed he A lan ic.
In addi ion, hese desc ip ions also had a deep in luence on he iden i y o he inhabi an s o he Ame ican
con inen hemsel es. The en y in o Wes e n his o y o he peoples o Ame ica was egula ed by di e se ex s
and w i ings (almos all he in o ma ion on he na i es in he six een h cen u y came om Eu opeans), and by
he ep esen a ions ha we e based on hese accoun s. Fo all ha , i would no be un il 1537, wi h he Bull,
Sublimis Deus, p omulga ed by Pope Paul III, when, a e di icul con o e sies which had he e ible inclina-
ion o an h opophagy as hei excuses, i was inally dec eed ha he na i es we e a ional beings, ue humans
who did no ha e o be educed o sla e y and who we e able o ecei e he ai h (howe e , o a long ime, al-
hough hey could pa icipa e in he sac amen s, nei he he na i es no hei child en we e conside ed sui able o
ollow he p ies hood) (Paul III, 1537). The sla e y o he na i es was allowed by Royal Cha e in 1503. La e ,
i would be somewha egula ed in 1512 wi h he enac men o he Laws o Bu gos (Pe e a, 1993: 25).
This di usion o he igu e o he cannibal had consequences in o he sphe es. F om he i een h cen u y he
e m Ca ibe ( om he Caniba unde s ood by Columbus as he e e ence made by he Taino Indians o he ea ul
M. del M. Ramí ez-Al a ado
55
people o he G ea Khan) was used o designa e he an h opophagous inhabi an s o he An illes and Sou h
Ame ican no h coas . S ill oday, in he Venezuelan Amazon, e ocious pi anhas which li e in he O inoco
Ri e a e me apho ically called “Ca ibe” ish.
As he quan i y o images and disse a ions on he subjec shows, he cannibalism o he na i es caused deep
shock among he Eu opeans o he six een h cen u y. While he exis ence o an as ic beings in he Ame ican
con inen was g adually discoun ed, he image o he an h opophagus o human appea ance, bu wi h mons ous
cus oms, was gaining g ound. I he na i e we e compa able o a mons ous being, hen he had o be exp essed
in images acco ding o he inhe i ed adi ion o he Middle Ages, when i was inconcei able o speak o mon-
s e s wi hou o e ing hei image. Fo ha eason, he mediae al ex s (and la e he incunabula) which spoke o
mons e s, hyb id beas s and magical beings, a e ound o be ull o images. The ac , as un olds h oughou his
esea ch, is ha he imagined o m is he mos signi ican since i de e mines wha is unknown.
Fo he Eu opeans o he six een h cen u y, he na i e, o igina ing om a s ange un amilia wo ld, cons i-
u ed a g ea unknown which was esol ed, li le by li le (and wi h di e se esul s), o he ex en ha he sa age
(angelical o an h opophagous) became a isual objec .
3. Me hodology: The Fi s Xylog aphic Eng a ings Tha Ci cula ed in Eu ope
The co pus o he p esen s udy consis ed o nine y- wo images o he Ame ican na i e wi h he ollowing
cha ac e is ics:
• All he images a e eng a ed (xylog aphs o chalcog aphies).
• All he eng a ings ep esen images o he Cen al and Sou h Ame ican na i e, o his daily li e, cus oms,
i es and celeb a ions.
• The nine y- wo eng a ings we e p in ed om he end o he i een h cen u y o he beginnings o he se -
en een h cen u y ( he i s in 1493 and he las in 1613). The p in ing da es o all o hem a e known exac ly
o app oxima ely: i een h cen u y: ou eng a ings (4.3 pe cen ); six een h cen u y: eigh y- i e eng a ings
(92.47 pe cen ); se en een h cen u y: 3 eng a ings (3.22 pe cen ).
• All hese eng a ings we e published in Eu ope and ci cula ed in loose shee s o as illus a ions o maps, le -
e s, ch onicles, and wo ks o he ime and collec ions o ips which we e w i en and published a he ime.
• Rega ding he o igin o he eng a ings, he ollowing cases a e ound:
○ The au ho o he eng a ing is he p in e o publishe : wen y- h ee eng a ings (24.21 pe cen ).
○ The au ho and he p in e o he eng a ing a e known (bo h a e di e en people): h ee eng a ings (3.22
pe cen ).
○ Only he p in e o he p in -shop is known: o y-eigh eng a ings (51.61 pe cen ).
○ Only he au ho o he eng a ing is known: six eng a ings (6.45 pe cen ).
○ The eng a ings a e anonymous and he p in e is no known: en eng a ings (10.52 pe cen ).
○ No e e ence could be ound, al hough i is p obable ha i exis s: wo eng a ings (2.15 pe cen ).
The nine y- wo ep esen a ions o he Ame ican na i e we e g ouped in i e b oad ecu en subjec s, de ined
a e a s udy o he con en o each indi idual image. This classi ica ion was he mos unc ional, al hough i had
limi a ions due he disp opo ion o images which, o a ce ain ex en , could be app aised among he a ious
hema ic g oups and he di icul y in some case whe e he eng a ings could be included in mo e han one o
hese g oups.
In gene al, he images we e g ouped acco ding o he ollowing hemes:
1) Fi s con ac s wi h he na iga o s, such as Figu e 1 and Figu e 2: included in his g oup a e he eng a ings
ha ci cula ed wi h di e se incunable edi ions o La Ca a o Ch is ophe Columbus sen o Luis San ángel
which had b oad ci cula ion a he end o he i een h cen u y and he s a o he six een h.
To al: ou eng a ings (4.3 pe cen o he o al co pus o images).
2) Clo hing, objec s o ado nmen and cus oms: his g oup includes hose images in which special emphasis is
gi en o he physical appea ance, i es, es i i ies and daily li e o he na i es. The ep esen a ions o cannibal-
ism and idola y we e excluded: al hough hey a e desc ibed in ch onicles as “cus oms” o he na i es, hey ha e
been di e en ia ed as sepa a e g oups in ou s udy due o he quan i y o images on hese hemes.
To al: o y eng a ings (43.01 pe cen o he o al co pus o images).
In o de o acili a e hei analysis, he o y images on his heme a e sub-di ided in o six sub-g oups. These
sub-g oups o each heme we e o med when:

M. del M. Ramí ez-Al a ado
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Figu e 1. “Insula Hyspana”, De insulis in en is epis ola
C is o e i Colom, 1493, Basel.
Figu e 2. The his o y o he disco e y o he New Indian Is-
land o he Cana ies: ex ac o a le e o Ch is ophe Co-
lumbus, 1493, Rome.
• The images had he same ex ual e e ence ( his is he mos equen case).
• The images had common cha ac e is ics ega ding he ep esen a ion o ce ain mo i s.
• The images deal wi h he same hemes o ac s desc ibed in di e en ch onicles.
These sub-g oups a e he ollowing:
a) Eng a ings ha ha e he le e s o Ame igo Vespucci as ex ual e e ences, especially he missi e known
as Mundus No us.
b) Images which ollow he model o “ iumphal ma ch”.
c) Eng a ings which illus a ed he Pa e p ime a de la Ch ónica del Pe ú by Ped o Cieza o León. See Figu e
3. d) Eng a ings which illus a ed he ch onicle o he Ge man a elle Hans S aden, as shown in Figu e 4.
Ve sions o hese eng a ings made by Theodo de B y.
e) Eng a ings which illus a ed La his o ia del Mondo Nuo o by he Milanese Gi olamo Benzoni. Ve sions o
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Figu e 3. Ci y o Cuzco. Pa e p ime a de la Ch ónica del
Pe ú (Fi s pa o he Ch onicle o Pe u) by Ped o Cieza de
León. 1553, Se ille. M. de Mon esdoca, Edi o .
Figu e 4. Hans S aden dancing wi h Tupinambá women.
Ve a His o ia (T ue S o y…) by Hans S aden, 1557, Ma -
bu g, And eas Colben edi o .
hese eng a ings made by Theodo de B y. In addi ion, a xylog aph is included which illus a ed he La His o ia
Gene al de las Indias by Fe nández de O iedo y Valdés (1851) due o i s ela ionship wi h he eng a ings o his
g oup.
) Eng a ings which illus a ed he ex s o he F ench ch onicle s, And é The e and Jean de Lé y. Ve sions
o he eng a ings which illus a ed he wo k o Lé y made by Theodo de B y.
3) Cannibalism: bo h he di ec ep esen a ions o an h opophagy, and he p io and subsequen p epa a ions
o he cannibal i es and ce emonies, ha e been included in his g oup.
To al: hi y-one eng a ings (33.33 pe cen o he o al co pus o images).
The eng a ings o his heme ha e been di ided in o ou sub-g oups:
a) Eng a ings which ha e he missi e Mundus No us o Ame igo Vespucci as a ex ual e e ence, as indi-
ca ed in Figu e 5.
b) Eng a ings which ha e he Ca a de Ame igoVespucci sob e las islas ecién halladas en cua o iajes suyos
as a ex ual e e ence.
c) Eng a ings which illus a ed he cannibalis ic p ac ices o he ibes o he B azilian coas , o example
Figu e 6 and Figu e 7.
d) Eng a ings which illus a ed he La his o ia del Mondo Nuo o by Gi olamoBenzoni. Ve sions o hese xy-
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Figu e 5. Fi s ep esen a ion o cannibalism. 1504, Nu embe g o
Augsbu g. Au ho /edi o : unknown.
Figu e 6. His oi e d’un oyage ai en la e e du B esil by Jean de Lé y,
1578, La Rochelle, An oine Chuppin edi o .
Figu e 7. Ve a His o ia (T ue S o y…) by Hans S aden, 1557, Ma bu g,
And eas Colben edi o .
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log aphs made by Theodo de B y.
4) Idola y: included in his g oup, a e he images on he cul p ac ices and o he eligious belie s o he
Ame ican na i es as in Figu e 8.
To al: nine eng a ings (9.67 pe cen o he o al co pus o images).
5) Allego ies o he Ame ican con inen , such as Figu e 9 and Figu e 10: he allego ical ep esen a ion o he
con inen s, common in he old cosmog aphy, eappea in he six een h cen u y wi h he disco e y o a con inen ,
unknown un il ha momen , which equi ed i o be di e en ia ed om he es and, o his end, ep esen ed wi h
i s own a ibu es. F om he mid-six een h cen u y, di e se allego ical ep esen a ions o he Ame ican con inen
began o ci cula e and i is hese which a e included in his g oup. The allego ies cons i u e he pe soni ica ion
(symbolic ep esen a ion by means o human igu es) o abs ac ideas ( eligious, mo al, philosophical, na u al,
e c.) which a e de ined h ough he p esence o one o mo e a ibu es ha cha ac e ize hem. The a ibu es a e
in u n eal o con en ional objec s which se e o ecognize he pe sonage and which equi e, and a e uni ed o,
he same meaning o he allego y (Es eban Llo en e, 1990). Fo Pano sky (1987), he allego ies can be de ined
Figu e 8. Indians alking wi h he Pa e p ime a de la Ch ónica
del Pe ú (Fi s pa o he Ch onicle o Pe u) by Ped o Cieza de
León. 1553, Se ille. M. de Mon esdoca, Edi o , de il.
Figu e 9. Ame ica by Philipp Galle. An we p, be ween 1590/
1600. Edi o : Lepido F.