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1
A no el Index o Vulne able Homes: indings om applica ion in Spain
Raúl Cas año-Rosa
Depa men o Building Cons uc ion II, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain.
Jaime Solís-Guzmán
Depa men o Building Cons uc ion II, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain.
Madelyn Ma e o
Depa men o Building Cons uc ion II, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain.
Co esponding au ho
Raúl Cas año-Rosa, Depa men o Building Cons uc ion II, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain, A enue Reina Me cedes,
4-a 41012, Se ille. Email: aucasd[email p o ec ed].
Abs ac
This pape de elops a no el Index o Vulne able Homes (IVH) in e ms o uel po e y (FP) ha is based on he
analysis o di e en exis ing FP indica o s and hei ela ionship o he esiden ial sec o . The new IVH uni ies he
many indica o s hi he o employed, and assesses he home ulne abili y si ua ion ega dless o whe he o no
i is in FP by using h ee dimensions: mone a y cos , ene gy and he mal com o . The mone a y dimension
analyses ulne abili y in ela ion o he a ailable ne income o ace e e yday li e. The ene gy a iable assesses
he ulne abili y ela ed o he cons uc i e cha ac e is ics o he dwelling. Finally, he in oduc ion o he
he mal-com o a iable enables he e alua ion o he ulne abili y ela ed o he inne empe a u e o he
dwelling and i s pe cep ion by enan s. The combina ion o he di e en esul ing alues in each dimension and
i s ela ionship o he quali y o li e o enan s es ablishes a hie a chy o ulne able le els. As a esul , a mul i-
dimensional index is de ined which ela es echnical aspec s (cha ac e is ics o he dwelling) and social aspec s
(quali y o li e o households). The IVH p o ides a mo e comple e assessmen o he home si ua ion han he
exis ing FP indica o s by iden i ying which a iables equi e a g ea e assis ance.
Keywo ds
Fuel po e y, Ene gy po e y, Vulne able homes, Vulne abili y Index, Heal h, The mal Com o .
In oduc ion
Fuel po e y (FP) is a global p oblem ha has been accen ua ed in Eu ope due o he economic c isis, has gi en
ise o go e nmen and poli ical pa y in e es , and has achie ed high public impac . Fo he analysis o FP in he
mos ulne able households, he e a e se e al o icial de ini ions and indica o s de eloped by coun ies such as
Uni ed Kingdom, I eland, F ance and Slo akia1. Howe e , no o icial s anda d has been es ablished ac oss he
Eu opean Union ha assesses FP in membe s a es, and he e o e in ce ain coun ies, his ype o po e y s ill
emains o be ecognized as a social p oblem. Al hough i is no he main eason, he lack o a speci ic legisla i e
p og amme o add ess he issue can lead o “FP a es a ying d as ically om coun y o coun y, o e en among
communi ies wi hin a coun y. Fo example, based on Eu os a da a o 2012, 46.5% o Bulga ia´s popula ion a e
unable o keep hei homes adequa ely wa m du ing he win e ime, while in Es onia his igu e is o icially only
4.2%, Denma k 2.6%, and Sweden 1.4%” (see EnAc p ojec 2 o a e iew). Acco ding o some sou ces, 50 million
people in Eu ope li e in FP, bu o he esea ch indica es he amoun o be unde 20% o he o al EU popula ion
(101 million people)2.
2
The FP concep no only indica es he inabili y o keep a home adequa ely wa m du ing di e en pe iods o he
yea , o he exis ence o p oblems paying o he ene gy consumed o he high cos o ene gy p ices, bu i has
also e ol ed in o a mul i-dimensional concep . Fuel po e y is cu en ly de ined as ha si ua ion which may
dep i e households no only o hea ing o cooling, bu also o ho wa e , elec ici y and o he essen ial household
needs3,4.
Fuel po e y was in oduced by Ishe wood and Hancock5 in 1979 a e he ene gy p ice in la ion due o he
pe oleum c isis (1973-1974). Howe e , he concep was de ined o he i s ime in 1991 by D B enda
Boa dman, who s a ed ha FP occu s when households a e unable o “ha e adequa e ene gy se ices o 10 pe
cen o income” (Boa dman).6 The Eu opean Commission (EC), con a y o a gumen s om many o he EU
ins i u ions, “has s a ed ha hey do no suppo a Eu opean de ini ion o FP, and ha a common de ini ion
would be inapp op ia e due o he di e se ene gy con ex s ound ac oss he Union” (Thomson).1 The e is much
discussion on how o de ine and iden i y FP, and se e al esea che s, B aubach and Fe and7, Rosenow e
al.8, and Boa dman9, a e iden i ying ene gy e iciency in households as an e ec i e policy app oach in o de o
educe FP in socie y.
Cu en ly, he e a e nume ous FP de ini ions de eloped in coun ies such as he Uni ed Kingdom, F ance, I eland
and Slo akia1, as well as a di e si y o indica o s o hei analysis. These indica o s can be di ided in o wo
ca ego ies: hose based on a household’s income and expenses (Table 1) and hose based on sel - epo ed
household condi ions (Table 2).
Table 1. Indica o s based on household income and expendi u es.
Indica o
Desc ip ion
10 pe cen measu e4
A household is said o be in FP i i needs o spend mo e han 10% o i s
income on uel o keep he home adequa ely wa m
2M Indica o s10
- Double he median o household expendi u e on ene gy
- Double he mean o household expendi u e on ene gy
- Double he median sha e o household expendi u e on ene gy
- Double he mean sha e o household expendi u e on ene gy
Minimum Income
S anda d (MIS)11,12
The amoun needed o achie e an accep able s anda d o li ing. A household
is said o be in FP due o i s domes ic ene gy expenses
Low Income High Cos
(LIHC)13
A household is in FP i he cos o adequa e ene gy se ices pushes hem
below he h eshold o mone a y po e y, and i he ene gy cos s a e highe
han hose o a median household
A e Fuel Cos Po e y
(AFCP)13–15
A household is said o be in FP i i s ne income (a e sub ac ing ene gy and
housing cos s) alls below he h eshold o po e y
Sou ce: Schuessle 10
Due o he limi a ions o an expendi u e app oach, some au ho s p opose he inclusion o subjec i e and
objec i e da a in o he analysis, such as he p esence o mould, he absence o cen al hea ing, and abili y o
keep dwellings wa m. Fu he mo e, he Eu opean Commission (EC), in a s a wo king pape 16, has sugges ed
h ee c i e ia o e alua e FP: he inabili y o keep homes adequa ely wa m; he delay in he paymen o u ili y
bills; and he occupa ion o de ec i e dwellings (meaning hey ha e leaky oo s, damaged walls o ounda ions,
and condi ions such as mould and o ). A guably, his is he key ad an age o a consensual FP indica o ,
pa icula ly o compa a i e esea ch on a Eu opean scale17, and cau ion is necessa y gi en due o hei subjec i e
and cul u ally dependen na u e18 (Table 2).
3
Table 2. Indica o s based on sel - epo ed household condi ions.
Indica o
Desc ip ion
Eu opean Union Su ey on Income and Li ing Condi ions (EU-SILC)19
Abili y o keep a home adequa ely
wa m
This p o ides an insigh in o he pe cei ed a o dabili y o hea ing
homes ac oss he EU
Household wi h a ea s on u ili y bills
This shows households epo ing di icul ies o pay hei u ili y bills.
I may indica e ha a household is s uggling o a o d adequa e
se ices
De ec i e dwellings (meaning hey
ha e leaky oo s, damaged walls o
ounda ions, and condi ions such as
mould and o )
This shows households epo ing he p esence o a leaking oo ,
damp walls o o en windows. The p esence o damp indica es ha
he dwelling is no ene gy e icien . I may also be an indica ion o a
con inuously unhea ed o ine ec i ely hea ed home
Su ey on pe cep ions and s a emen s om households (SPS)19,20
Abili y o keep a home adequa ely
cool in summe ime
This p o ides an insigh in o he pe cei ed a o dabili y o unning
ai -condi ioning in homes in egions wi h ho summe s
Sou ce: Thomson and Snell21
Rega ding he allegedly di e en meaning o Fuel and Ene gy Po e y e minologies, Ene gy Po e y (EP) “has
been adi ionally used o cap u e p oblems ela ed o he inadequa e access o ene gy supplies in de eloping
coun ies, and in ol es a hos o economic, in as uc u al, social equi y, educa ion and heal h conce ns”
(Bouza o ski e al.).22 Mo eo e , a numbe o au ho s ha e been using EP in e e ence o he lack o access o
mode n ene gy se ices in de eloping coun ies, mainly in Cen al and Sou h Ame ica, sub-Saha an A ica, and
Asia23–26, leading o hose a eas wi h limi ed and ine icien in as uc u es, such as socially excluded subu bs and
u al a eas o be iden i ied. These a eas ace added disad an ages due o hei isola ion and/o geog aphical
sp awl. The esul s ob ained ac oss Eu ope by Bouza o ski and Ti ado He e o27, and by Bake , Whi e and P es on
in 200828, help owa ds he unde s anding o his concep . Howe e , acco ding o a la ge numbe o key EU policy
documen s29, he e ms FP and EP can be conside ed as he same phenomenon, and bo h a e he mani es a ion
o Ene gy Vulne abili y (EV), which is de ined as “ he p opensi y o an indi idual o become incapable o secu ing
a ma e ially and socially needed le el o ene gy se ice in he home” (Bouza o ski e al.).22 Following his
p emise, his pape adop s his la e posi ion o uni y he wo e ms. Hence, he e m FP and EP mean he same
h oughou he pape .
This pape con ibu es owa ds iden i ying hose homes in a ulne able si ua ion by analysing he cha ac e is ics
o he dwelling and he social si ua ion o he enan s.
The analysis o he concep o FP will allow he ela ionship be ween he echnical and social aspec s and an
ene gy-e iciency imp o emen o be es ablished, which will imp o e li ing condi ions and wel a e, mo i a ed
mainly by:
- An inc ease in a ailable income o ace e e yday li e due o a educ ion in ene gy expenses.
- Main enance o he home a heal hy and com o able empe a u es.
Backg ound
FP is a mul i- ace ed issue ha a ies spa ially, empo ally, cul u ally and longi udinally. Ce ain key ac o s
iden i ied in he li e a u e base ha a ec he pe o mance o homes, can be g ouped in o ou main
componen s: Geog aphic loca ion, Ene gy p ices, Income and Quali y o dwelling (Figu e 1).
4
The cha ac e is ics o he a ea whe e he home is loca ed exe di ec o indi ec in luence on he pe o mance
o he dwelling, such as he a ailabili y o in as uc u e and equipmen , and social and clima ology
cha ac e is ics o he a ea (old own, subu bs, social exclusion, e c.). This ac o is ela ed wi h hose a eas wi h
highe le els o po e y, a om he ci y cen e, wi h ine icien in as uc u e and equipmen and a popula ion
wi h high le els o economic dep i a ion. I will he e o e be possible o iden i y hose a eas wi h high numbe s
o households in a ulne able si ua ion. F om his con ex , he econome ic analysis by Legend e and Ricci in
F ance30, and ha by Miniaci, Sca pa and Valbonesi in I aly31, iden i y g oups wi h a high ulne abili y o en e ing
FP, bu ail o iden i y FP i sel . These analyses examine he pa e n wi hin he demog aphic, socio-economic and
physical condi ions, which migh gi e ise o households d opping below he FP h eshold. To his end, he
po en ial a ea-based pla o ms ha e been shown o imp o e he a ge ing o an i- uel-po e y policies by using
a wide ange o demog aphic and socio-economic a iables, such as income, housing enu e, household ype and
age o dwelling.32 A ea-based, Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GIS)-based app oaches, which lead o all
ele an in o ma ion being b ough oge he and analysed, a e eme ging as a ealis ic s a egy o he
iden i ica ion o a eas which a e a high isk o FP33.
Ene gy p ice, which is used in he Low Income High Cos (LIHC) indica o 34,35 and o he FP indica o s (Table 1),
allows he uel p ice used by households o be analysed. This ac o depends mainly on he ype o uel and he
powe company, and also on he a ea whe e he home is loca ed36 (Figu e 1).
Household income is applied o e alua e he mone a y ulne abili y o enan s and has been conside ed by all
FP indica o s since hei concep ion. This depends on ac o s such as: housing expenses, employmen si ua ion
o enan s, ype o amily (p esence o he elde ly, young child en, o eenage s), and size o amily37. Household
income, o economic esou ces o deal wi h he paymen o he minimum ene gy consump ion, is cu en ly
conside ed he mos in luen ial ac o in FP38. The FP si ua ion can he e o e be a consequence o he cu en
economic c isis ac oss he EU. In gene al, households in FP ha e high ene gy consump ion expenses, and hence
hei ne a ailable income o ood dec eases39. This si ua ion can cause malnou ishmen in child en in pa icula
and is gene ally called he ‘‘hea -o -ea ’’ e ec (Liddell).40 In addi ion, hese households ha e shown a highe isk
o su e ing om men al illnesses, such as dep ession, wi h a p obabili y g ea e han 25%, whe eas he e is only
a 5% isk in he es o he popula ion41.
The dwelling quali y is he mos complex ac o in he e alua ion o he home, and is analysed by he ene gy
consump ion o he dwelling. The ene gy e iciency o he dwelling can be conside ed as a s a ing poin in o de
o assess i s quali y acco ding o i s ela ionship wi h FP. Dwelling ene gy e iciency depends on ac o s such as
ene gy a ing, building en elope, sys ems, en ila ion le el, main enance and yea o cons uc ion (Figu e
1). Homes wi h insu icien hea ing mos o he ime can a ec child en’s school p og ess and emo ional well-
being: i is nea ly wice as likely o child en li ing in homes wi h insu icien hea ing o su e om espi a o y
diseases. I has also been no ed ha child en li ing in FP homes un a highe isk o being admi ed o hospi al
o o needing p ima y ca e acili ies, and su e inc eased se e i y and isk om as hma (see Liddell and Mo is42
o he li e a u e), and hence child en and he elde ly can be conside ed as ulne able cus ome s who ha e a
highe possibili y o su e ing illnesses.43
The dwelling quali y can also be e alua ed by means o com o analyses ( he mal, ligh and acous ic), in o de
o conside as many a iables as possible. This pape is ocused on he he mal com o and i s ela ionship wi h
FP, he emaining ac o s will be analysed a a u u e ime. The e a e many s udies on his opic ha show ha
imp o emen s in he mal com o educe he ene gy consump ion o a dwelling44–46, and imp o e he heal h o
he household47,48. I is known ha hose households wi h inadequa e empe a u es du ing he win e su e
om mino heal h p oblems, such as colds and lu, and om wo sening a h i is and heuma ism (see Gilbe son
e al.49 o e idence). The impac o ex eme empe a u es on he elde ly is well known, in ha “i inc eases he
p obabili y o su e ing om ch onic medical condi ions, such as ca dio ascula and ce eb o ascula diseases,

5
diabe es, espi a o y and enal diseases, Pa kinson’s disease, Alzheime ’s disease, and epilepsy” (O mandy and
Ez a y),50 and i can cause a highe mo ali y a e du ing win e ime. This is known as excess win e mo ali y,51
and is es ima ed as he inc eased numbe o dea hs occu ing du ing he win e season (Decembe o Ma ch
inclusi e) as compa ed o he a e age du ing he es o he yea ; he e is an empi ical ela ionship be ween
seasonal mo ali y and housing ene gy e iciency.
Healy52 epo ed ha excess win e mo ali y in Eu ope is 5% o 30%. Howe e , he e emains an open deba e
on why ce ain coun ies expe ience d ama ically highe a es o seasonal mo ali y han o he s, leading a
numbe o au ho s o ad oca e al e na i e measu es o quan i y heal h impac s associa ed wi h cu en and
u u e win e ime wea he 53,54. In his ega d, Po ugal su e s he highes a es (28%) o seasonal mo ali y
ollowed closely by Spain, I eland and G eece (21%, 21%, and 18%, espec i ely) (Healy).52 The Eu owin e G oup
(1997)51 concluded ha mo ali y inc eased o a g ea e ex en in egions wi h wa m win e s and in popula ions
wi h coole homes. Al hough hei s udy has no p o ed causali y, he s ong, posi i e co ela ion be ween
empe a u e and he mal s anda ds in cons uc ion indica es ha imp o ing he he mal e iciency o housing in
sou he n and wes e n Eu ope could play a s ong pa in educing he la ge seasonal a ia ions in mo ali y ound
in hese coun ies55.
The mal com o has been assessed by o he esea che s, in e ms o FP indica o s, by using subjec i e indica o s
based on sel - epo ed household condi ions (Table 2) and i has been ound ha be e he mal com o in he
home is ela ed o be e heal h and well-being56. Fu he mo e, se e al p ojec s also aim o show he ela ionship
be ween quali y housing and FP. Wa m om be e heal h57 (Regional, Economic and Social Cen e, UK) e alua es
he quali y o he dwelling be o e and a e he ins alla ion o imp o emen s in ene gy e iciency, and also
enan s’ opinions o imp o emen s in hei homes; a second p ojec is A o dable Wa m h and Heal h Impac
E alua ion Toolki (Depa men o Ene gy and Clima e Change (DECC) and Cen e o Sus ainable Ene gy
(CSE)58,59, UK), which epo s case s udies whe e he ela ionship be ween heal h and ene gy e iciency o he
dwelling is made clea .
The new index, he Index o Vulne able Homes (IVH), as p oposed in his pape , uni ies a high numbe o
in luen ial ac o s in home pe o mance, leading o he de ini ion o hose ulne able households whose si ua ion
is de e mined by physical, social, economic, en i onmen al and com o ac o s ha inc ease he isk o su e ing
heal h p oblems and social well-being p oblems. In addi ion, his pape conside s i essen ial o addi ionally
inco po a e enan cha ac e is ics, which may be conside ed he mos in luen ial ac o s, in o he assessmen o
he ulne able si ua ion o he home (Figu e 1).
6
Figu e 1. Key ac o s in a si ua ion o uel po e y.
Me hodology
In o de o combine he a o emen ioned FP indica o s oge he wi h he ene gy e iciency o buildings, a new
index o ulne able homes (IVH) has been de ined, which allows a pa icula home o be analysed. This IVH
depends on he p e iously de ined concep o FP, and is ob ained by analysing h ee dimensions (mone a y
po e y, ene gy and he mal com o indica o s) and he heal h- ela ed quali y o li e o he household. The h ee
dimensions o he IVH a e based on FP indica o s cu en ly used (Tables 1 and 2), al hough he IVH uni ies and
s i es o imp o e i s implemen a ion. Finally, o assess how well he IVH has been de eloped, a case s udy in
Se ille, Spain was analysed, and a sensi i i y analysis was pe o med unde a ious household condi ions.
Mone a y Po e y Indica o (MPI)
The p oposed MPI is based on he i s o he h ee componen s o he AROPE (A Risk o Po e y and/o
Exclusion) indica o . The AROPE indica o was se up by he Eu ope 2020 s a egy60, and i iden i ies people a
isk o po e y o social exclusion. Acco ding o he i s componen o he AROPE indica o , 60 which ep esen s
he condi ion o li ing wi h a low income (60% o he median equi alised disposable income a e social
ans e s), he po e y h eshold was se in eu os, and hence a home is conside ed a isk o po e y and social
exclusion i i s annual income di ided by he numbe o household membe s alls below his h eshold. The
po e y h eshold will depend on he household's size and composi ion, and i is calcula ed using equa ion (1):
T = To × Uc (1)
7
whe e T0 is he po e y h eshold o a pe son and Uc is he equi alised household size. I is exp essed by using a
s anda d (equi alence) scale, he modi ied scale p o ided by he O ganisa ion o Economic Co po a ion and
De elopmen (OECD) 61, acco ding o equa ion (2):
Uc = 1 + (a-1) x 0.5 + b x 0.3 (2)
whe e a is he numbe o adul s, and b is he numbe o child en.
In o de o imp o e he indica o , his pape conside s wo po e y h esholds: i s , a mone a y po e y
h eshold (MPT) which is se a 60% o he median equi alised disposable income in each egion acco ding o
Eu os a s a is ics; and second, a se e e mone a y po e y h eshold (SMPT), which de ines a mo e p eca ious
le el o po e y, ep esen ing he lowes disposable income o a household. This h eshold is se in acco dance
wi h he social bene i g an ed by he go e nmen o amilies in social exclusion.
Rega ding equa ion (1), T0 is 60% o he median equi alised disposable income o a pe son and he social bene i
g an ed o a pe son in social exclusion in he s udied a ea o he calcula ion o he MPT and SMPT, espec i ely.
The mone a y po e y indica o (MPI) is calcula ed using equa ion (3):
MPI = (I + B) - (HE + OE + WMSW)
T (3)
whe e:
I: household income. Annual household incomes a e gi en a e sub ac ing housing expendi u es. Unlike he
MIS, LIHC and AFC indica o s analysed (Table 1), MPI excludes ene gy expenses in o de o a oid “ alse nega i es”
ha may a ise due o an inadequa e home pe o mance o a poo mone a y si ua ion ha esul s in a household
no being able o a o d he minimum ene gy consump ion.
B: addi ional mone a y bene i s (social bene i s, en al incomes, e c.).
HE: housing expendi u e ( en o mo gage). Housing expendi u e depends on he ype o amily and i s social
si ua ion. Annual household incomes a e he e o e di e en in each home (i is calcula ed by he nume a o in
equa ion (3)).
OE: o he addi ional housing expendi u es. I shows he ela ionship be ween a home and addi ional expenses
om degene a i e diseases, mobili y, disabled ela i es, e c. These ypes o expenses exe a majo impac on
he mone a y si ua ion o a home, and in mos imes, i can cause a se e e ulne able si ua ion. Fo his eason,
he inclusion o his “special expenses” in he MPI is jus i ied.
WMSW: expendi u e o wa e and municipal solid was e managemen . These expenses ha e ye o be aken in o
accoun by he di e en FP indica o s. They a e ca alogued as an essen ial need by he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
(WHO) and mo i a e i s inclusion.
T: po e y h eshold, is calcula ed by equa ion (1).
The e o e, he MPI is de ined by a de i ed equa ion (4) aking in o accoun o T and ne income.
MPI = NI
T (4)
whe e:
NI: ne Income (nume a o in equa ion (3)).
8
T: po e y h eshold, which will depend on he coun y o egion. A household is said o be in a mone a y po e y
o se e e mone a y po e y si ua ion i i s ne incomes all below he se h eshold (MPI <1.00).
Ene gy Indica o (EnI)
The majo i y o FP indica o s analyse he ene gy consump ion o dwellings by using he ene gy expenses in hei
domes ic ene gy se ices, and da a is collec ed h ough u ili y bills o sel - epo ed ene gy expendi u es. Fuel
Po e y can also be caused by li ing in ene gy-ine icien homes17, and he e o e he p oposed EnI aims o
e alua e he ene gy e iciency o dwellings and bene i s a e an ene gy-e iciency imp o emen . The household-
le el uel po e y indica o de eloped by Ryan Walke e al62, which is based on he UK’s S anda d Assessmen
P ocedu e (SAP), leads o ene gy simula ion so wa e being conside ed as an op ion o he e alua ion o he
expec ed ene gy consump ion o he dwelling i sys ems a e co ec ly and ully used. Fu he mo e, he
cha ac e is ics, p io i ies and cus oms o hese households ha e no e ec on he equi ed ene gy consump ion
alue, and consequen ly i can be conside ed mo e signi ican han he ac ual ene gy consump ion (see Thomson
e al.,63 o a e iew). Wi h his p emise, he EnI e alua es whe he equi ed ene gy consump ion o he dwelling
is s anda d o he median ene gy consump ion equi ed o he ype o building in he loca ed a ea (using he
median alue would allow hose unusually high alues o ene gy consump ion o be conside ed). Hence, he
ene gy h eshold comes om he idea used in o he FP indica o s (Tables 1 and 2), and his is se as he median
ene gy consump ion equi ed o he ype o building in he a ea o s udy.
The e o e, he ene gy indica o (EnI) is calcula ed using equa ion (5):
EnI = EC
MEC (5)
whe e:
EC: ene gy consump ion equi ed (ob ained om he so wa e simula ion).
MEC: median ene gy consump ion equi ed o he ype o building in he a ea o s udy.
The e o e, he housing ene gy consump ion is adequa e i i is below he ene gy h eshold o “admissible” (EnI
<1.00), o he wise i is conside ed “inadmissible” (EnI >1.00).
Ene gy consump ion based on he cha ac e is ics o he dwelling ( om he ene gy simula ion) p e en s he
inclusion o bias owa ds hose homes wi h an inadequa e sys ems usage o hose in a poo mone a y si ua ion,
who canno a o d minimum ene gy consump ion. Hence, hidden ene gy po e y (HEP)64, which iden i ies hose
households whose ene gy expendi u es a e abno mally low, can be analysed.
Com o Indica o (CI)
The mal com o is included in he p oposed indica o in acco dance wi h i s ela ionship wi h FP indica o s and
i s in luence in he ulne able si ua ion o a home. The emaining ac o s (ligh and acous ics) a e o be
conside ed in u u e s udies. The e alua ion o he mal com o in a home is complex mainly due o he in luence
o he ollowing ac o s:
1. Indoo a ea65,66: posi ion o ooms, en ila ion con ol and na u al ligh , con ol o physical condi ions.
2. En i onmen al67,68: ai empe a u e, adian empe a u e, ela i e humidi y and ai eloci y.
3. Pe sonal69–71: heal h, age, gende , me abolism, ac i i y le el, clo hing, he mal sensa ion.
Mos FP indica o s e alua e he he mal com o based on subjec i e da a om Su ey on Li ing Condi ions (SLC)
and EU-SILC (Table 2). Howe e , his esea ch aims o e alua e he mal com o by using he adap i e model
ASHRAE 55-201072 and by supplemen ing i wi h he no ma i e UNE EN 15251:200773. Bo h models e alua e he
15
- EnI: his will equi e he adap a ion o he MEC, which is he median ene gy consump ion equi ed o
he ype o building in he a ea o s udy.
- CI: his will equi e he adap a ion o he he mal com o ange, which can be calcula ed by using he
co esponden equa ion in he UNE EN 15251:200773.
- The cos -e ec i eness alue o a human li e, which is se by he Na ional Heal h Se ice wi hin he
s udied coun y, will be equi ed o he calcula ion o he HRQLC.
In o de o assess how well he IVH has been de eloped, his sec ion p esen s he esul s o he case s udy in
which he IVH has been applied o he Spanish con ex . This con ex is chosen mainly due o he a ailabili y o
he da a sou ces equi ed.
Case s udy
The IVH was applied o a dwelling in a esiden ial block in Se ille (Spain), speci ically in he wo king-class dis ic
o El Ta dón, loca ed on he ou ski s o he ci y. This choice ep esen s he ypical ype o building in he di e en
dis ic s o he ci y, and all necessa y da a o he applica ion o he indica o is a ailable93. The analysed la was
buil in 1978 be o e he in oduc ion o i s ene gy-e iciency egula ions (CT-79)94 and he e o e i has poo
ene gy condi ions. The dwelling comp ises a li ing-dining oom, a ki chen, a ba h oom and h ee bed ooms. The
li ing oom and one o he bed ooms a e o ien ed owa ds he sou heas (di e ed 4° owa ds he eas ), and he
o he wo bed ooms and ki chen owa ds he no hwes (di e ed 4° owa ds he wes ) (Figu e 2). The s uc u al
cha ac e is ics, ene gy and economic da a o he home a e de ined in Tables 6-8. The basic da a o he
calcula ion o he IVH is summa ized in Table 9.
Figu e 2. Geog aphic localiza ion and plan o he analysed dwelling93.
Table 6. S uc u al cha ac e is ics o he dwelling.
Dimension da a
Sys em da a
S uc u al da a

16
Rooms
Floo A ea
(m2)
Type
Desc ip ion
Componen
T ansmi ance
(W/m2K)
Bed oom 1
8.17
Hea ing
P opane gas boile ,
100% clima ised a ea
Façade
1.35
Bed oom 2
9.06
Floo
1.78
Bed oom 3
7.10
Ai -condi ioning
Elec ic mul i-spli
de ice, 100% clima ised
a ea
Indoo wall
2.35
Li ing-dining oom
21.74
Common wall
1.94
Ki chen
6.56
Ho wa e
P opane gas boile ,
nominal powe o 9.40
kW, e iciency o 85%
and 52.56 m3/day
Windows
2.69
Ba h oom
3.84
Hallway
6.86
Ene gy da a (Table 7) was ob ained om he o icial Spanish so wa e, CE3_Vi iendas95, o he ene gy simula ion
o buildings. The so wa e also de e mines he ene gy e iciency o exis ing buildings in Spain96.
This simula ed da a was used due o he lack o ac ual u ili y bills, and also in o de o p e en an o e - o unde -
consump ion igu e om being applied due o an inadequa e usage o sys ems o a poo economic si ua ion,
which would esul in less han he minimum ene gy consump ion.
Table 7. Ene gy da a o he dwelling95.
Hea ing
Ai -condi ioning
Ho
wa e
Ligh
Elec ical
appliances
Cooking
appliance
To al
Ene gy
consump ion
(kWh/m2·yea )
51.67
15.29
19.73
3.55
8.37
2.34
100.96
Ene gy a ing
E
Economic da a (Table 8) shows he ypical economic si ua ion o a household in Spain97, which consis s o wo
adul s and one child. Income and mone a y bene i s we e calcula ed om mic oda a o he Spanish Household
Budge Su ey (HBS) om he Spanish Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e (SNSI)98. The en expense was ob ained om
he a e age en expense wi hin he s udied a ea99. The wa e and municipal solid was e cos was he minimum
cos acco ding o he o icial supplie 100.
Table 8. Economic da a o he household.
Income
(€/mon h)
Bene i s
(€/mon h)
Housing expendi u es
(€/mon h)
O he expendi u es
(€/mon h)
Wa e and solid u ban was e
expendi u es (€/mon h)
1200
0
200
0
50
Table 9 sums up all he da a necessa y o calcula e he IVH om he p e ious ables. The loo a ea was calcula ed
by adding he a eas o he ooms o he dwelling (Table 6). The ne income (nume a o in equa ion (3)) was
ob ained a e he sub ac ion o housing and wa e and municipal solid was e expenses (Table 8). Ene gy
consump ion was aken om he ene gy simula ion (Table 7).
17
Table 9. Da a o he IVH calcula ion.
Household da a
Dwelling da a
U. a ea
(m2)
Ne income
(€/yea )
Nº people
Ene gy consump ion
(kWh/yea )
Adul s
Child en
63.59
11,400
2
1
6420
Rega ding he he mal com o ac o , his was e alua ed using he numbe o hou s (%) he dwelling was inside
o ou side he com o ange du ing he analysed pe iod, o which he com o da a ob ained by Sanchez-
Gue a a e al.101 was used. This da a was ob ained om he dynamic he mal e alua ion o he dwelling in he
Ene gy Plus 7.0 modelling so wa e. The clima ological da a o Se ille used in he so wa e was ob ained om
he IWEC da a o Ene gyPlus. The daily com o anges we e calcula ed by using he co esponding equa ion73
depending on he assessed pe iod: sp ing, summe and win e . The au umn was excluded om he analysis since
i s he mal alues a e simila o hose in sp ing ime. Figu e 3 shows a g aphic example o how he numbe o
hou s o com o was calcula ed acco ding o he he mal com o anges and he indoo empe a u e o he
dwelling. The ed and blue lines ep esen uppe and lowe limi s o com o o he in e io o he dwelling,
espec i ely, which we e calcula ed by using he co esponding equa ion73, and he g een line shows he indoo
empe a u e o he dwelling du ing he analysed pe iod in he s udied a ea ( om he dynamic he mal e alua ion
in he Ene gy Plus 7.0 modelling so wa e). No e ha hese alues we e calcula ed in 2015 acco ding o he
cha ac e is ics o he speci ic dwelling. The e o e, depending on whe he he cha ac e is ics o he dwelling we e
modi ied (a e he imp o emen s had aken place), hese alues migh be di e en . The analysis o Figu e 3 ( he
sou heas o ien a ion in sp ing ime) shows ha on only wo days o he analysed pe iod, 19 and 21 May o 2015,
he indoo empe a u e o he dwelling was ou side he limi o com o , leading o 3.57 hou s (0.51% o hou s)
ou side he com o ange in he dwelling du ing ha pe iod.
Figu e 3. Uppe and lowe limi o he mal com o anges o he dwelling in he sou heas o ien a ion.
Sp ing ime93.
Table 10 summa izes esul s ob ained om he applica ion o calcula ion o pe cen age o he mal com o hou s
o each analysed pe iod: sp ing ime, summe ime, and win e ime (au umn was conside ed o ha e simila
he mal com o hou s (%) as compa ed o sp ing ime in Se ille).
18
Table 10. Pe cen age o The mal com o hou s101.
Sp ing ime
Summe ime
Win e ime
No hwes
açade
Sou heas
açade
No hwes
açade
Sou heas
açade
No hwes
açade
Sou heas
açade
Ou side com o ange
Hou s
0
3.57
6.71
104.9
464.86
464.73
Pe cen age
0.00%
0.51%
0.93%
14.49%
96.85%
96.82%
Wi hin com o ange
Hou s
696
692.43
713.29
615.71
15.14
15.29
Pe cen age
100.00%
99.49%
99.07%
85.51%
3.15%
3.18%
Mone a y Po e y Indica o (MPI). In o de o analyse he mone a y ac o , mone a y po e y and se e e
mone a y po e y h esholds we e se acco ding o he s udied a ea (Se ille) and he household size (Uc) (Table
11). The in e -p o essional minimum income102 ( e y simila o 60% o he median equi alised disposable income
in Se ille103 in 2015) was used as he mone a y po e y h eshold, and he g an ed social bene i s by he Spanish
go e nmen , named Plan PREPARA104 (€400 pe mon h), was used as he se e e mone a y po e y h eshold.
The equi alisa ion ac o de ined in equa ion (2) was used o apply he household size (Uc) in Table 11, and he
a ious h esholds we e hen calcula ed.
Table 11. Po e y h esholds in Se ille (Spain).
Nº people
Mone a y po e y (€)
Se e e mone a y po e y (€)
1 pe son
8114
4800
2 people
12,171
7200
2 adul s and 1 child
14,605
8640
2 adul s and 2 child en
17,040
10,080
2 adul s and 3 child en
19,474
11,520
Acco ding o da a in Table 11, he MPT was se a €14,605 and he SMPT co esponds o €8640. The home
analysed has a ne income o €11,400 pe yea (ob ained om Table 9), and om he applica ion o equa ion (4),
he MPI was se a "mone a y po e y" (MPI <1.00).
Ene gy Indica o (EnI). The ene gy consump ion h eshold (as explained in he Ene gy Indica o sec ion, as pa
o he me hodology) was se acco ding o he da a on he median ene gy consump ion equi ed on he
clima ology o he s udied zone (Se ille, sou h o Spain, Medi e anean clima ology) and he dwelling ypology
( he case s udy was a dwelling in a mul i amily esiden ial block).
Acco ding o he la es da a published by he IDAE105, he median ene gy consump ion equi ed o he ype o
building o he case s udy (ene gy consump ion h eshold) is 8360.46 kWh/yea . The ene gy consump ion
equi ed o he analysed dwelling is 6420 kWh/yea (Table 9), om so wa e CE3_Vi iendas95, and hence, by
applying equa ion (5), he EnI is "admissible" (EnI <1.00).
Com o Indica o (CI). The com o h eshold, acco ding o he explana ion o he com o indica o ou lined
abo e, was aken as 80% o hou s in which he e alua ed oom spaces mus be wi hin he he mal com o
anges. An example o he he mal com o ange is as shown in Figu e 3 o he mal com o anges in a dwelling
19
wi h a sou heas açade du ing he sp ing ime. As a esul , he CI is "admissible" (CI >80%) du ing sp ing and
summe ime. On he o he hand, he CI esul is “inadmissible" (CI <80%) du ing win e ime since he pe cen age
o hou s ha he indoo empe a u e s ays wi hin he he mal com o ange is lowe han 80% ( he mal com o
h eshold) (Table 10).
Table 12 summa izes esul s om each indica o (MPI: mone a y po e y, EnI: admissible, CI: admissible o
sp ing-summe and inadmissible o win e ), and hence he le el o ulne abili y o he home can be ob ained
om Table 5. The inal alue o he IVH was hen deduced by using equa ion (6).
Table 12. Resul s a e he IVH applica ion.
Season
Mone a y po e y
indica o (MPI)
Ene gy indica o (EnI)
Com o indica o (CI)
IVH
Sp ing-Summe
Mone a y po e y
Admissible
Admissible
4
Win e
Mone a y po e y
Admissible
Inadmissible
5
Sensi i i y analysis
To show he po en ial o he IVH, his was e alua ed in se e al scena ios based on he case s udy. The ollowing
aspec s we e analysed: ype o household, household income, ene gy-e iciency in e en ion, and inc ease in
ene gy consump ion.
Scena io 1. Type o household. The i s analysis conside ed a change in he numbe o occupan s. As a esul , he
new household was composed o wo adul s and h ee child en. The cha ac e is ics o he dwelling emained
unchanged, and he e o e he ene gy consump ion and he mal com o ac o s emained he same. Howe e ,
he mone a y ac o was shown o ha e unde gone majo changes. The IVH esul s show an inc ease in i s
ulne able si ua ion (6 in he summe ime, and 9 in he win e ime) ega ding he case s udy (Table 13). The
esul s show how ulne abili y could be inc eased in la ge households.
Scena io 2. Household income. The second analysis conside ed a educ ion in he ne income due o medica ion
expenses o €100 pe mon h o a amily membe (OE), and an inc ease o €135 pe mon h in he wa e p ice
leading o a highe wa e and solid u ban was e expendi u e (WMSW) gi en in equa ion (3). The new si ua ion
caused a educ ion o household ne income o a leas one yea (€11,400 was he ne income in he ini ial
scena io and his was educed o €8580). All o he a iables emained cons an . The IVH shows an inc ease in
he ulne able si ua ion (6 in he summe ime, and 9 in win e ime) in ela ion o he case s udy (Table 13).
Scena io 3. Ene gy-e iciency in e en ion. The hi d analysis e alua ed he ene gy-e iciency imp o emen s by
changing he en i onmen al hea ing and wa e -hea ing ins alla ions: changing he exis ing hea ing sys em o a
na u al gas boile and he ho wa e o a sola he mal sys em, in addi ion o ins alling new windows.
This equipmen eno a ion cos s €7850106, and he new windows €3500106, leading o a educ ion in he ene gy
consump ion ( om 6420 kWh/yea o iginally o 5169 kWh/yea pos -imp o emen ), and consequen ly a
educ ion in he ene gy consump ion expendi u e, and an imp o emen o he he mal com o (adequa e all
yea ound) which was due o he g ea e e iciency o he windows (wi h a low ansmi ance and mino ai leaks
in he dwelling) and he ho -wa e sys em (100% enewable). This scena io enabled he social bene i o be
e alua ed o go e nmen in es men in new sys ems o hese ulne able homes in o de o make hese
dwellings ene gy e icien .
20
The IVH shows a educ ion in he ulne able si ua ion du ing win e ime ( om 5 ini ial case o 4 new scena io)
in ela ion o he case s udy (Table 13).
Scena io 4. Inc ease in ene gy consump ion. This las analysis e alua ed a signi ican change in he ene gy
consump ion due o a ce ain damage in he insula ion o he dwelling, leading o a highe ene gy consump ion
(6420 kWh/yea ini ial case o 8546 kWh/yea new scena io). Since adequa e he mal com o was main ained
in he home, and, in u n, he ene gy consump ion expenses ose co espondingly.
The inc eased ene gy consump ion gene a ed an “inadmissible” Enl ( he h eshold was es ablished a 8360.46
kWh/yea acco ding o IDAE105). Fo his eason, he IVH shows a wo sening in i s ulne able si ua ion (7 in he
summe ime, and 8 win e ime) in ela ion o he case s udy (Table 13).
Table 13. Scena ios o he sensi i i y analysis o he IVH.
Season
Mone a y po e y
indica o (MPI)
Ene gy indica o
(EnI)
Com o
indica o (CI)
IVH
Case
s udy
Sp ing-Summe
Mone a y po e y
Admissible
Admissible
4
Win e
Mone a y po e y
Admissible
Inadmissible
5
1
Sp ing-Summe
Se e e mone a y po e y
Admissible
Admissible
6
Win e
Se e e mone a y po e y
Admissible
Inadmissible
9
2
Sp ing-Summe
Se e e mone a y po e y
Admissible
Admissible
6
Win e
Se e e mone a y po e y
Admissible
Inadmissible
9
3
Sp ing-Summe
Mone a y po e y
Admissible
Admissible
4
Win e
Mone a y po e y
Admissible
Admissible
4
4
Sp ing-Summe
Mone a y po e y
Inadmissible
Admissible
7
Win e
Mone a y po e y
Inadmissible
Inadmissible
8
Discussion
Based on he esul s o he index, he new IVH can be a i med o be able o iden i y he si ua ion o a dwelling
and clea ly shows he na u e o he p oblem. Consequen ly, IVH can con ibu e owa ds he analysis o he bes
solu ion o he imp o emen o he household si ua ion o he case s udy:
- Despi e he adequa e quali y o he dwelling, he IVH shows a highe ulne abili y du ing win e ime
due o he nega i e esul s in he CI, mainly due o he poo quali y o he exis ing windows.
- The po e y si ua ion in he household is he main cause o he si ua ion o ulne abili y.
- The ene gy-e iciency in e en ion in scena io 3 could con ibu e owa ds a be e quali y o li e due o
a educ ion o le el 4 o ulne abili y (IVH = 4) all yea ound. Howe e , he household would need
addi ional imp o emen s in o de o lea e he ulne able si ua ion, ei he by means o an income
inc ease o a educ ion in housing expenses.
- Inclusion o he mal com o in he IVH enables he ulne abili y o a home o be analysed in di e en
seasons, in addi ion o allowing an analysis o he ene gy consump ion o he dwelling, in con as wi h
he exis ing FP indica o s.
- The social bene i o an ene gy-e iciency in e en ion o ulne able homes can be e alua ed in o de
o make hei dwellings ene gy e icien , esul ing in a ool ha would enable go e nmen s o imp o e
he quali y o li e o he household i applied oge he wi h good ene gy policies.

21
Conclusions
This pape o e s a no el Index o Vulne able Homes (IVH), which leads o he de elopmen o he i s
mul i-dimensional index ha assesses he home ulne abili y si ua ion, ega dless o whe he o no i is in Fuel
Po e y (FP). The in luence ac o s include: household mone a y si ua ion, quali y o he dwelling, ine iciency in
he mal com o , inadequa e usage o sys ems, poo choice o sys em equipmen , uel ype, and uel p ice used
in ene gy consump ion. The assessmen o he mal com o in he housing allows objec i e da a o be ob ained,
and p o ides an analysis a e an ene gy-e iciency imp o emen , and aids in choosing he op imal e o i
measu e. Fu he mo e, he IVH would allow iden i ica ion o a si ua ion o ulne abili y and o FP in seasons,
which ha e ne e been aken in o accoun be o e. FP has been adi ionally ela ed wi h coun ies whe e win e s
a e e y cold and long, bu i is known ha coun ies whe e summe s a e e y ho ha e high ene gy consump ion
du ing he summe , which may esul in an FP si ua ion. Fu he mo e, h ough he applica ion o he Heal h-
Rela ed Quali y-o -Li e measu emen , all ac o s conside ed in he IVH can be ela ed: mone a y cos , ene gy,
he mal com o , heal h o he household, ype and size o he household, and geog aphical loca ion.
Re u ning o he aim o he pape , he new IVH p o ides a mo e comple e assessmen o he si ua ion
o a home han he exis ing FP indica o s, by iden i ying which ac o s ha e he g ea es impac on he si ua ion
o ulne abili y. In addi ion, he IVH ela es he echnical aspec s ( he cha ac e is ics o he dwelling) and social
aspec s ( he quali y o li e o he enan s). I also uni ies e idence, de eloped in he FP concep , om mixed
me hods and in e disciplina y s udies: medicine, psychology, en i onmen al sciences, ene gy, cons uc ion, and
social s udies. Mo e impo an ly, he IVH may be used in di e en disciplines and in o he coun ies due o he
app oaches aken in o accoun in he de ini ion o he h ee ac o s: mone a y cos , ene gy and he mal com o .
To his end, new lines o esea ch will be accomplished in o de o be able o use he IVH o he analysis o
di e en ene gy and Heal h-Rela ed Quali y-o -Li e cos s, income o cul u e.
In con as o he FP indica o s, he new IVH con ibu es owa ds he assessmen o ulne abili y in
e ms o i s consequence o in ensi y, and leads o he possibili y o e alua ing he op imal e o i measu emen
in o de o imp o e he quali y o li e o households, by p omo ing ene gy e iciency. The sensi i i y analysis
demons a es how he IVH assesses eal-li e changes ha could occu in a home, whe he hey a e mino , as in
Scena io 3 (modi ica ion in he ype o housing sys ems and windows), o whe he hey a e o g ea e impac ,
such as in Scena io 1 (wi h an inc ease in he household size), Scena io 2 (whe eby he household su e s a
educ ion in i s ne income by €235 pe mon h) and Scena io 4 (signi ican inc ease in he ene gy consump ion
o he dwelling).
While he e a e nume ous FP and ulne able consume s udies ha s i e o yield a solu ion o he
add essed p oblem, his pape b ings a new pe spec i e in he assessmen and iden i ica ion o ulne able
homes, and p o ides a s a ing poin o new lines o esea ch aimed a achie ing op imal and e icien
pe o mances o households in g ea need.
Au ho s’ con ibu ion
All au ho s con ibu ed equally in he p epa a ion o his manusc ip .
Acknowledgemen s
We hank he e iewe s o hei aluable commen s, which signi ican ly imp o ed he po en ial o his pape .
Funding
This esea ch ecei ed no speci ic g an om any unding agency in he public, comme cial, o non-p o i sec o s.
Decla a ion o con lic o in e es
22
The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o
publica ion o his a icle.
Re e ences
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