RESEARCH ARTICLE
The excep ional inding o Locus 2 a Dehesilla
Ca e and he Middle Neoli hic i ual une a y
p ac ices o he Ibe ian Peninsula
Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e oID
1
*, Ru h Taylo
1
, Cla
´udia Umbelino
2
, T. Douglas P ice
3
,
Es eban Ga cı
´a- ViñasID
4
, Eloı
´sa Be na
´ldez-Sa
´nchez
4
, Guillem Pe
´ ez-Jo dà
5
,
Leono Peña-Choca o
5
, Ma ı
´a Ba e a-C uz
1
, Juan F. Gibaja-Bao
6
, Manuel J. Dı
´az-
Rod ı
´guez
1
, Pa icia Mon ei oID
7
, Juan C. Ve a-Rod ı
´guez
8
, Ja ie Pe
´ ez-Gonza
´lez
9
1Depa amen o de P ehis o ia y A queologı
´a, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se ille, Spain, 2Resea ch Cen e o
An h opology and Heal h, Depa men o Li e Sciences, Uni e sidade de Coimb a, Coimb a, Po ugal,
3Depa men o An h opology, Uni e si y o Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, Uni ed S a es o Ame ica,
4Ins i u o Andaluz de Pa imonio His o
´ ico, Jun a de Andalucı
´a, Se ille, Spain, 5Cen o de Ciencias
Humanas y Sociales, CSIC, Mad id, Spain, 6Ins i ucio
´n Milày Fon anals, CSIC, Ba celona, Spain,
7In e disciplina y Cen e o A chaeology and E olu ion o Human Beha io , Uni e sidade do Alga e, Fa o,
Po ugal, 8Depa amen o de His o ia I, Uni e sidad de Huel a, Huel a, Spain, 9Well ounded 360º, Ne ja,
Spain
*[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
The e is a signi ican numbe o une a y con ex s o he Ea ly Neoli hic in he Ibe ian Penin-
sula, and he body o in o ma ion is much la ge o he La e Neoli hic. In con as , he
a chaeological in o ma ion a ailable o he pe iod in be ween (ca. 4800-4400/4200 cal BC)
is sca ce. This pe iod, gene ally called Middle Neoli hic, is he leas well-known o he penin-
sula Neoli hic sequence, and a p esen he e is no speci ic syn hesis on his opic a he
peninsula scale. In 2017, an excep ional une a y con ex was disco e ed a Dehesilla
Ca e (Sie a de Ca
´diz, Sou he n Ibe ian Peninsula), p o iding adioca bon da es which
place i a he beginning o his li le-known Middle Neoli hic pe iod, speci ically be ween ca.
4800–4550 cal BC. Locus 2 is a deposi ion cons i u ed by wo adul human skulls and he
skele on o a e y young sheep/goa , associa ed wi h s one s uc u es and a hea h, and a
numbe o po s, s one and bone ools and cha ed plan emains. The objec i es o his
pape a e, i s ly, o p esen he new a chaeological con ex documen ed a Dehesilla Ca e,
suppo ed by a wide ange o da a p o ided by in e disciplina y me hods. The da ase is
di e se in na u e: s a ig aphic, os eological, iso opic, zoological, a i ac ual, bo anical and
adioca bon esul s a e p esen ed oge he . Secondly, o place his inding wi hin he gene al
con ex o he con empo aneous si es known in he Ibe ian Peninsula h ough a sys ema ic
e iew o he a ailable e idence. This enables no only he o mula ion o explana ions o
he singula new con ex , bu also o in e he possible i ual une a y beha iou s and p ac-
ices in he 5
h
millennium cal BC in he Ibe ian Peninsula.
PLOS ONE
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OPEN ACCESS
Ci a ion: Ga cı
´a-Ri e o D, Taylo R, Umbelino C,
P ice TD, Ga cı
´a- Viñas E, Be na
´ldez-Sa
´nchez E, e
al. (2020) The excep ional inding o Locus 2 a
Dehesilla Ca e and he Middle Neoli hic i ual
une a y p ac ices o he Ibe ian Peninsula. PLoS
ONE 15(8): e0236961. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/
jou nal.pone.0236961
Edi o : Pe e F. Biehl, Uni e si y a Bu alo - The
S a e Uni e si y o New Yo k, UNITED STATES
Recei ed: Ma ch 25, 2020
Accep ed: July 16, 2020
Published: Augus 13, 2020
Copy igh : ©2020 Ga cı
´a-Ri e o e al. This is an
open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o
he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal
au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : All ele an da a a e
wi hin he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was ca ied ou wi hin he
p ojec "High- esolu ion ch onology and cul u al
e olu ion in he Sou h o he Ibe ian Peninsula
(ci ca 7000-4000 cal BC): a mul iscala app oach"
(PGC2018-096943-A-C22), unded by: FEDER/
Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion - S a e
Resea ch Agency. The a chaeological ield season
ca ied ou du ing 2017 a Cue a de la Dehesilla
1. In oduc ion and objec i es
Neoli hic une a y p ac ices in he Ibe ian Peninsula a e ela i ely well known. In he cu en
cen u y, his ield has been he objec o se e al egional analyses a di e en scales [e.g. 1–9],
and some sup a- egional syn heses [10,11]. Howe e , he p esen s a e o knowledge is
une enly dis ibu ed be ween he di e en a chaeological pe iods ha make up he gene al
amewo k o he Neoli hic.
Cu en ly, he e is a la ge numbe o si es a ibu ed o he Ea ly Neoli hic [12], con en ionally
da ed in he Ibe ian Peninsula be ween ca. 5600–4800 cal BC. A he leas , 30 si es display some
kind o une a y con ex s. The une a y e idence known a p esen o his pe iod is mos abun-
dan ly om ca e si es. Disa icula ed o isola ed human bones a e o en ound wi h o he a i ac-
ual and aunal emains, p obably pa ly due o pos deposi ional p ocesses. Inhuma ions a e
gene ally indi idual, al hough se e al bu ials may coexis in he same ooms o common a eas o
he ca i ies. The e a e some cases o seconda y bu ials and a e mul iple bu ials. A he same ime,
bu ials a e documen ed a open-ai si es, whe e hey end o belong o indi idual and e y a ely
mul iple inhuma ions deposi ed in pi s wi hin se lemen con ex s. Gene ally, he bodies a e placed
in a lexed posi ion, lying on he side, wi h a iable assemblages o g a e goods, essen ially combi-
na ions o po e y, s one ools, bone and/o shell elemen s, and equen ly aunal emains [11].
The body o in o ma ion a ailable o he une a y p ac ices o he La e Neoli hic is much
la ge . Howe e , he ch onological de ini ion o his pe iod in calenda yea s is mo e complex,
due o he g ea e deg ee o egional a ia ion displayed by he a chaeological eco d. In some
a eas, he onse o he La e Neoli hic is a ibu ed o he end o he 5
h
millenium cal BC, bu
only becomes gene alised h oughou he Ibe ian Peninsula du ing he cou se o he 4
h
mil-
lennium cal BC. Du ing his pe iod, bu ials inside ca es a e s ill documen ed, al hough une -
a y p ac ices mos ly ake place in he open, in g a es o indi idual o mul iple bu ials wi hin
se lemen a eas o , mo e commonly, in a eas designa ed as bu ial g ounds. The ypes o
une a y s uc u es a e di e se. The e a e se e al documen ed open-ai nec opoli (inhuma-
ions in g a es), and a i icial ca es used as bu ial chambe s. The monumen al na u e o some
o he ea h and s one bu ial s uc u es is a dis inguishing ai o he La e Neoli hic, and he
eme gence o megali hism is gene ally linked o his pe iod [11,13, bu see 14,15].
In con as , he a ailable a chaeological in o ma ion, especially une a y da a, is no ably
sca ce o he ime-span be ween hese wo pe iods. The lowe h eshold is p oblema ic, his
pe iod may be placed app oxima ely be ween 4800-4400/4200 cal BC. The sca ci y and g ea
di e si y o he a chaeological eco d a his ime has gene a ed a g ea deal o con o e sy in
he a i ac ual cha ac e isa ion, he ypological syn hesis, and he pe iodisa ion o he cen al
pa o he 5
h
millennium cal BC [see o example, 16]. Undoub edly, his pe iod, gene ally
called Middle Neoli hic, is he leas well-known o he Neoli hic sequence o he Ibe ian Penin-
sula, especially wi h ega ds o he une a y eco d ha occupies us he e, and he e is p esen ly
no speci ic syn hesis on his subjec a he peninsula scale.
In 2017, du ing he a chaeological exca a ions a Dehesilla Ca e (Sie a de Ca
´diz), a deposi-
ional con ex was disco e ed, p o iding adioca bon da es placing i a he beginning o he
li le-known Middle Neoli hic pe iod, speci ically be ween ca. 4800–4550 cal BC. The ind is
an excep ional i ual une a y deposi ion (Locus 2) cons i u ed by wo adul human skulls and
he skele on o a e y young sheep/goa , associa ed wi h a s one s uc u e and a hea h, and a
numbe o po s, s one and bone ools and cha ed plan emains. The inding akes on pa icu-
la impo ance, no only because o i s singula cha ac e is ics bu also, conside ing he back-
g ound b ie ly p esen ed abo e, because i o e s a unique oppo uni y o ad ance ou
knowledge abou he une a y and i ual p ac ices o he popula ions o he elusi e cen al
span o he 5
h
millennium cal BC in he Ibe ian Peninsula.
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ecei ed inancial suppo om se e al en i ies and
unding p og ams a he Uni e si y o Se ille (VI
Plan P opio de In es igacio
´n y T ans e encia, III
Plan P opio de Docencia, Facul ad de Geog a ı
´a e
His o ia and Dp o. de P ehis o ia y A queologı
´a), as
well as om he Resea ch Cen e o An h opology
and Heal h, Uni e si y o Coimb a. GPJ’s wo k was
suppo ed by he pos doc o al con ac IJCI-2015-
25082 unded by he Spanish Minis y o Economy
and Compe i i eness. The unde s had no ole in
s udy design, da a collec ion and analysis, decision
o publish, o p epa a ion o he manusc ip .
Compe ing in e es s: The au ho s ha e decla ed
ha no compe ing in e es s exis .
The main objec i es o his pape a e he e o e, i s ly, o p esen he new deposi ional con-
ex documen ed a Dehesilla Ca e, suppo ed by a wide ange o empi ical da a ob ained by
in e disciplina y me hods; and secondly, o place his ind wi hin he gene al con ex o he
body o con empo aneous une a y da a known a p esen in he Ibe ian Peninsula. This ask
implies a compa a i e app oach, which enables no only he o mula ion o a likely in e p e a-
ion o he new con ex p esen ed he e bu also he sys ema ic e iew o he cu en e idence
a ailable in he Ibe ian Peninsula. The speci ic and compa a i e in o ma ion will he e o e
allow us o highligh he singula cha ac e is ics o he Locus 2 deposi ion, and o shed new
ligh on he i ual une a y beha iou s in p ac ice du ing he Middle Neoli hic h oughou he
Ibe ian Peninsula.
2. Da a and me hods
The da a p esen ed in his pape a e p o ided by he ecen exca a ions ca ied ou wi hin he
amewo k o he p ojec “Dehesilla Ca e: a chaeological and en i onmen al s udies o he
knowledge o he P ehis o ic human occupa ion o he Sie a de Ca
´diz”, di ec ed by one o he
au ho s (DGR) (Fig 1). This p ojec conduc ed a i s exca a ion season in 2016 ha led o he
iden i ica ion o se e al Medie al occupa ion phases ou side he mou h o he ca e [17,18],
and a comple e Neoli hic sequence in he oom o he ca e nea es he en ance [19] in which
p e ious exca a ions had been ca ied ou in he 1970s and 80s [20]. The unpublished da a
p esen ed he e come speci ically om he second exca a ion season, in 2017, and om he
exca a ion a ea iden i ied as C006 loca ed in Room 4, one o he inne -mos spaces o Dehe-
silla Ca e.
The da a a e di e se in na u e: s a ig aphic, os eological, iso opic, zoological, a i ac ual,
bo anical (seeds, ui s and wood) and adioca bon esul s a e p esen ed he e oge he . The
wo k p esen ed in his a icle does no aise any e hical issues. Al hough all o he scien i ic
ields ha suppo hese esul s a e me ged success ully in a chaeology, each one has speci ic
echniques o da a collec ion and p ocessing.
The loca ion o ench C006 in he sou he n pa o Room 4 (Fig 2) coincides wi h an a ea
in which he su ace low ock was b oken and absen (Uni 0). The i egula shape o he
ench co esponds exac ly wi h he limi o he low ock. The exca a ed a ea is app oxima ely
5 m
2
, wi h a maximum leng h o 5 m unning pa allel o he Wes wall o he ca e and a wid h
o app oxima ely 1 m. Ca e ul exca a ion con i med ha only he uppe laye s immedia ely
benea h he su ace le el we e a ec ed by con empo a y human and animal ac i i ies. Because
he s a ig aphy o ca es usually become a palimpses subjec ed o aphonomic p ocesses [22],
he exca a ion p oceeded wi h g ea ca e wi h pa icula a en ion o he de ini ion o he con-
ac s be ween he s a ig aphic uni s [23] and using o al s a ions and lap ops wi h he EDM
Mobile so wa e [24] o eco d opog aphically e e y a chaeological elemen . The in o ma ion
was logged in a da abase easily expo able o s o age and da a managemen so wa e, and
adap ed o he c ea ion o spa ial g aphic ou pu s. Bo h he e ical s a ig aphy and he
mic ocon ex ual ela ionships o he elemen s associa ed wi h he deposi ion unde s udy we e
clea ly iden i ied and documen ed and all o he a chaeological ma e ials and samples we e
duly eco ded in hei co esponding exca a ion uni s. F om each and all o he S a ig aphic
Uni s, 20% o he sedimen was p ocessed by lo a ion, and he es was sc eened manually (2.5
mm size), wi h he excep ion o he samples se aside o speci ic analyses.
Rega ding he human os eological analysis, sex de e mina ion based only on he skulls was
augh by he absence o he mandibles. The me hod applied in i s ins ance was based on he
isual assessmen o c anial mo phological ai s [25–28], mo phome ic a iables [29,30],
and he disc iminan unc ions [31] based on an Ame ican sample om he Te y Collec ion.
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Fig 1. Loca ion o Dehesilla Ca e (Theme map bases: [21]).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0236961.g001
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Fig 2. a) Loca ion o T ench C006 on he h ee-dimensional plan o he ca e; and b) Pano amic iew om he Cen e
o he Sou h o Room 4.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0236961.g002
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A p obabilis ic app oach, de eloped by Da id Na ega and based on he Eu opean popula ion
o he Howells’ C aniome ic Da ase (n = 317, 153 emales and 164 males, es ima ed sex), was
also used. Two ypes o analysis we e conduc ed using a andom o es classi ica ion algo i hm.
Age a dea h was es ima ed h ough he assessmen o c anial su u e closu e and den al wea ,
ollowing se e al s anda d me hods [32–36].
S on ium iso ope analysis was ca ied ou on bo h skulls. The basis o he echnique is ha
he s on ium iso ope a io o
87
S /
86
S a ies geog aphically wi h geology and ha s on ium
mo es in o he chemis y o li ing being om ocks and sedimen h ough he ood chain [37–
39]. Human oo h enamel is he choice ma e ial o analysis [38,40–43] and he me hod p o-
ides a obus means o examining human mobili y in he pas . An essen ial ques ion con-
ce ns he local s on ium iso ope signal o he a ea in which a bu ial is ound, since le els o
s on ium iso opes in human issue may a y om he geological backg ound o a numbe o
easons [44–46]. I is he e o e necessa y o measu e he bioa ailable le els o
87
S /
86
S , i.e.
hose ac ually a ailable in he ood chain, in o de o asce ain local s on ium iso ope a ios.
The local bioa ailable iso opic signal o he place o bu ial was de e mined he e om a chaeo-
logical auna p o ided om he ca e. In pa icula , se e al samples o e es ial snails (O ala
lac ea) om he same a chaeological con ex Locus 2 and om a ea C004 we e used, as well as
ano he sample (O yc olagus cuniculus) om he a chaeological a ea C005 (loca ed o a ew
me e s om o Locus 2). A b oade da ase o compa a i e baseline alues is also p o ided by
p e ious wo k in he egion.
The quan i ica ion me hods applied in he a chaeozoological analysis conside ed he de e -
mina ion o he numbe o iden i ied specimens (NISP), weigh (g) and he minimum numbe
o indi iduals (MNI). The ana omical iden i ica ions (in he case o e eb a e species) and
species de e mina ion o he os eological and den al elemen s has ollowed he specialised e -
e ence li e a u e [47–49] and he bone and shell e e ence collec ions o he Ins i u o Andaluz
del Pa imonio His o
´ ico and Es acio
´n Biolo
´gica de Doñana.
The main aims o he po e y analysis, in line wi h he well-de eloped amewo k o a chae-
ological ce amic analyses [50–54], we e he assessmen and econs uc ion o he likely na u e
o he deposi ional and aphonomic p ocesses leading o he c ea ion o he assemblage unde
s udy, and he ypological ( o mal and deco a i e) cha ac e isa ion o he ce amic ma e ials
wi h ega ds o he undamen al ques ions o ch onological and cul u al a ibu ion o he i -
ual une a y con ex unde s udy. The quan i ica ion o he numbe o po e y agmen s and
he indi idual measu emen o hei size and weigh enabled o ix a se ies o e e ence alues
o he agmen a ion o each uni and/o spa ial subdi ision. Di e en me hods o basic po -
e y quan i ica ion a e discussed ex ensi ely in he abo e men ioned sou ces, and ha e indeed
been an a ea o o emos in e es and deba e o e many decades [e.g. 55]. A e ini ial desc ip-
i e s a is ics, size was inally e ained as he mos app op ia e p oxy a iable o he s a e o
agmen a ion o he assemblage unde s udy. An exe cise in e i ing was ca ied ou in addi-
ion, wi h he speci ic pu pose o iden i ying she ds belonging o he same po s, wi h o wi h-
ou a di ec physical e i . Bo h app oaches clea ly highligh ed he sha p con as be ween he
p edominan s a e o agmen a ion and essel ep esen a ion (mos ly single she ds) and ha
o he sca ce ye e y signi ican cases o po s ep esen ed by a la ge numbe o agmen s and
p opo ion o he essel.
The s one ools we e quan i ied and analysed in wo main g oups: knapped and polished
s one. The s udy o he knapped ma e ials ollowed wo ks on analy ical ypology o e ouch
and ex ac ion echniques [56,57], comple ing he de ini ion o pa icula echnical a ibu es
[58], as well as he me ic desc ip ion [59]. The knapped ma e ial was g ouped a he i s le el
as Re ouched and Un e ouched. The i s g oup includes ools, and e ouched blades and
lakes; he second g oup comp ises un e ouched blades, lakes, a ypical agmen s, co es, co e
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emains and debi age p oduc s, and chunks. Backing, pa ina and mac oscopic use wea was
de e mined by he obse a ion o he edges wi h a 20x magni ying glass. The ypo- echnologi-
cal analysis ollowed he main syn heses and e minological/lexical p oposals o he wes e n
[60,61], sou he n [62] and eas e n [63,64] egions o he Ibe ian Peninsula, whils ca ying
ou he app op ia e adap a ions o he cha ac e is ics o he Dehesilla Ca e assemblage.
T aceological analysis was ca ied ou h ough he combined use o a Leica MZ16A binocu-
la mic oscope wi h a ange be ween 10x and 90x and an Olympus BH2 me alog aphic mic o-
scope wi h a ange be ween 50x and 400x, coupled wi h a Canon 450D digi al came a. Image
so wa e (Helicon Focus . 4.62) was used o ob ain comple ely ocused images.
Seeds and ui s we e eco e ed by lo a ion. La ge ep esen a i e sedimen samples we e
se aside du ing he exca a ion p ocess o each s a ig aphic uni , speci ically one i h o he
o al olume o each uni . All o he samples we e p ocessed in a lo a ion machine wi h a 1
mm mesh collec o o he dense ma e ials inside and a 0.25 mm mesh on he o e low o
he ligh e ma e ials. A e lo a ion bo h ac ions we e d ied and ans e ed o he labo a-
o y, whe e hey we e p ocessed manually unde a 10-15x magni ying glass. The iden i ica ion
o seeds and ui s was ca ied ou in he labo a o y o he Ins i u e o His o y o he CSIC in
Mad id, suppo ed by a e e ence collec ion and he specialised li e a u e. The denomina ion
o wild axa ollowed Cas o iejo [65] and ha o cul i a es ollowed he binomial classi ica ion
[66]. Two complemen a y quan i ica ion c i e ia we e used: he ubiqui y o each o he axa
and he numbe o emains.
All an h acological emains la ge han 2 mm we e conside ed o analysis. Ca bonisa ion
p ese es he cellula s uc u e o wood which, obse ed unde he mic oscope, enables he
axonomic iden i ica ion o he cha ed emains [e.g. 67,68]. This ask was pe o med unde a
Leica DP2500 inciden ligh mic oscope. The axonomic iden i ica ions we e es ablished
h ough compa ison wi h Schweing ube ’s ee ana omy a las [69] and he e e ence collec ion
o cha coal a he ICA EHB a he Uni e sidade do Alga e.
A e p esen ing all o he da a ob ained om he deposi ional con ex unde s udy
(Resul s), he Discussion o e s an o e iew o he con empo aneous une a y con ex s in he
Ibe ian Peninsula da ed wi hin he 4800–4550 cal BC da e b acke . A compa a i e analysis is
ca ied ou be ween he di e en known cases wi h emphasis on a ange o pa ame e s ( ype o
bu ial, ype o s uc u e, bu ial a ea and associa ed s uc u es, placemen , o ien a ion, pa holo-
gies and g a e goods). This enables us no only o con ex ualise and in e p e he new da a bu
also o explo e and in e he pa e ns and ai s documen ed in he i ual une a y p ac ices o
his pe iod in he Ibe ian Peninsula.
3. Resul s
3.1. A chaeological con ex
T ench C006 has enabled he econs uc ion o he s a ig aphy o Room 4, he inne -mos
and u hes om he p esen day mou h o he ca e, hus p o iding a ela i ely ep esen a i e
image o his a ea o he ca i y. The 2017 exca a ion documen ed a comple e s a ig aphic
sequence and enabled a numbe o obse a ions ega ding he cha ac e is ics and use o his
chambe .
The sequence includes se e al hick le els, which appea o co espond o geological e en s
in which ocks, sedimen s and wa e may ha e been ca ied down om he adjacen Room 2
o possibly h ough he oo o he ca e by means o c acks and chimneys. These le els display
a descending sou h o no h slope, om he mou h o he in e io o he ca e, and o m a
wedge-shaped accumula ion in he sou he n hal o he chambe . The an h opic sequence
includes a numbe o le els, de ined on he basis o hei s a ig aphic cha ac e is ics and
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a chaeological ma e ials, belonging o di e en Neoli hic pe iods (Fig 3). The lowe le els da e
o he Ea ly Neoli hic. O hese, he uppe le el (Uni 8) displays a no able sou h o no h
descending slope, and is cons i u ed in g ea pa by medium o la ge sized limes one blocks,
some up o 70 cm. The o ma ion o his le el appea s o be due o collapse and o en ial
e en s.
The uppe con ac o Uni 8 is he g ound le el on which he deposi ional e en analysed in
his pape ook place, da ed a some ime be ween ca. 4800–4550 cal BC and wi h a ma e ial
assemblage consis en wi h he Middle Neoli hic (see below). The Uni s and S uc u es o
in e es he e a e Locus 2, he di iding Wall, Pla o m/S uc u e 1 and Hea h 7/9 (Figs 4and
5). Locus 2 is he undamen al elemen o he une a y con ex (and his name is he e o e
ex ended o he associa ion o elemen s o ming he deposi ion). Locus 2 is cons i u ed by wo
human skulls, wi hou he mandibles, and he main pa o a e y young sheep/goa , he
emains o which we e ela i ely well a icula ed. The a ea also yielded a no able po e y and
s one ool assemblage. The wo skulls we e ound app oxima ely 20 cm apa , a a e y simila
le el, in a clayey sedimen wi h a medium o low compac ion. The closes o he wes e n wall
o he ca e was pa ially co e ed by a limes one block app oxima ely 35 cm in leng h. The
sheep/goa o e ing was placed by he second c anium. These h ee elemen s, ca e ully placed
amongs medium sized limes one blocks, belong o a single deposi ional e en , associa ed no
doub wi h he o he s uc u es documen ed in he same a ea.
To he sou h o Locus 2 an alignmen o la ge s ones in an E-W di ec ion was documen ed,
o ming a igh angle wi h he wes e n wall o he oom. Spa ially, hese s ones c ea e a di iding
wall (Wall) be ween he deposi ion and wo o he s uc u es. The i s is Pla o m/S uc u e 1.
To he sou hwes o he wall, in he cen al a ea o he exca a ed a ea, whe e he ca e wall o ms
a kind o na u al niche, he e is a s one s uc u e, a pla o m o so s c ea ed by he jux aposi ion
o s ones placed a a e y simila le el (Pla o m/S uc u e 1). The shape o he s uc u e is
Fig 3. Eas sec ion o C006.
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app oxima ely ec angula , wi h a maximum leng h (E-W) o 1,30 m and wid h (N-S) o 1 m.
The ou line o he s uc u e, abu ed o he Wes in o he wall o he ca e, is clea ly de ined o
he No h and Sou h bu no so clea ly o he Eas . A he no hwes e n co ne , by he ca e wall,
he e was an up igh s one placed e ically and ou s anding abo e he o he s ones o he s uc-
u e, wi h a la ace wi h geological (na u al) c ossed lines acing he pla o m.
The second s uc u e o he sou h o he di iding wall is he Hea h 7/9, cons i u ed by
Uni s 7 and 9. The o me is a laye o ash, o ming a ci cula a ea, app oxima ely 0,40 m N-S
Fig 4. Plan o he ou h s a ig aphic phase (Middle Neoli hic) in C006.
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Acco ding o es ima es based on
87
S /
86
S in ancien sea wa e , he baseline alues o hese
geological o ma ions should be in he o de o 0.7070–0.7080 [79].
Fig 10. His og am o s on ium iso ope a ios om plan and animal emains om Andalusia.
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Fig 9. Map o Wes e n Andalusia wi h he loca ion o s on ium iso ope e e ence samples. Black do s a e human
emains; ed do s a e plan s and animals (Theme map bases: [21]).
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Bioa ailable s on ium iso ope a ios we e measu ed di ec ly on aunal emains eco e ed
om he a chaeological deposi s o he ca e. Fou samples o abbi bone and e es ial snail
shell ( he la e om Locus 2 i sel ) we e analysed in o de o p o ide a p ecise local baseline.
These alues a e shown in Table 1 and Fig 11 and clus e igh ly be ween 0.7083 and 0.7085.
The alues ob ained om he Locus 2 human samples a e indica ed on he same plo . The
ange o alues exhibi ed by he samples om he wo skulls, be ween 0.7083 and 0.7086, is
e y na ow, coinciding nea ly wi h he baseline alues p o ided by he aunal emains om
he si e. The ange o alues om he human and aunal samples is also a good ma ch o he
expec ed s on ium a ios o he limes one landscape o he b oade a ea o he sedimen a y
and Neogene Basins. These obse a ions make i e y likely ha he human indi iduals
Fig 11. Ba cha o auna and human alues om Dehesilla Ca e.
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Table 1. Resul s o S iso ope analysis.
Lab Code Dehesilla ID Con ex Species Sample
87
S /
86
S
F10290 DH17-22 C006-Locus 2Homo Skull 1 –PM1 Righ 0.708371
F10291 DH17-23 C006-Locus 2Homo Skull 2 –PM2 Righ 0.708509
10295 DH17-29 C006-Locus 2O ala lac ea Te es ial snails 0.708304
F10292 DH17-26 C004-Uni 9 O ala lac ea Te es ial snails 0.708298
F10293 DH17-27 C004-Uni 14 O ala lac ea Te es ial snails 0.708264
F10294 DH17-28 C005-Uni 3 O yc olagus cuniculus Tibia 0.708431
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ep esen ed by he emains we e local o sou hwes e n Andalusia, and qui e p obably o he
si e i sel o immedia e su ounding a ea.
3.4. G a e goods
3.4.1. Animals. A ela i ely la ge animal bone assemblage was eco e ed om Locus 2
(Table 2), as well as he emains o na u ally ocu ing mic o e eb a es and moluscs. The ani-
mal emains ha e been axonomically de e mined as belonging o Ce us elaphus,Sus sp., O is
a ies/Cap a sp., O yc olagus cuniculus,O ala lac ea,Unionidae, as well as inde e mina e emains
o ish and shell, a u le and o he e eb a e and in e eb a e species. This assemblage displays
a agmen a ion simila o ha o he o he s a ig aphic le els in C006, in such as way ha
hese emains may no be p esumed o ha e been delibe a ely included in he deposi ional
e en . The p esence o wo eshwa e molusc shells (Ma ga i i e a au icula ia) and a pe o a ed
ma ine molusc shell (Acan hoca dia aculea a) upon S uc u e 1 a e no ewo hy excep ions, as is
a bone ool ( ind numbe C006-120) placed be ween he wo skulls. This well-wo ked spa ula
wi h no able ab asion ma ks om use was c ea ed on a dee me a a sal (Fig 12).
To he eas o he skulls (Fig 13, ind numbe C006-109) he emains o an in an ile sheep/
goa indi idual we e ound, which mus ha e been sac i iced and deposi ed comple e o nea
comple e, as indica ed by he elemen s in ana omical connec ion and o de . No cu ma ks,
oo h ma ks o he moal e a ions we e iden i ied (Fig 14). In e es ingly, no all o he skele al
elemen s we e eco e ed. Speci ically, he an e io igh and pos e io le ex emi ies and he
skull we e absen (Table 3). The absence o six ce ical e eb ae, se en ho acic e eb ae and
he sac um a e also no ewo hy.
The axonomic iden i ica ion o he skele on is complex. The p esence o bo h O is a ies
and Cap a hi cus is known in con empo aneous and ea lie le els, and he e o e he sac i iced
animal could belong o ei he o hese wo species o o Cap a py enaica. The s a e o he usion
o he ho acic and lumba e eb ae may indica e an age a dea h o less han en days, ollow-
ing he pa ame e s se ou in a s udy o he A agonese sheep b eed [82]. Acco ding o his
au ho , he a ch o he ho acic e eb ae uses be o e bi h and he a ch o he lumba e e-
b ae wi hin 10 days a e bi h.
Table 2. Numbe o Iden i ied Specimens (NISP) and Minimal Numbe o Indi iduals (MNI). The O is a ies/Cap a sp. Line includes he emains o he in an ile
sheep/goa ound in Locus 2. The e is no secu e ana omical cha ac e is ic o dis inguish bones om O is a ies and Cap a sp. The Class II mammals a e hose wi h a body
mass be ween 18 and 200 kg [80,81] acco ding o he decay p ocesses o mammals in Medi e anean ecosys ems.
Taxa Locus 2 S uc u e 1 Uni 7 Uni 9
O is a ies /Cap a sp. NISP 49 1
MNI 2 1
Ce us elaphus NISP 1 1 1
MNI 1 1 1
Sus sp. NISP 3 1
MNI 1 1
O yc olagus cuniculus NISP 8 9 1
MNI 2 2 1
F eshwa e u le NISP 4
MNI 1
Fish NISP 1
MNI 1
Class II mammals NISP 5 11
Inde e mina e NISP 30 46 1
TOTAL NISP 100 1 70 1
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The age es ima e o he animal may be o in e es in ela ion o he app oxima e ime o
yea a which he i ual deposi ion ook place, al hough na u ally his is subjec o he unce -
ain ies ega ding he possible changes in he ep oduc i e cycles o hese species o e ime. A
p esen , wild Cap inae usually ha e sp ing- ime lambing seasons, when pas u es a e mos
abundan [83]: Cap a py enaica (May-June), Cap a aegag us (Ap il-May) and O is gmelini
(May). In con as , many p esen -day Ibe ian domes ic sheep and goa b eeds can gi e bi h a
any ime o he yea [84–86]. A i icial selec ion and p oduc i e in e es s ha e led o a nea -
con inuous o a ian cycle [87] which, in some close mode n b eeds, o ins ance he Chu a
Leb ijana sheep, enables deli e ies h oughou he yea . In o he b eeds he ep oduc i e cycle
has been in ensi ied o each mo e han one annual bi h, o in o he s, o ins ance he Cana -
ian sheep, bi hs a e concen a ed be o e Ch is mas in o de o sui consume demand. How-
e e , in sheep b eeds such as he Chama i a, in ex ensi e exploi a ion sys ems, bi hs a e
concen a ed be ween May and June; in he Cas ellana b eed be ween Feb ua y and Ma ch; in
he Cha moise b eed, 75% o bi hs occu be ween Ma ch and Ap il; and in he Alcala eña
b eed hey a e concen a ed be ween Feb ua y and Ma ch [84]. Wi h he mode n managemen
o goa he ds, i is also possible o ep oduce hese animals h oughou he yea , al hough o
some he highes equencies o bi hs a e concen a ed in pa icula seasons [86]. Fo
ins ance, o he Payoya goa , an au och honous Andalusian b eed om he same a ea as he
Fig 12. Bone spa ula made om a dee me a a sal, wi h ex ensi e use wea .
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Fig 13. Plan and sec ions o Locus 2 wi h a p ecise spa ial loca ion o he o e ings. The wo sec ions co espond o he pe pendicula dashed lines indica ed
on he plan.
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Fig 14. Labo a o y image o he young sheep/goa skele on.
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a chaeological si e, 85% o bi hs a e concen a ed be ween Augus and No embe and
be ween Decembe and Feb ua y, o he Blanca Se ana Andaluza b eed be ween Ma ch and
Ap il o o he Neg a Se ana in Sp ing o Au umn [85]. I we assume ha he Neoli hic
domes ic sheep and goa had ep oduc i e cycles ma ked by he en i onmen o he egion,
he animal could ha e been sac i iced and o e ed i ually coinciding pe haps wi h he begin-
ning o Sp ing. This seems o be he case o o he Ibe ian Neoli hic a chaeological si es [88],
al hough his pa icula poin mus emain open, since g ea e knowledge is needed on he
human selec i e p essu es on Ibe ian Neoli hic he ds.
3.4.2. Po e y. The po e y assemblage is ai ly la ge, especially in he immedia e en i on-
men o he skulls (Locus 2) and he hea h (Uni s 7 and 9). Howe e , an impo an issue con-
ce ns he inclusion o po e y essels in he deposi ion, and hei use in speci ic ac i i ies.
Answe ing his ques ion equi es a de ailed analysis o he gene al pa e ns o agmen a ion
and ep esen a ion in he deposi ional uni s o in e es he e (Table 4). Based on he quan i a-
i e e idence, wo p ocesses o en y in o he a chaeological eco d can be p oposed o he
po e y eco d. Indeed, mos o he assemblage displays a e y high agmen a ion, and a e y
low ep esen a ion, ha is, mos po e y eco ds co espond o single agmen s om di e en
essels. In Uni 7, imp essed, incised and eng a ed deco a i e echniques coexis wi hou any
clea pa e n. I should be no ed ha hese po e y agmen s a e no usually bu ned o al e ed
Table 3. Ana omical emains o he O is/Cap a skele on ound in Locus 2.
Bones Le Righ
Ce ical e eb a 1
Do sal e eb ae 5
Lumba e eb ae 7
Ribs 7 6
Rib agmen s 2
S e num 3
Scapula 1
Hume us 1
Radius 1
Ulna 1
Me aca pus 1
Pel is 1
Femu 1
Pa ella 1
Tibia 1
Me a a sus 1
Phalanx I 1
Phalanx II 4
Phalanx III 1
TOTAL 47
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Table 4. Summa y o he po e y assemblage agmen a ion pa e ns (indi idual agmen size ange and a e -
age). Excluding he pa ially econs uc ed essels (see Table 5).
Uni Nºo agmen s Size Range Size A e age
UE 7 76 1,5–8 cm 3,6 cm
UE 9 8 2–8,5 cm 4,3 cm
UE 8 Locus 2 171 1–8 cm 3,5 cm
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by i e. Meanwhile, in Locus 2 he e is a g ea e equency o eng a ed deco a ion. The ela i e
impo ance ( equency) o eng a ed po e y in he uni s con o ming he i ual deposi ion
mus be no ed, as well as he coexis ence o wo well-known p oduc s o he si e, imp essed
and incised po e y, wi h di e en echnological and s ylis ic cha ac e is ics. In any case, i
seems ha a la ge pa o he agmen a y po e y assemblage may no be di ec ly associa ed
wi h he i ual une a y e en .
In con as , he e is a smalle se o agmen s belonging o ou sepa a e essels, o which
a ela i ely la ge p opo ion is p ese ed, and ha appea o ha e been delibe a ely deposi ed
a he ime o he i ual (Table 5). Fi s o all, he e is a g oup o 10 agmen s linked o Uni 7,
he uppe laye o he hea h, wi h physical connec ions be ween all he agmen s (Fig 15, Id.
14). The conjoining agmen s enable he econs uc ion o app oxima ely one- hi d o a
closed, ine-walled bowl wi h a high quali y su ace ea men and unique deco a ion wi hin
he Dehesilla po e y epe oi e known o da e. Speci ically, i is deco a ed wi h an eng a ed
and s aged schema ic mo i . I has 11 o 12 adial lines a anged om he base, wi h a possible
p og essi e e olu ion o he ini ial design. A leas one o he adial lines s uc u es a se ies o
semi-ci cula shapes, smalle in he uppe a ea (below he im edge) and la ge in he cen al
a ea o he bowl, illed wi h ho izon al o oblique pa allel lines (Fig 16). The physical ela ion-
ship o all he eco e ed agmen s wi h no ’o phan’ she ds sugges s b eakage wi h li le subse-
quen dispe sal o he agmen s.
Secondly, he e is a se o 8 agmen s ound in Locus 2 ha we e di ec ly associa ed wi h
he sheep/goa desc ibed abo e, and belong o pa o a la ge bowl wi h a bu nished inne su -
ace (Fig 15, Id. 19). I p ese es a maximum econs uc ed e ical measu emen o 13 cm.
The p ese ed po ion o he bowl displays a schema ic eng a ed deco a ion: a band o epe i-
i e semi-ci cula shapes unde he im upon a ho izon al line om which e ical a eas al e -
na ing smoo h spaces and spaces o med by se e al e ical bands (up o 6 obse ed in he
p ese ed agmen s) illed wi h pa allel ho izon al lines a e delimi ed. In con as , he e ical
ill o he semi-ci cles appea s o be delibe a ely c iss-c ossed, d awn owa ds he im. In wo
conjoining agmen s he ou e line o he e ical band is highligh ed by small excised ian-
gles. The essel shows an in e es ing possible i ing e ec , wi h a blackish edge o con as wi h
a ligh b own body. Many o he conjoining agmen s we e ound in p oximi y o each o he
and o he in an ile animal skele on (Fig 13, Id. 19 and 109, espec i ely). The e o e, a di ec
ela ionship can be in e ed be ween he deposi ion o his essel and ha o he possible sac i-
icial sheep/goa .
Thi dly, a se o 5 agmen s has also been documen ed in Locus 2, 4 o hem im she ds,
ep esen ing o e 35% o he ci cum e ence o he mou h, bu wi h a maximum p ese ed e -
ical measu emen o only 10 cm, equi alen o he im and neck o an appa en ly undeco a ed
po (Fig 15, Id. 63). Th ee o he agmen a y and amo phous she ds sha e e y simila physical
cha ac e is ics, bu lack a physical connec ion. They appea all o belong o a plain, unca ed
in e ed cone necked essel, wi h e en compac walls (6 mm) and e y smoo h bu nished
Table 5. F agmen a ion and ep esen a ion o he in en ionally deposi ed po s.
Po e y Reco d Id. Nºo agmen s Maximum p ese ed e ical measu emen To al Weigh
Hea h Uni 7 –Id. 14 10 9.5 cm�202 g
Locus 2 –Id. 19 8 13 cm 165 g
Locus 2 –Id. 63 5 10 cm 194 g
Locus 2 –Id. 70 2 19.5 cm�408 g
�Comple e essel heigh .
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Fig 15. Po e y essel o e ings o bu ial goods om Locus 2.
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su aces. Some o he agmen s a e also pa ially colou ed in black, p obably al e ed by i e.
Fig 13 shows he posi ion o he agmen s in he immedia e icini y o he male skull (C a-
nium 2).
Finally, wo agmen s o he im and body and base o a single con aine we e documen ed
in Locus 2 and we e associa ed wi h he di iding wall be ween he skulls and he hea h (Fig 15,
Id. 70). This po is bucke -shaped, wi h sub e ical walls, a la base, and no deco a ion. I is
en a i ely included in he g oup o ou s anding po e y essels because o he size o he ag-
men s, which is much la ge han he a e age o hese uni s, and he p ese a ion o he nea -
comple e sec ion.
3.4.3. S one ools. A o al o 31 s one ools ha e been documen ed (Table 6 and Fig 17),
wi h an o e all p opo ion o 45.16% o knapped li hic indus y and 54.83% o polished s one.
The o me includes bo h he li hic p oduc s and he elemen s associa ed wi h hei p oduc-
ion, co es (14.29%) and educ ion p oduc s (pla o m p epa a ion and debi age, 7.14% each).
Fig 16. Schema ic ideal econs uc ion o he deco a ion o essel 7–14.
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Table 6. Li hic assemblage.
Uni s To al Typology NºRe ouched ool % Use-wea %
7 3 Knapped 33.3% Blade 100% 1 0 – 0 –
Flake 0 0 0
Polished 66.7% Que n 50% 1 – – 2 100%
Hand g inde 50% 1
9 1 Knapped 100% Blade – 0 1 100% 1 100%
Flake 100% 1
Locus 2 24 Knapped 50% Blade 41.7% 5 4 33.3% 2 16.66%
Flake 33.3% 4 0
Co e 16.7% 2 0
Debi age 8.3% 1 0
Polished 50% Hand g inde 16.66% 2 – – 9 75%
Blade 16.66% 2
Polishing s one 16.66% 2
Inde e mina e ool 16.66% 2
Och e 16.66% 2
Unwo ked s one 16.66% 2
S uc u e 1 3 Polished 100% S ele 33.3% 1 – – 1 33.3%
Que n 33.3% 1
Unwo ked s one 33.3% 1
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is o g ea ele ance, he e o e, no only because o he sca ce knowledge o he une a y p ac-
ices o his pe iod, bu also because o i s own singula cha ac e is ics.
4.2. The une a y eco d da ed be ween 4800–4550 cal BC in he Ibe ian
Peninsula
Table 10 con ains only he known une a y si es wi h adioca bon da es be ween 4800–4550 cal
BC. The majo i y o bu ial e idence o his pe iod in he Ibe ian Peninsula comes om p ima y
Table 10. A ailable adioca bon da es om a chaeological si es wi h une a y e idence be ween 4800–4550 cal BC.
Si e Con ex Sample BP Da e CAL BC (2 sigma) Lab Code Re e ences
Ce o Vi ud Phase II Homo 6030 ±55 5200–4780 OxA-6714 [100]
Phase II Cha coal 5920 ±70 4990–4610 Be a-90885 [100]
Phase II Cha coal 5895 ±55 4910–4610 OxA-6715 [100]
Phase II Cha coal 5860 ±70 4910–4540 Be a-101425 [100]
Phase II Homo 5840 ±80 4900–4490 OxA-6580 [100]
Phase II Sedimen 5830 ±90 4910–4460 Be a-118938 [100]
Phase II Homo 5765 ±55 4730–4460 OxA-6713 [100]
Phase II Cha coal 5660 ±80 4690–4350 Be a-90884 [100]
Cue a del To o Phase IV Cha coal 6030 ±70 5210–4720 G N-15444 [101]
Phase IV Homo 5980 ±40 4988–4772 Be a-365292 [102]
Phase IV Cha coal 5820 ±90 4900–4460 G N-15440 [101]
Salemas Homo 6020 ±120 5230–4670 Icen-351 [103]
Pa e nanbidea Bu ial 2 Homo 5960 ±40 4942–4728 G A-13675 [104]
Los Cascajos S uc u e 196 Homo 5945 ±95 5191–4555 Ua-24423 [104]
S uc u e 265 O is cap a 5640 ±75 4660–4300 Ua-16025 [105]
Co a de l’A ellane Ca . Sepul. 3a Homo 5830 ±100 4935–4460 UBAR-109 [106]
AV-CO I-X 25 Homo 5941 ±34 4930–4725 CNA3304 [107]
Cue a de los Mu cie
´lagos, Albuñol Espa o 5900 ±38 4850–4680 CSIC-1134 [108]
Espa o 5861 ±48 4850–4590 CSIC-1132 [108]
Tossal de les Basses S one loo ; UE34 Seed 5880 ±50 4850–4600 Be a-232484 [109]
D ainage di ch(4121) ill (149) Seed 4720–4520 Be a-232483 [110]
Bu ial 2–1819 Homo 4590–4450 Be a-225216 [110]
Bu ial 9–11471 Homo 4590–4450 Be a-225223 [110]
Cas elo Belinho S uc u e 3 Vene upis 5880 ±55 4904–4598 Sac-2030 [111,112]
S uc u e 4 Homo 5720 ±40 4685–4462 Be a-199913 [111,112]
S uc u e 53 Homo 5662 ±32 4582–4374 Wk-28000 [111,112]
Ba anc d’ en Fab a Pos hole Cha coal 5880 ±110 5040–4510 BETA-61490 [113]
Cue a de Ne ja Ves ı
´bulo. NE (1NE) Ne ja-1-1829. Homo 5875 ±80 4940–4540 Ua-12467 [114–116]
To ca. Sou h Sec . NT 11e Cha coal 5789 ±40 4730–4530 Be a-168972 [116,117]
To ca. Sou h Sec . NT-11c Cha coal 5760 ±40 4710–4500 Be a-195999 [116,117]
Sala del Ca aclismo Cha coal 5770±40 4717–4526 Be a-270018 [118]
Cha coal 5760 ±40 4710–4505 Be a-195998 [116]
Cha coal 5740 ±40 4696–4491 Be a-270037 [119]
El Pad o
´II Cha coal 5870 ±100 4984–4499 UBAR-115 [120]
Cha coal 5770 ±80 4822–4451 UBAR-114 [120]
Cha coal 5600 ±130 4768–4076 UBAR-113 [120]
Cha coal 5580 ±130 4719–4070 UBAR-116 [120]
Cue a de la Ca igu¨ela CIV 5, Le el I-5 5690 ±30 4610–4450 P a-9162 [121]
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bu ials, wi h only a ew disa icula ed o isola ed emains documen ed (Fig 20 and Table 11). Sec-
onda y bu ials a e a e, and he exclusi e deposi ion o skulls is ex ao dina y. Only Cue a del
To o can be added o he case o Dehesilla Ca e, al hough he o me may belong o an ea lie
ch onological phase co esponding o he adi ional Andalusian Ea ly Neoli hic [109], ha is o a
pe iod du ing which his ype o deposi ion appea s o ha e been mo e common. In he sample
a ailable and analysed he e, wi h he excep ion o he equen isola ed emains and he seconda y
bu ials a Cue a de los Mu cie
´lagos and Ce o Vi ud, he une a y spaces gene ally include se -
e al bu ials, in a iable numbe s, leading o hei in e p e a ion in some cases as collec i e bu ial
a eas, o e en as ue nec opolis (Pa e nanbidea and Cas elo Belinho).
Fig 20. Loca ion o he a chaeological si es wi h une a y e idence o his pe iod h oughou he Ibe ian Peninsula: 1) Cue a de la Dehesilla; 2) Cue a de
Ne ja; 3) Cue a de los Mu cie
´lagos de Albuñol; 4) Cue a de la Ca igu¨ela; 5) Cue a del Agua; 6) Cue a de El To o; 7) Ce o Vi ud; 8) Co a d l’A ellane ; 9) El
Pad o
´; 10) Los Cascajos; 11) Pa e nanbidea; 12) Ba anc d’en Fab a; 13) Tossal Basses; 14) Cas elho Belinho; and 15) Salemas. (Theme map base: [122]. These
si es a e desc ibed in he same o de in Table 11).
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Table 11. Ri ual ea u es o une a y si es h oughou he Ibe ian Peninsula.
Si e Si e Type Human bones Bu ial
s uc u es
Associa ed
s uc u es
Posi ion O ien a ion Pa hology O e ings / ma e ial
cul u e
Re e ences
Access
di icul y
Cue a
Dehesilla
Ca e C ania wi hou
mandibles
A ea
delimi ed by
s one blocks
and wall
Hea h and
s one
pla o m
1: Skull o S
acing E;
Incomple e
epana ion; cu
ma k on he
occipi al bone
Young sheep/goa , 4
po s, li hics, T i icum,
Olea eu opea,Pinus
pinea/pinas e ,
Que cus ilex/cocci e a,
E icaceae and Pis acia
[21]
Di icul 2: Skull o N
acing W
Cue a Ne ja Ca e Indi idual bu ial
and eloca ed
emains
Simple pi None Do sal
decubi us?
NW-SE Den al wea Ibe us alonensis,
limes one objec
[114,115]
Easy
Cue a
Mu cie
´lagos
Ca e P ima y and
seconda y
bu ials
Communal
oom
— — — — Baske y, Papa e
somni e um
[108,123]
—
Cue a
Ca igu¨ela
Ca e Indi idual
bu ials and
eloca ed
emains
— Hea hs
(habi a ?)
— — E idence o
lesh emo al?
Schis , limes one and
ma ble b acele s,
beads?
[7,123–
125]
In e media e
Cue a Agua Ca e Indi idual
bu ials
Pi s ma ked
by s one
blocks
Hea h (bo h) La e al
decubi us
(bo h)
— — Undeco a ed bowl [126,127]
— Flin blades, ossil
co al, limes one
b acele ?
Cue a To o Ca e Skull and o he
pa s (seconda y
bu ial?)
None — — — Incisions ( lesh
emo al)
Och e [101,128,
129]
Di icul Two undeco a ed
bowls and he base o
a hi d
Ce o Vi ud Open ai P ima y and
seconda y
bu ials and
isola ed emains
Collec i e pi Hea h,
delimi a ion
s ones (wall)
Le la e al
decubi us
W; E; N o
S?
— Undeco a ed po s and
bowls, lin li hics,
beads (s one and
shell), pe o a ed
Columbella us ica
[100,130]
Co a
A ellane
Shel e Disa icula ed
emains
None Sepa a ion
walls
— — Ca ies,
pe iodon i is
and a h i is
Mon bolo
´s yle
po e y, li hics,
spa ulas and o he
bone ools, b acele s,
beads, pe o a ed wild
boa usks, Ca dium
edule shells and aunal
emains
[3,107]
El Pad o
´Open ai Indi idual bu ial G a e — Flexed
(la e al
decubi us?)
— — Mo bolo
´s yle
geome ic po e y,
a owheads
[3,15,131]
Los Cascajos Open ai Indi idual bu ial Pi Habi a
s uc u es
and hea hs
Flexed
(la e al
decubi us?)
— — Bowl and o he
imp essed and
sg a i o po e y, bone
ools and ho n awls,
hand g inde s
[104,105,
132]
Pa e nanbidea Open ai Indi idual
bu ials
Pi Habi a
s uc u es
— NE-SW,
heads o he
E-NE
— Imp essed bowl,
geome ic mic oli hs,
beads and b acele
[104,133]
Ba anc Fab a Open ai Powde ed
emains
Ve ical
s one slab
s uc u es
Habi a
s uc u es
— — — Po e y bo le, li hics,
b acele s and shell
(Pec en,Ca dium)
and limes one beads
[3,113,
134]
(Con inued)
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The ype o une a y s uc u e cha ac e is ic o he known bu ials is usually he indi idual
g a e, in some cases delimi ed by s one blocks, al hough he e a e examples whe e he bu ials
we e placed di ec ly on he g ound. In ca es, he in o ma ion a ailable on he spa ial loca ion
o bu ials is spa se. A leas a Dehesilla Ca e and pe haps Cue a de la Ca igu¨ela, a eas o di i-
cul access appea o ha e been p e e ed, as hey a e he u hes away om he en ance o
he ca e and/o because hey cons i u e geomo phologically inaccessible spaces. Howe e , an
opposi e example is p o ided by he loca ion o bu ials a Cue a de Ne ja.
In a la ge pa o he compa a i e si es, he bu ial con ex s usually display combus ion s uc-
u es o hea hs. The e a e ha dly any known cases o o he associa ed s uc u es in ca es.
Dehesilla Ca e has a delimi a ion o bounda y wall be ween he deposi ion o he skulls and
he es o he associa ed s uc u es: he a o emen ioned hea h and a s one pla o m. Co a de
l’A ellane also has walls c ea ing he spa ial di e en ia ion be ween he h ee ca i ies o he
shel e . And a Cue a del Agua, one o he bu ial pi s displayed a s one pa ing, co e and
pe ime e ing. In he case o une a y con ex s loca ed in he open, he e is a delimi ing wall
be ween a hea h and he deposi ion o he bodies in he collec i e g a e o Ce o Vi ud. A
open-ai si es ha also display habi a con ex s, he e a e no only hea hs, bu also nume ous
ypes o pi s and nega i e ea u es, as well as hu s o di e en shapes.
Wi h he excep ion o Ne ja, he bodies a e usually placed in a la e al, mo e o less lexed
posi ion. The o ien a ion o he bu ials is ex emely a ied, and does no appea o show signi -
ican di e en ial pa e ns. Paleopa hological analyses a e sca ce and p obably unequal in di -
e en os eological assemblages. In ela ion o he skulls om Dehesilla Ca e (one showing
possible epana ion and cu ma k), he possible e idence o de leshing om Cue a de la Ca i-
gu¨ela is wo hy o special men ion.
A simila obse a ion applies o he a ailabili y o in o ma ion ega ding une a y o e ings.
The eliabili y o da a ega ding bu ial goods is e en mo e une en be ween si es, especially
since some o i comes om ela i ely old exca a ions. Howe e , se e al aspec s can be no ed.
Animal o e ings a e no common. Apa om Dehesilla Ca e, only a e y ew cases a e
known: Co a de l’A ellane wi h sheep/goa and dee emains, and Cas elo Belinho, as well as
he inde e mina e emains o i ual pi nº256 a Los Cascajos -wi hou human emains bu
pe haps associa ed wi h o he bu ial pi s. Shells (malaco auna) a e mo e common, ha ing
been documen ed a Cue a de Ne ja, Ce o Vi ud, Co a de l’A ellane , Ba anc d’en Fab a
and Cas elo Belinho. Mos o he analysed deposi s con ain po e y. In many o hem, hey a e
Table 11. (Con inued)
Si e Si e Type Human bones Bu ial
s uc u es
Associa ed
s uc u es
Posi ion O ien a ion Pa hology O e ings / ma e ial
cul u e
Re e ences
Access
di icul y
Tossal Basses Open ai Indi idual
bu ials
Pi s Habi a
s uc u es
La e al
decubi us
N-S; Head o
he W; NW
— Tomb 14: h ee
comple e po s,
cha ac e is ic o he
pos ca dial o comb
deco a ed ho izon
[110,135]
Cas elo
Belinho
Open ai Indi idual
bu ials
Pi s Habi a
s uc u es
La e al
decubi us
— Ca ies Bowls and globula
po s, Glycyme is
bimacula a b acele s,
lin lakes and blade,
hamme s and que ns,
och e and auna
[112]
Salemas Open ai Indi idual
bu ials
Ka s
dep essions
Habi a
s uc u es
— — — Boquique s yle
imp essed po e y
[136]
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en i ely o essen ially plain po s - o ins ance a Cue a del Agua, Cue a del To o, Ce o Vi ud,
Co a de l’A ellane , El Pad o
´, Los Cascajos and Tossal Basses. Two o he ou essels di ec ly
associa ed wi h he deposi a Dehesilla Ca e a e undeco a ed. The e is e idence o knapped
li hic indus y in one hi d o he une a y con ex s analysed, and ega ding polished s one
indus y he agmen s o g inding s ones and he possible use o och e a Cas elo de Belinho
p o ide simila e idence o ha documen ed a Dehesilla Ca e. In Locus 2, he en i e bone ool
epe oi e is limi ed o one spa ula made om a dee me a a sus. A he es o he compa a i e
si es, bone indus y is mino i y, i no al oge he absen , wi h he excep ions o Los Cascajos
and he ex ao dina y case o Co a de l’A ellane , wi h a nume ous and di e se bone assem-
blage. The esul s o possible ca pological and an h acological analyses in he con ex s analysed
he e ha e no gene ally been made known, hus no compa isons can be made.
4.3. In e p e a i e possibili ies o he Locus 2 deposi ion
The Locus 2 deposi ional con ex a Dehesilla Ca e displays se e al cha ac e is ics ha a e di -
e en om hose o he es o he known une a y con ex s o he 4800–4550 cal BC pe iod in
he Ibe ian Peninsula. The exclusi e selec ion and ( e)bu ial o he skulls is con a y o i s
in e p e a ion as a p ima y bu ial. I is he only case da ed wi h ce ain y o he Middle Neo-
li hic ha indica es a selec i e ea men and bu ial o human skulls (wi hou he mandible). I
also p o ides a no el a chaeological con ex wi h se e al s uc u es as peculia as he s one
pla o m desc ibed abo e (S uc u e 1).
These excep ional cha ac e is ics may co espond o he hypo hesis o a deposi (and ac i i-
ies) wi h a s ong i ual componen , beyond ha which is usually shown by he a chaeological
eco d ela ed o he common (o no ma i e) bu ials o hese popula ions. The e y loca ion o
he deposi ion in one o he a eas u hes om he ca e en ance, in a so o hidden and
secluded chambe , is sugges i e in his sense.
Deciphe ing hese possible i ual ac i i ies is clea ly no simple ask, bu a leas he possible
lines o in e p e a ion o his eco d can be en a i ely poin ed ou . The possibili y o being a
deposi o isola ed indi iduals, as a kind o une a y os acism, does no seem o be in line wi h
he in es men in he c ea ion o he documen ed s one s uc u es. The ex no o pu pose-spe-
ci ic cons uc ion o hese s uc u es is also no usual in no mal Neoli hic seconda y bu ials.
Based on he du able elemen s o he a chaeological eco d, he p ac ices in ol ed in second-
a y bu ials a e usually limi ed o he selec ion o all o only pa o he emains o be mo ed
be ween loca ions, bu wi hou he associa ion o s uc u es such as hose documen ed in his
case and wi hou addi ional i uals such as he sac i ice and in si u deposi o he in an ile
sheep/goa . Al hough he possibili y ha ei he o he skulls (o a leas C anium 2) could ha e
come om a p ima y bu ial p io o deposi ion canno be comple ely uled ou , i mus be
emphasised ha , among he une a y con ex s da ed in he same ch onological pe iod
h oughou he Ibe ian Peninsula, he p ac ice o p ima y bu ial is p edominan , and second-
a y bu ial is only a ely documen ed (i a all a he Cue a de los Mu cie
´lagos and Ce o Vi -
ud). In any case, he cha ac e is ics o his deposi indica e some ype o singula and
in en ional social ea men by he communi y h ough he enac men o a special deposi ion
wi h a s ong i ual componen . Along hese lines, he deposi may indica e some ype o hon-
o a y ecogni ion, ela ed o social leade s, pe haps g ea igu es o eligious guides.
The p esence o he cu ma k on he occipi al o C anium 1 was pe o med pos -mo em,
bu be o e he loss o muscle issue, and he e o e hypo he ically as a means o sepa a ion o
he skull o decapi a ion o he indi idual. Al hough i canno be s a ed ca ego ically, i is qui e
possible ha dea h was ch onologically close o he ime o deposi ion o he skull (i no a he
ime o dea h i sel , be o e comple e issue decomposi ion). This same ( emale) indi idual had
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also p e iously su e ed a p obable incomple e epana ion, du ing li e, since he bone egene -
a ion obse ed indica es ha his happened yea s be o e he dea h. This p e ious e en may
he e o e ha e no di ec ela ion o he e en s and i ual now examined. On he male skull
(C anium 2) no cu ma ks o e idence o his kind has been obse ed. Howe e , he s a i-
g aphic in o ma ion gua an ees he con empo aneous deposi ion o bo h skulls and se e al
o he elemen s o he con ex . Al hough he simul aneous na u al dea h o bo h indi iduals (o
he abo e men ioned seconda y bu ial o one o hem) canno be uled ou , he na u al dea h
one and he i ual sac i ice o he o he , o he sac i ice o bo h, may be equally likely.
The empi ical da a hus opens up new an h opological scena ios, pe haps sac i ices
(human and animal) ela ed o p opi ia o y ac i i ies, di ine p aye s and/o commemo a i e
es i i ies (cosmogonic, seasonal i es. . .). In his sense, i is necessa y o ecall he possible sea-
sonal cha ac e o he deposi ion in Sp ing (based on he plausible sac i ice o he young
sheep/goa ) and, indeed, o highligh he s one pla o m, loca ed wi hin a na u al niche in he
ca e wall, which may ha e unc ioned as a kind o al a , and also he deco a i e ea u es o he
wo eng a ed po e y essels, one o hem physically associa ed o he body o he young
sheep/goa and he o he ound in he hea h. The la e , in ac , displays a unique composi ion,
a possible dynamic schema ic scena y o med by a se ies o e ical b anching mo i s ha
occupy almos he en i e heigh o he essel. The epe i i e mo i appea s some imes in o he
Neoli hic po e y cases [137–139] bu also ecalls ce ain ege al mo i s o Ibe ian ock a
(named ‘ ami o m’ o b anch-shaped [140]), and indeed is common in ca es and shel e s
h oughou he egion [see o example 141–144]. The e o e, he ela ionship p e iously sug-
ges ed by o he au ho s be ween Neoli hic po e y deco a ion and schema ic ca e a [108,
145] is ce ainly a line o ollow up in u u e. Some o he possibili ies men ioned abo e, espe-
cially hose ha indica e he possibili y o a empo al sequence in he comple ion o he deposi-
ional con ex , would imply a succession o i ual e en s in acco dance wi h one o se e al o
hese in e p e a i e scena ios, in which some kind o ances al cul could also be p esen .
5. Conclusions
Gi en he ela i ely di e se pano ama, i is wo h asking i he e was in ac a cul u al homoge-
nei y behind he peninsula une a y eco d be ween 4800–4550 cal BC. I is in e es ing ha
Andalusian une a y e idence o his pe iod comes om ca es, wi h he excep ion o he
anomalous case o Ce o Vi ud. Meanwhile, in he es o he Ibe ian Peninsula whe e une -
a y e idence om his ch onological pe iod exis s - ha is, undamen ally in he eas e n hal o
he peninsula, and he occasional case in Sou h and Cen al Po ugal- i comes ins ead om
open-ai si es (wi h he excep ion o he Co a de l’A ellane shel e ). I is unlikely ha his
dicho omy could be due solely o me hodological biases in he su eying and sea ch o p ehis-
o ic si es in he di e en egions. Mo eo e , mos o hese egions also ha e shel e s and
ca es, so he di e en ial a ailabili y o sui able si es canno be he only explana o y ac o
ei he . I is he e o e possible o hink o a cul u al mosaic in he une a y adi ions o he Ibe-
ian Peninsula du ing hese cen u ies o he i s hal o he 5
h
millennium cal BC, leading o
he obse ed dicho omy be ween he Andalusian egion and, pa icula ly, he eas e n hal o
he peninsula. In he o me , simila ly o he sou he n egions o Po ugal, open-ai bu ials
only appea ed owa ds he end o he 5
h
and especially du ing he 4
h
millennium cal BC,
many o hem associa ed wi h he eme gence o di ched enclosu es and megali hic
monumen s.
Despi e his possible ca ea ega ding he he e ogenei y o he une a y i es o his ch ono-
logical in e al in he Ibe ian Peninsula, aken as a whole i is possible ha he e may be a
g ea e simila i y be ween he p ac ices o he ea ly Middle Neoli hic and he une a y cus oms
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o he p e ious Ea ly Neoli hic han be ween he o me and hose o he pe iod a e he mid-
5
h
millennium cal BC. This poin o discussion equi es a sys ema ic compa a i e app oach o
he o e all body o Neoli hic une a y e idence, which g ea ly exceeds he scope o he p esen
wo k. Howe e , he basis o he hypo hesis may be disclosed as he obse a ion ha he bulk o
he une a y e idence is ound wi hin habi a a eas, ei he in ca es o ou doo s. Only in he
cases o Pa e nanbidea and Cas elo Belinho he bu ials o m a mo e o less speci ic une a y
a ea, a kind o nec opolis. These, howe e , al eady display some o he cha ac e is ic ea u es
o la e si es, some o hem wi h nume ous exca a ed ea u es, small ci cula pi s and la ge
enclosu es, and/o megali hic cons uc ions. Close o Dehesilla Ca e, o example, ep esen a-
i e si es o he une a y i es o he end o he 5
h
and 4
h
millennia cal BC a e he se lemen s
o Campo de Hockey [146] and he megali hic nec opolis o Cañada Real and El Paloma , a
Los Mola es [147], o he megali hic nec opolis o Albe i e [148]. Mo e o less con empo ane-
ous is he well-known ho izon o he pi ields o he no heas o he peninsula.
This possible g ea e cul u al dis ance be ween he eco ds o he wo pe iods may be a
leas pa ially due o he alleged popula ion decline du ing he adi ional Middle Neoli hic
pe iod, al hough his gene al demog aphic dynamic su ely had g ea di e ences and egional
hy hms h oughou he Ibe ian Peninsula. This pano ama can be gene ally ex apola ed o
he bes -pa o he Ibe ian Peninsula. The numbe o adioca bon da es a ailable o he wo
cen al qua e s o he 5
h
millennium cal BC is no ably lowe han o he p e ious and subse-
quen pe iods (Ea ly and La e Neoli hic, espec i ely) [c . 149]. In he sou h o he Ibe ian Pen-
insula, he si e o Los Cas illejos, in Las Peñas de los Gi anos (Mon e ı
´o, G anada), is o
pa icula ele ance in his ega d, due o he in ense p og am o a chaeological ac i i ies ca -
ied ou , and whe e a pe iod o abandonmen o he si e has been documen ed be ween ca.
4800-4400/4200 cal BC [150]. In ac , his speci ic pe iod has e y ew ch onological pa allels
in Andalusian si es ha a e well da ed om domes ic and/o sho -li ed elemen s, al hough
he e a e some sca ce da es ha co e he second and hi d qua e s o he 5
h
millennium BC
om a sca e o ca e and open-ai si es in he Medi e anean coas al egions and sou heas
Andalusia. I he e we e a simila hia us a Dehesilla Ca e, howe e , i may only ha e been a
li le la e , om he middle o he 5
h
millennium cal BC, in he pe iod known as Middle Neo-
li hic B, whe e i is no ed, o example, ha he olume o a chaeological ma e ial emains
dec ease sha ply wi h espec o he p e ious pe iod analysed in his wo k [19].
I his hypo hesis we e ue, he lowe numbe and densi y o popula ions du ing his pe iod
migh ha e caused a g ea e isola ion o he g oups om one ano he , and he e o e led o a
lowe a e o in e ac ion and ho izon al ansmission han hose o he Ea ly Neoli hic and, o
cou se, o he La e Neoli hic, when nume ous new ea u es a e di e en ially eplica ed and
ansmi ed apidly be ween popula ions, such as he eme gence o pi enclosu es and he con-
solida ion o nec opoli, as well as megali hism om he beginning o he 4
h
millennium cal
BC.
A any a e, Locus 2 o Dehesilla Ca e cons i u es an ex ao dina y ind and an impo an
con ibu ion o he cu en une a y e idence a ailable in he Ibe ian Peninsula o he 5
h
mil-
lennium BC. I has p o ided a g ea weal h o da a ha con e ges owa ds he i ual na u e o
his deposi ion. Mo eo e , i s disco e y opens up new possibili ies o unde s anding he sym-
bolic and he i ual social beha iou s o he Neoli hic ag icul u al popula ions o he wes e n
egions o he Medi e anean.
Acknowledgmen s
A numbe o impo an people and en i ies ha e collabo a ed wi h logis ic suppo and di e se
esou ces o he asks de eloped by he Dehesilla P ojec du ing he 2017 season: Alga Local
PLOS ONE
Locus 2 a Dehesilla Ca e and Middle Neoli hic i ual une a y p ac ices
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0236961 Augus 13, 2020 38 / 46
Council, Je ez de la F on e a A chaeological Museum, E oCul u a-Associa ion o he s udy
o human beha iou and cul u al di e si y, as well as he Dı
´az Rome o amily. D s João Cascal-
hei a and Ce
´lia Gonc¸al es om ICA EHB, Uni e sidade do Alga e, ha e helped wi h he
ine- uning o he geo e e encing sys em implemen ed in he ield. Da id Na ega, Uni e si-
dade de Coimb a, has p o ided suppo in he sexual de e mina ion o he wo skulls p esen ed
in his pape . Daniel Ga cı
´a Ri e o pe sonally hanks his eam o collabo a o s o hei help in
bo h he a chaeological exca a ions and he p ocessing and documen a ion o he inds du ing
2017: Da id Lo
´pez Ca mona, Pa icia Vi ino Gabella, A aceli Ba e a C uz, Pablo Gu ie
´ ez
F anco, Je ico
´Mance a Jime
´nez and Elena T ujillo Godoy. Finally, we would like o hank he
in e es o he Edi o s o PLoS ONE and he help ul commen s by Joan Be nabeu and wo
o he anonymous e iewe s.
Addi ional in o ma ion ega ding specimens: No pe mi s we e equi ed o he desc ibed
s udy, which complied wi h all ele an egula ions.
Au ho Con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o.
Funding acquisi ion: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o, Cla
´udia Umbelino, Eloı
´sa Be na
´ldez-Sa
´nchez,
Leono Peña-Choca o, Juan F. Gibaja-Bao.
In es iga ion: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o, Ru h Taylo , Cla
´udia Umbelino, T. Douglas P ice, Es e-
ban Ga cı
´a- Viñas, Eloı
´sa Be na
´ldez-Sa
´nchez, Guillem Pe
´ ez-Jo dà, Leono Peña-Choca o,
Ma ı
´a Ba e a-C uz, Juan F. Gibaja-Bao, Manuel J. Dı
´az-Rod ı
´guez, Pa icia Mon ei o,
Juan C. Ve a-Rod ı
´guez, Ja ie Pe
´ ez-Gonza
´lez.
P ojec adminis a ion: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o.
Resou ces: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o, Ru h Taylo , Cla
´udia Umbelino, T. Douglas P ice, Es eban
Ga cı
´a- Viñas, Eloı
´sa Be na
´ldez-Sa
´nchez, Guillem Pe
´ ez-Jo dà, Leono Peña-Choca o,
Ma ı
´a Ba e a-C uz, Juan F. Gibaja-Bao, Manuel J. Dı
´az-Rod ı
´guez, Pa icia Mon ei o,
Juan C. Ve a-Rod ı
´guez, Ja ie Pe
´ ez-Gonza
´lez.
Supe ision: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o, Ru h Taylo , Cla
´udia Umbelino, T. Douglas P ice, Eloı
´sa
Be na
´ldez-Sa
´nchez, Leono Peña-Choca o, Juan F. Gibaja-Bao, Juan C. Ve a-Rod ı
´guez.
Visualiza ion: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o, Ru h Taylo , T. Douglas P ice, Es eban Ga cı
´a- Viñas,
Guillem Pe
´ ez-Jo dà, Ma ı
´a Ba e a-C uz, Juan F. Gibaja-Bao, Manuel J. Dı
´az-Rod ı
´guez,
Pa icia Mon ei o, Ja ie Pe
´ ez-Gonza
´lez.
W i ing – o iginal d a : Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o, Ru h Taylo , Cla
´udia Umbelino, T. Douglas
P ice, Es eban Ga cı
´a- Viñas, Guillem Pe
´ ez-Jo dà, Ma ı
´a Ba e a-C uz, Juan F. Gibaja-
Bao, Pa icia Mon ei o.
W i ing – e iew & edi ing: Daniel Ga cı
´a-Ri e o, Ru h Taylo , Cla
´udia Umbelino, T. Doug-
las P ice, Es eban Ga cı
´a- Viñas, Eloı
´sa Be na
´ldez-Sa
´nchez, Guillem Pe
´ ez-Jo dà, Leono
Peña-Choca o, Ma ı
´a Ba e a-C uz, Manuel J. Dı
´az-Rod ı
´guez.
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