1
Fac o s a ec ing inno a ion e isi ed
José Mole o y An onio Ga cía
WP05/08
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3
Resumen
El p opósi o de es e abajo es con ibui a un mejo conocimien o de los ac o es que a ec-
an a la inno ación median e el análisis de los mic oda os de la encues a de inno ación de
las emp esas españolas de 2003. El es udio se abo da desde la elabo ación de una axono-
mía de sec o es combinando las Ven ajas Tecnológicas Re eladas de la indus ia española
con el dinamismo ecnológico mundial; además se in oduce una clasi icación de las em-
p esas en unción de la pe enencia o no a un g upo de emp esas y de si esos g upos son
de nacionalidad española o ex anje a.
Se u ilizan écnicas de Análisis Fac o ial pa a educi y o ganiza la abundan e in o mación
disponible en Fac o es con signi icado económico que después son empleados como a ia-
bles explica i as de la inno ación de p oduc o y de p oceso. Se encuen an di e encias
en e ambos ipos de inno ación an o po el núme o de ac o es signi ica i os como en la
in ensidad de su capacidad explica i a. La axonomía elabo ada mues a su impo ancia al
mos a pa ones de compo amien o dis in os en e los cua o ipos de casos cons uidos.
Abs ac
The aim o his pape is o con ibu e o a be e unde s anding o ac o s a ec ing inno a-
ion by analysing he Spanish manu ac u ing sec o using mic oda a o he 2003 Spanish
Inno a ion Su ey. To en ich he analysis a sel de eloped sec o al axonomy is used com-
ing om he combina ion o bo h o he sec o al Re ealed Technological Ad an ages
(RTA) and wo ldwide echnological dynamism o he sec o s; mo eo e i ms a e classi ied
acco ding o he ype o capi al owne ship: independen companies, companies belonging
o a na ional g oup and subsidia ies o mul ina ional en e p ises. The abundance and he -
e ogenei y o a iables ad ised us o use Fac o analysis o educe and o ganise he o iginal
a iables in o a numbe o consis en and heo e ically signi ican ac o s. We ound di e -
ences be ween p oduc and p ocess inno a ion, bo h in numbe o explica i e a iables
(signi ican independen a iables) and in ela i e e ec o independen a iables (e en, in
some cases, a sign change om p oduc o p ocess inno a ion). Taxonomy ma e s be-
cause o some di e ences in explana o y (independen ) a iables o each sec o and
model explana o y powe di e ences be ween sec o s, and, on he o he hand, because o
he “non signi icance” o some signi ican a iables once we con ol by sec o al axonomy.
Key wo ds: Inno a ion, Fac o s a ec ing inno a ion, Mul ina ional en e p ises, Sec o al
axonomies, Spain.
José Mole o, An onio Ga cía
Ins i u o Complu ense de Es udios In e nacionales, Uni e sidad Complu ense de Mad id. Campus de Somo-
saguas, Finca Mas Fe e. 28223, Pozuelo de Ala cón, Mad id, Spain.
Facul ad de Ciencias Económicas y Emp esa iales. Uni e sidad de Se illa. A da Ramon y Cajal, 1. 41018,
Se illa, Spain.
© José Mole o, An onio Ga cía
ISBN:
Depósi o legal:
El ICEI no compa e necesa iamen e las opiniones exp esadas en es e abajo, que son de exclusi a esponsabilidad de sus au o es.
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Índice
1. In oduc ion…………………………………………………………………………….……..7
2. Theo e ical backg ound……………………………………………………………………….8
3. Me hodology and da a analysis………………………………………………...………...…..11
4. Some s ylised ac s o he inno a ion in he Spanish economy………………………….….13
5. Resul s…………………………………………………………………………………………15
5.1 Fac o analysis ..…………………………………….………………………………..15
5.2 Reg ession analysis………...…………………………………………………….…..16
6. Concluding ema ks…………………………………………………………………….……19
7. Annexe A……………………………………………………………………………………...21
Annexe B………………………………………………………………………………………22
8. Re e ences……………………………………………………………………………………..26

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1. In oducción
Inno a ion has expe ienced a ema kable
change in ecen yea s as a consequence o a
numbe o ac o s including he ad ance o
science and echnology and he inc easing
globalisa ion o a numbe o ma ke s and ac-
i i ies. The g owing he e ogenei y o sou ces
a ec ing he p ocess o i ms’ inno a ion has
led o he knowledge c ea ed ou o he com-
panies hemsel es achie ing g ea e im-
po ance, and he e o e o he cen al ole o
be played by he capaci y o in eg a ing inne
and ou e sou ces o echnological capabili ies
wi h o he compe i i e o ces. Simila ly, he
accele a ion o in e na ionalisa ion a mos
economic and social le els has inc eased he
necessi y o exploi ing i ms’ ad an ages a
in e na ional (some imes wo ld) le el and
seeking new compe i i e ( echnological) asse s
in a mul ina ional amewo k. Mo eo e , he
specialised esea ch has eached a common
conclusion ha sec o al ea u es ha e a e-
ma kable in luence on he possibili ies and
o ganisa ional modes o inno a o y ac i i y.
F om Pa i ’s seminal sec o al axonomy on
inno a ion, he e is a long adi ion o using
se e al axonomies o “classi ica o y lis ” o
p oduc i e sec o s acco ding o hei in-
no a i e cha ac e is ic o in ensi y. Bo h a-
cademic and ins i u ional axonomies can be
desc ibed as “closed ap io is ic lis s” o sec-
o s, buil on igo ous s udies bu wi hou
lexibili y o allow coun y di e ences on sec-
o cha ac e is ics. A main con ibu ion o his
pape consis s o g ouping companies in di -
e en ca ego ies o sec o s in a non-ap io is ic
way: each sec o is “sel -classi ied” in a speci ic
ype and no in any o he acco ding o pa -
icula cha ac e is ics and “inno a i e be-
ha iou ” in a gi en coun y (in ou case,
Spain). To his end we ha e de eloped a a-
xonomy om he combina ion o (RTA1) o
each sec o o ac i i y and he e olu ion o i s
wo ld weigh be ween 1993-1998 and 1999-
2003. O iginal sec o al da a come om pa en s
g an ed by he USPTO by p io i y yea a he
na ional le el by sec o o economic ac i i y
(NACE class de i ed h ough conco dance
wi h In e na ional Pa en Classi ica ion).
1 RTAs o a sec o o a coun y is calcula ed as ollows: RTAij =
(Pij / Pwj )/ (PTi / PTw) whe e i is he coun y, j he sec o , w he
wo ld o al o j sec o , T is he o al o he coun y and w is he
absolu e wo ld o al. All e e ed o pa en s in a pe iod o ime.
Using mic oda a om he Spanish Inno a ion
Su ey2, we had he ad an age o hei quali y
and s a is ical signi icance. These da a a e o a
g ea s a is ical alidi y inso a as an expe
g oup coo dina ed by he Spanish Na ional
S a is ics Ins i u e has, on he one hand, d awn
up a pe manen sample o i ms wi h he in-
en ion o c ea ing a s able panel o da a and,
on he o he , has con olled he s a is ical sig-
ni icance o he anonymous da a is-à- is he
o iginal mic o da a. In addi ion, his in o ma-
ion allows us o sepa a e i ms acco ding o
hei independen ea u e o belonging o a
g oup, including he coun y o o igin o he
mo he house o MNCs.
Ou opic o explain is he inno a i e ac i i y
(p oduc and p ocess inno a ion) o Spanish
manu ac u ing i ms (bo h na ional and mul-
ina ional owne ship), using as explana o y
a iables hose included in he Inno a ion
Su ey. The abundance and he e ogenei y o
a iables ad ised us o use Fac o analysis o
educe and o ganise he numbe o o iginal
a iables in a numbe o consis en and heo-
e ically signi ican ac o s. We ha e made a
se ies o sec o al analyses in an i e a i e way
using bo h PITEC o iginal a iables and i s
ans o ma ions. Non-included a iables ha e
been ejec ed on he basis o KMO and MSA
alues. Once ele an ac o s a e e ained, we
ha e made wo se ies o logis ics eg essions
o bo h p ocess and p oduc inno a ion im-
plemen a ion, wi h ac o s and i ms owne -
ship as independen a iables. In each se ies,
i s ly we eg ess once o he whole sample
and secondly we eg ess ou imes mo e con-
olling by sec o al axonomy.
In he nex sec ion, we p esen he main heo-
e ical backg ound, in he hi d sec ion we
discuss ou da a and me hodological guide-
lines, in he ou h sec ion we p esen some
s ylised ac s o inno a ion ac i i ies in Spain
o a be e unde s anding o he con ex in
which ou empi ical wo k is done, in he i h
sec ion we show he empi ical esul s and i-
nally in he six h sec ion we enhance he main
conclusion
2 I is called he PITEC panel (Panel de Inno acion Tec-
nologica). See: www. echnociencia.es. Due o he manipula ion
o he o iginal su ey da a, he in o ma ion o his panel canno
be compa ed in absolu e e ms wi h da a di ec ly de i ed om
he inno a ion su ey used in he o me sec ion.
8
2. Theo e ical backg ound
I is no ou in en ion o de elop a comple e
heo y o ac o s a ec ing inno a ion. Fi s o
all his is because such a heo y is no a ail-
able, as demons a ed by bo h he a emp s o
ga he he mos ele an empi ical in es iga-
ions (Tidd, Bessan and Pa i , 1997), and he
lis o issues included in seminal books as “is-
sues a ec ing inno a ion” (Ro hwell and
Dodgson, 1995; Fage be e al, 2006). On he
con a y, ou aim is o b ie ly e iew he mos
signi ican con ibu ions o ind some heo e i-
cal guidelines o ou empi ical esea ch. In
his ega d, o b ie ly summa ise he pano ama
o heo e ical isions o he condi ions which
p omo e success ul inno a i e ac i i ies o
i ms, we can clus e hem oge he in wo
undamen al g oups. On he one hand a e
hose belonging o he long adi ion o in-
dus ial o ganisa ion heo y which basically
sea ch o a ew de e mining ac o s o he
capaci y o inno a ion and, on he o he , hose
mo e ep esen a i e o he ela i ely ecen
app oach o he e olu iona y heo y which is
based on he analysis o a ie y and di e si y
o inno a i e modes and equen ly uses he
classi ica ion o cases as a basic heo e ical
ool.
S a ing om he adi ion o indus ial o gani-
sa ion s udies, one mus emembe hei cen-
al me hodological cha ac e is ics consis ing
o he combina ion o he h ee classical s eps
o s uc u e-conduc -pe o mance (Sche e
and Ross, 1990). As o me ly o o he e-
conomic issues, he analy ical wo k is o ien ed
o inding ou one o a ew ac o s (ne e a
la ge numbe ) which can explain he in-
no a o y ac i i y o he i ms in a sa is ac o y
way3. Wi hou a doub hese wo a e he mos
equen ly esea ched elemen s: he size o he
i m and he concen a ion le el o he ma ke s
in which i ms ca y ou hei inno a i e ac-
i i ies.
In spi e o he huge numbe o s udies made
abou bo h o heses issues, he cu en si ua-
ion is ha he e a e no conclusi e esul s al-
lowing us o asse he sign and in ensi y o
he impac hose ac o s ha e o induce in-
no a ion. In ac , as a as he size o he i m
is conce ned, we can sha e he a gumen o
3 O senigo (1989) sugges s hey use a dicho omous pe spec i e:
la ge e sus small size, concen a ed e sus non-concen a ed
ma ke s, e c. Cohen (1995) calls hem s udies in he Schum-
pe e ian adi ion.
F eeman and Soe e (1997, page 193) ha he
size “ce ainly in luences wha kind o p ojec s
can be a emp ed in e ms o echnology, com-
plexi y and cos s bu does no in i sel de-
e mine he ou come”.
This inconclusi e conclusion is he esul o a
la ge amoun o empi ical esea ch ela ing o
he size o he i ms and inno a i e ac i i ies
o he i ms. Pe haps he mos classic one is
he associa ion o size wi h R&D expendi u e.
In his case, he a ailable esea ch shows he e
is a concen a ion o R&D expendi u e in la ge
companies, basically de e mined by he size o
R&D p og ammes ins ead o he size o he
i m (F eeman and Soe e, 1997). Ne e heless,
i is mo e di icul o ind a clea associa ion
be ween he inc ease o he size and he in en-
si y o R&D expendi u e. In ac , mainly a e
con olling by sec o , he associa ion seems o
ollow a g owing end ( he la ge he size he
mo e in ense is R&D e o ) bu jus o a ce -
ain ex en ; om his poin onwa d he do-
minan ela ion is a p opo ional one (Cohen,
1995). Wi h ega d o small i ms, he e i-
dence poin s o a wo old si ua ion: whe eas a
as majo i y o small i ms do no pe o m
any specialised R&D p og amme, in se e al
coun ies hose small i ms ha do pe o m
R&D ha e abo e a e age R&D in ensi ies
(F eeman and Soe e, 1997, p. 232).
The si ua ion is e en less clea i inno a ion
eplaces R&D ac i i ies; mo e quali ica ions
ha e o be inco po a ed, such as, o example,
he possible ad an age o small companies in
ea ly s ages o inno a i e wo k and he less
expensi e bu mo e adical inno a ion,
whe eas la ge i ms ha e ad an ages in he
la e s ages and imp o emen and scaling up o
ea ly b eak h oughs (F eeman and Soe e,
1997, 234). Mo e gene ally, Ro hwell and
Dodgson (1995, 323) a i e a he ollowing
conclusions:
I. Inno a o y ad an age is unequi ocally
associa ed nei he wi h la ge no small
companies. Small i m ad an ages a e
mainly beha iou al while hose o la ge
i ms a e mainly ma e ial.
II. A ailable da a sugges s ha he i m
size/inno a ion sha e ela ionship is U-
shaped.
III. Small i ms´ inno a o y con ibu ion a-
ies signi ican ly om sec o o sec o .
9
IV. Small and la ge i ms do no ope a e in
isola ion om each o he and hey enjoy
a a ie y o complemen a y ela ionships
in hei echnological ac i i ies”.
V. Any s udy o he oles o small and la ge
i ms in inno a ion should be dynamic:
hei ela i e oles a y conside ably
o e he indus y cycle (Shephe d, 1991;
U e back, 1994).
The si ua ion is mo e con using i he aim is o
associa e le els o concen a ion (o monopo-
lis ic powe ) wi h a supe io inno a i e pe -
o mance. The eason is ha he e a e wo
di e en angles o app oach ha ela ionship:
one is he passi e and di ec associa ion o
highe le els o concen a ion wi h mo e in-
ensi e beha iou and he second he mo e
dynamic and complex one ha pos ula es he
need o a monopolis ic ewa d o encou age
inno a i e ac i i ies (O senigo, 1989; Cohen,
1995). In he i s case no s ong conclusi e
esul can be shown and he second is e y
di icul o es ; he e o e, some idea o a si-
mul aneous de e mina ion o concen a ion
and inno a ion can be p oposed (Cohen,
1995).
To comple e ha une en pe spec i e we can
conclude ha o gene alise abou size o he
i ms, scale o R&D, in en i e ou pu and in-
no a ion needs o be hea ily quali ied. In-
dus y, echnology and his o y ma e 4 (F ee-
man, 1982; F eeman and Soe e, 1997). The e
a e no many o he ea u es so deeply in es i-
ga ed. In gene al, p og ess has been poo in
opics such as he in luence o cash lows o
di e si ica ion (Cohen, 1995). Ne e heless, i
is impo an o highligh he impo ance gi en
o some o ganisa ional cha ac e is ics in he
seminal SAPPHO p ojec (Ro hwell e al,
1974) and he enaissance o hose elemen s in
he li e a u e and policy p ac ices (Nel-
son&Sampa , 2001; Nelson, 2008; OECD,
2005).
Following a me hodology o compa ing suc-
cess and ailu e o inno a ion, he SAPPHO
p ojec spo ligh ed a numbe o o ganisa ional
a iables, mainly “ma ke ing ela ed”, “ex e -
nal communica ion” and “ i m managemen ”.
4 I is impo an o emembe a numbe o empi ical limi s
which se iously make i di icul o a i e a gene al conclusions.
Acco ding o Cohen (1995), we can men ion he ac ha sam-
ples a e mos ly no andom, in many cases he e a e o he i ms
a iables ou o con ol and he mul isec o al cha ac e o mos
la ge i ms.
F eeman cle e ly summa ised i by saying:
“ he ac ha he measu es which disc imi-
na ed be ween success and ailu e include
some which e lec ed mainly on he compe-
ence on R&D, o he s which e lec ed mainly
on e icien ma ke ing and some which meas-
u ed cha ac e is ics o he business inno a o
wi h good communica ions, con i ms ha
iew o indus ial inno a ion as essen ially a
coupling p ocess” (F eeman, 1982, 125).
The o me no wi hs anding, he inno a ion
heo y eo ien ed he app oach o in es iga e
he ole o he i ms. P ecisely he ci ed book
o F eeman, oge he wi h seminal wo ks such
as Rosenbe g 1976, Nelson and Win e , 1982,
Dosi, 1984 and Pa i , 1984 made claims o a
be e unde s anding o echnology and inno-
a ion ha enables o c ea e a mo e accu a e
heo e ical app oach. Apa om o he gene al
conside a ions (O senigo, 1979; Dosi, 1984) as
a as his pape is conce ned, he cen al
change has o do wi h he in oduc ion o a i-
e y and di e si y as opposed o he main
s eam pe spec i e o gene al de e minan s o
i ms’ inno a ion; u he mo e, he no ion o
“lea ning” occupied a cen al posi ion as a
consequence o conside ing echnology and
inno a ion as speci ic kinds o knowledge
(Pa i , 2006).
As a consequence o his new o ien a ion he
app oach o i ms’ inno a o y beha iou in-
co po a es a numbe o ema kable modi y-
ca ions. Fou o hem a e pa icula ly sig-
ni ican o he objec i es o his in es iga ion:
he ole o sys ems o inno a ion, he im-
po ance o non- echnological inno a ion, he
ele ance o he sec o o ac i i y and he in-
oduc ion o axonomies o map he he e o-
genei y o conduc s.
The concep o sys ems o inno a ion (F ee-
man, 1987; Lund all, 1992) basically ein-
o ced he idea o sys emic in e ac ion among
i ms and a la ge amoun o ins i u ions. Thus,
in he con ex o his pape , he ele an issue
is he necessi y o inco po a ing in e nally and
ex e nally sou ces o knowledge o he i m,
ei he on a collabo a i e mode o h ough
ma ke mechanisms. In o he wo ds, he i-
sola ed conside a ion o i ms´ cha ac e is ics
is no enough o ully unde s and he inno a-
i e p ac ice o en e p ises (Ro hwell, 1995;
Tidd, Bessan and Pa i , 1997); hence a-
iables measu ing such an in e ac ion mus be
inco po a ed.
16
2 ac o s be ween 9.5% and 10.5%; le el II, 3
o 2 ac o s be ween 7% and 8.5%; le el III, 3
ac o s be ween 5.5% and 6,5%; le el IV, 2
ac o s a ound 4,5%).
The mo e solid Fac o s uc u es a e:
• NESTR, NGEST, NORG, NMARK,
NESTE, always in he i s le el and
usually he i s ac o .
• GMAQUI, GTECNO, GPREP, usually
in he second le el, we ind a endency
o inco po a e GFORM also.
• PATNUM, FPRO, usually in he se-
cond le el. GINTID has a endency o
link his ac o .
• INNOVEM, INNPROD, some imes in
he second le el, o he s in he hi d.
• PIDTEJpw, FAP, some imes in he
second le el, o he s in he hi d.
• TAMMED, GEXTID, GMARKET, u-
sually in he hi d le el.
• INNNOVET, INNPROC, always in he
las le el.
• INNOVEC, INFUN, always in he las
le el oo.
Ou selec ed Fac o s uc u e is shown in Ta-
ble 1 and i s qui e easonable possibili y o
being in e p e ed in economic and inno a i e
e ms mus be unde lined; each ac o is ac-
companied by he a iables ha clus e o-
ge he and he name we ha e assigned o make
explici i s economic o inno a i e signi i-
cance.
TABLE 1: ex ac ed ac o s.
EXPLAINED VAR (%) Fac o DESCRIPTION
Each ac o Accumula ed
1 O ganiza ional Inno a ion (ORGINNV) 10.53
10.53
2 Non-R&D inno a i e expendi u es
(NRDEXPEND) 10.42 20.95
3 Own R&D and esul s (RD&PAT) 7.5 28.45
4 P oduc inno a ion on inne e o (PRODINNER) 7.15 35.6
5 Human esou ces and Public unds
(HUMCAP&FUNDS) 6.15 41.75
6 Size and ex e nal knowledge in eg a ion
(SIZE&INTEGRATION) 6.05 47.8
7 EU unds a ac ion (UEFUNDS) 5.81 53.61
8 Basic esea ch and coope a ion
(BASICR&COOP) 4.82 58.43
9 P ocess inno a ion on ex e nal sou ces
(PROCEXTER) 4.81 63.24
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion om PITEC; p incipal componen s me hod.
5.2 Reg ession analysis.
This phase o he analysis has been done
h ough he es ima ion o eg ession models
using he o me ac o s as independen a-
iables o explain he inno a i e ac i i y o he
i ms. Following he esea ch pa h p oposed,
we ha e es ima ed a numbe o logis ic e-
g essions wi h se e al cha ac e is ics:
• We ha e sepa a ed p oduc and p o-
cess inno a ion on he unde s anding
ha he e can be signi ican di e ences
be ween hem. In bo h cases models
y o explain he p obabili y o any
i m belonging o he inno a i e g oup
o no .
• Apa om he ac o s we ha e in-
cluded as independen a iables wo
dummies ying o con ol he ix e-
ec o i ms belonging o any o he
h ee g oups in which we ha e di ided
he sample: independen Spanish com-
panies (EIN), i ms belonging o a na-
ional g oup (GN), and i ms be-
longing o o eign mul ina ional
g oups (GMN). The idea is o conside
he impo ance o he g owing in e na-

17
ionalisa ion o he inno a ion in he
Spain.
• In addi ion o he gene al eg essions
o p oduc s and p ocesses we ha e es-
ima ed in each case ou o he eg e -
ssions co esponding o he ypes o
sec o s o me ly explained.
The esul s a e shown in ables 2 and 3 om
which we can deduce as he main indings he
ollowing.
TABLE 2: Logi coe icien s o “innp od” (p oduc inno a ion)
Va iable GLOBAL DYNAMIC STATIC LOST
OPP. RETREAT
ein .226**
gmn
basic _coop .209*** .241*** .182*
humcap_ unds .981*** .977** .526*** 1.29***
n dexpend .406** -5.26*** .804** -6.13***
o ginn .424*** .435*** .402*** .439*** .393***
d_pa .449*** 1.57*** .65***
Size_in eg .238** 2.06*** .324*** .146* 2.12***
ue unds .195** .46*** .437*
cons an .677*** 1.22*** .618*** .915*** .582***
N 3691 805 1362 1086 438
ll -2213 -427 -852 -634 -250
ll_0 -2395 -500 -900 -695 -294
chi2 363 144 96.1 123 87
2_p .0758 .144 .0534 .0881 .148
aic 4445 869 1713 1284 509
bic 4500 902 1739 1324 525
legend: * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion om PITEC da a.
TABLE 3: Logi coe icien s o “innp oc” (p ocess inno a ion)
Va iable GLOBAL DYNAMIC STATIC
LOST
OPP. RETREAT
ein .383*** .666***
gmn
basic _coop .886*** .973*** 1.12*** .971*** .768***
humcap_ unds -.471*** -3.76*** -.969*** -.436*** -3.12***
N dexpend .499*** -8.55*** -1.06*** .886*** -10.6***
o ginn .597*** .475*** .65*** .532*** .43***
d_pa .128* -1.75*** -.297** .291**
Size_in eg .502**
Ue unds 1.89*** 1.87*** 1.09***
cons an -.213*** -.803*** -.196* -.0482 -.455***
N 3691 805 1362 1086 438
Ll -2033 -390 -726 -598 -225
ll_0 -2552 -551 -944 -752 -297
chi2 1037 322 436 309 145
2_p .203 .292 .231 .205 .244
aic 4083 791 1470 1210 459
bic 4132 820 1517 1245 480
legend: * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001
Sou ce: Own-elabo a ion om PITEC da a.
18
GENERAL FINDINGS.
1. Gene ally speaking we ob ain a be e
explana ion o p ocess han o
p oduc inno a ion. I is e lec ed in
he highe pseudo R2 alues and in
he highe homogenei y ound ac oss
ypes o sec o s. Ne e heless, signi-
ican ac o s a e a he simila , al-
hough size & in eg a ion is mo e
impo an in p oduc inno a ion.
F om a mo e specula i e poin o
iew we ask i hose di e ences a e a
e lec ion o he Spanish inno a ion
cha ac e ised, among o he elemen s,
by a lesse p esence o adical and
s a egic inno a ions and a hea ie
weigh o adop ions and by a lesse
dependence on o eign inpu s in
p ocess echnologies (Buesa&
Mole o, 1992; Mole o, 2007).
2. The associa ion be ween human ca-
pi al (pe sonnel) and he access o
public unds changes i s signs: posi-
i e o p oduc inno a ion and nega-
i e o p ocess. All he emaining
ac o s main ain he same sign in
bo h cases.
3. The kind o sec o eme ges as much
mo e impo an han he ype o
i ms´ owne ship, con i ming wha
was expec ed. Once we con ol o
he i s , we only ind a case in which
he ype o i m is ele an : ICs in
p ocess inno a ion o S a iona y Spe-
cialisa ion sec o s. Impo an ly
enough i mus be said ha his
g oup ga he s a non negligible num-
be o so called adi ional indus ies
in which independen companies a e
s ill he bulk o he ac i i y.
4. O ganiza ional inno a ion a ises as
he mos impo an ac o explaining
he beha iou o inno a i e i ms. I s
uni e sal p esence in bo h ypes o
inno a ion and in all kinds o sec o s,
always wi h a posi i e sign, allows us
o asse ha his new e idence con-
i ms and ein o ces wha heo y and
p e ious s udies p edic ed.
5. A e con olling o ype o sec o , a
numbe o di e ences can be ound.
I is so bo h o he explana o y ca-
paci y o he models and o conc e e
ac o s which a e signi ican in some
cases bu no in o he s (some imes
changing he sign). In ou opinion
his con i ms and jus i ies he e-
le ance o he axonomy used. Mo e-
o e he le el o adjus men a ies
signi ican ly be ween he sec o s be-
e adap ed o he in e na ional dy-
namism (Dynamic Specialisa ion and
Re ea ) and he o he wo mo e im-
balanced sec o s (Los Oppo uni ies
and S a iona y Specialisa ion).
PRODUCT INNOVATION
1. The ype o i m is no signi ican in
any o he cases. Howe e he size &
in eg a ion ac o has a a ou able
e ec in all cases.
2. Expendi u es on non R&D in-
no a i e ac i i ies ha e a posi i e
impac in Los Oppo uni ies, ne-
ga i e in Dynamic Specialisa ion
and Re ea and a e non- signi ican
in S a iona y Specialisa ion. This
poin s ou o a g ea e necessi y o
p ope R&D ac i i ies in mo e dy-
namic sec o s o ollow he wo ld
e olu ion whe eas in dynamic sec-
o s in which Spain has echnologi-
cal disad an ages, non R&D ac i i-
ies can be conside ed as an al e -
na i e o build some capaci ies o be
comple ed a e wa ds h ough R&D.
3. The al eady men ioned ole o o -
ganisa ional inno a ion shows a
highe e ec in he wo sec o s wi h
weake adap a ion o he wo ld dy-
namic: S a iona y Specialisa ion and
Los Oppo uni ies. In o he wo ds,
i is o hose sec o s ha his non
echnological inno a ion seems o
play i s mos impo an ole.
4. The join e ec o R&D expendi u e
and Pa en s is a ac o which po-
si i ely in luences p oduc in-
no a ion in in e na ionally dynamic
sec o s, ega dless o ha ing ech-
nological ad an ages o disad an-
ages. Tha is o say, in ma u e sec-
o s he echnological e o mea-
su ed h ough R&D and pa en s is
no a disc imina ing ac o be ween
inno a i e and non inno a i e
i ms; whe eas i posi i ely dis-
19
c imina es in dynamic sec o s. In
hese cases R&D and pa en s appea
as a equi emen o ge echnologi-
cal ad an ages. A simila commen
can be made wi h ega d o UE
unds; his ac o can be unde s ood
as an index o inno a i e dynamism.
5. Basic esea ch and Coope a ion is
only signi ican in he wo sec o s
which e eal a bad in e na ional a-
dap a ion: S a iona y Specialisa ion
and Los Oppo uni ies. The e o e
we can send a message o policy
conside a ions: o s eng hen hose
ac i i ies is essen ial o imp o e he
si ua ion o he i ms in Los Oppo -
uni ies sec o s.
PROCESS INNOVATION
1. Independen companies a e mo e ac-
i e in S a iona y Specialisa ion sec-
o s, oge he wi h Size & In eg a-
ion ac o . The weigh o adi ional
sec o s wi h independen companies
–some o hem o no iceable size- a-
llows us o in e p e his esul as a
si ua ion in which o eign companies
come o “ ollow” o “adap ” he be-
ha iou o na ional companies wi h
ema kable echnological ad an-
ages.
2. Basic Resea ch & Coope a ion is a-
ou able in he ou cases, albei i s
e ec is ela i ely highe in sec o s
wi h bad in e na ional adjus men :
Los Oppo uni ies and S a iona y
Specialisa ion. This esul suppo s
wha was said in he analysis o
p oduc inno a ion: inancing basic
esea ch and coope a i e ac i i ies
posi i ely in luences inno a ion in
p oduc and p ocess.
3. Non R&D inno a i e expendi u es
ha e a nega i e impac in all sec o s
excep in Los Oppo uni ies. Mo e-
o e , he size o he e ec is much
g ea e in sec o s posi i ely adap ed
o in e na ional e olu ion. Again,
mos dynamic sec o s a e much
mo e dependen on R&D while in
o he cases non R&D ac i i ies can
be a p elimina y s ep o c ea e R&D
capabili ies.
4. O ganisa ional inno a ion, as always,
a ou s inno a ion and i s e ec is
g ea e in in e na ionally dynamic
sec o s, pa icula ly i i is a sec o
wi h echnological disad an ages.
5. The posi i e sign o Human Capi al
and Funds sugges s in p ocesses
wi h mo e sys ema ic and in-
c emen al inno a ion, he s abili y o
human esou ces is impo an and
hey seem o be s ongly connec ed
wi h he a ailabili y o public unds.
A complemen a y way o exploi ing he ind-
ings can be made h ough he poin o iew o
he kinds o sec o s o highligh some ele an
egula i ies. The s a ing poin is he exis ence
o mo e simila i ies be ween sec o s wi h good
i ness conce ning in e na ional dynamism, on
he one hand, and be ween hose badly
adap ed, on he o he .
As a as he i s wo a e conce ned we can
poin ou ha in he Dynamic Specialisa ion
ca ego y wo ac o s a e common o p oduc
and p ocess inno a ion: O ganisa ional In-
no a ion, wi h a posi i e impac , and non
R&D expendi u es, wi h a nega i e one. An-
o he wo show di e en signs in p oduc and
p ocess: Human capi al and Funds and R&D
and Pa en s- bo h ha e a posi i e e ec in
p oduc inno a ion and a nega i e e ec in
p ocess.
Rega ding Re ea Sec o s, only wo ac o s
a ise as common o p oduc and p ocess: The
salien ac is ha O ganisa ional Inno a ion
and Non R&D expendi u es a e common o
bo h Dynamic and Re ea and bo h ypes o
inno a ion, p oduc and p ocess. The i s has
a egula posi i e in luence and he second a
nega i e one.
In Dynamic sec o s he ole o human capi al
and unds and R&D and pa en s is also e-
ma kable. The wo a e signi ican o bo h
ypes o inno a ion, al hough wi h di e en
signs; posi i e o p oduc and nega i e o
p ocess.
Coming o sec o s wi h nega i e in e na ional
adjus men , i is no iceable ha he e is less
egula i y han in he o me cases. The mos
ou s anding a e he ollowing.
Apa om he sys ema ic p esence o o -
ganisa ional inno a ion, he e also a ises he
20
egula p esence o Basic Resea ch and Co-
ope a ion. This, on he one hand, explains he
insu icien ole played inso a as i has no
been enough o gua an ee a be e in e na-
ional adjus men . This is why we insis ed on
he idea ha policy has o os e hose ac i i-
ies in o de o upg ade he si ua ion.
A second egula i y has o do wi h Human
Capi al and Funds. This ac o is common o
he wo sec o s and ypes on inno a ion, al-
hough o he las one, he sign changes om
posi i e in p oduc o nega i e in p ocess.
6. Concluding ema ks.
As on many occasions, he dis ance be ween
he heo e ical deba e and empi ical indings
has been non-negligible in his esea ch exe -
cise. In ac , he heo y abou ac o s a ec ing
i ms´ inno a ion has s ill a long way o go
because he analy ical objec is complex and
di icul o se limi s o , as ou e iew o he
li e a u e has shown. In spi e o hose di icul-
ies we ha e ied o cas some ligh on he
bases o he s udy o he Spanish case wi h
some no iceable ea u es: i s , he impo ance
gi en o he ca ego y o sec o by cons uc ing
a new axonomy h ough he combina ion o
sec o al echnological RTAs and he in e na-
ional dynamism; second, he u ilisa ion o a
e y eliable da abase, which, based on he CIS
has been s a is ically imp o ed and eady o be
used p epa ed by a g oup o specialis s; hi d,
he combina ion o a e y la ge numbe o
a iables in o de o cap u e he ichness and
complexi y o he inno a o y p ocess; ou h,
he inclusion o a sepa a e s udy o p oduc
and p ocess inno a ion; and i h, he inco po-
a ion o he ype o company by di e en ia-
ing be ween na ional independen en e p ises
om ei he na ional o mul ina ional g oups.
The esul s ob ained allow us o make explici
he ollowing ema ks:
1. Fi s o all, he me hodology has
demons a ed i s use ulness because
bo h he sec o al axonomy and he
sepa a ion o p oduc and p ocess in-
no a ion show signi ican di e ences.
We should like o unde line he im-
po ance o ypological analysis in he
o e all heo e ical e o .
2. Pa icula ly impo an a e some ind-
ings abou di e ences ac oss ca ego-
ies o sec o s. I in a p elimina y ap-
p oach we di e en ia e be ween he
posi i e diagonal (dynamic and e-
ea sec o s) and he nega i e one
(los oppo uni ies and s a iona y
specialisa ion), we a i e a he con-
clusion ha ou es ima ions a e
s onge o he posi i e one, bo h o
p oduc and p ocess inno a ion. In
o he wo ds, he in luence o he
a iables g ouped in ac o s, allows
us o asse ha he e is a be e in e-
g a ion and unc ioning in he cases
in which he Spanish specialisa ion
coincides wi h he wo ld dynamic.
3. Simila ly, al hough less clea ly, he
sepa a ion o p oduc and p ocess has
shown i s use ulness. In gene al
e ms he be e adjus men o he
model o explaining p ocess inno a-
ion is adequa e o Spanish inno a-
i e specialisa ion which is mo e
p ocess o ien ed. E en hough wi h
he necessa y cau ion, we can e-
membe he demons a ed bias o he
Spanish pa e n owa ds less in en-
si e and mo e adop ion based kinds
o inno a ions. Fu he mo e, he ex-
ao dina y impo ance o machine y
and equipmen pu chases as sou ces
o inno a ion o a majo i y o i ms
i s well in o ou indings.
4. On he con a y, he ype o i ms ac-
co ding o he dis inc ion be ween
na ional and o eigne s does no shed
much ligh . Ve y much in acco dance
wi h p e ious wo ks (Mole o & Ga -
cia, 2008), ou esul s do no ind ex-
ao dina y di e ences be ween com-
panies belonging o na ional o mul-
ina ional g oups. Al hough a num-
be o quali ica ions mus be in-
oduced ega ding he o ganisa ion
o inno a i e p ocess, ou s udy inds
mo e simila i ies han di e ences e-
ga ding he inno a o y e iciency.
Thus no wi hs anding, we ind ou
some di e ences o companies
which a e no membe s o a g oup
( ega dless o i s na ionali y) pa icu-
la ly in sec o s named as “ adi ional”
o o low o medium echnological
in ensi y.
5. To explain di e ences sec o al ax-
onomy is clea ly mo e ele an han
i m owne ship ypology. This ac
21
poin o, bo h, on he ele ance o
axonomy and on he adap a i e s a-
egies o MNCs.
6. Public g an s enhance p oduc in-
no a ion, pe haps because hey help
o sol e p oblems wi h human e-
sou ces expendi u es on conc e e
p ojec de elopmen . Bu , on he
o he hand, hey hampe p ocess in-
no a ion, e ealing weakness in hu-
man esou ces expendi u e inancing
while o p ocess inno a ion s abili y
and empo al con inui y hey a e u -
gen ly equi ed.
ANNEXE A: SECTORAL
CLASSIFICATION
Two c i e ia ha e been combined: he posi ion
o he sec o in he Spanish economy acco d-
ing o i s Re ealed Technological Ad an age
(RTA) and he in e na ional dynamism o he
sec o in e ms o i s pe cen age in wo ld o al
pa en s. The sou ce has been he US pa en
o ice and he pe iod selec ed 1993-2003, di-
ided in o wo sub pe iods. 1993-1998 and
1999-2003. Pa en s ha e been ob ained a wo
digi le el o NACE classi ica ion as p o ided
by Eu os a . RTA has been calcula ed o he
sub pe iod 1999-2003 while he echnological
dynamism o he sec o s has been es ima ed
h ough he di e ence be ween he pe cen -
ages each sec o has in o al pa en s in he
second pe iod compa ed wi h he same pe -
cen age in he i s one.
Combining he wo c i e ia we a i e a a y-
pology wi h ou cases: 1: sec o s wi h RTA > 1
and an inc ease o i s pe cen age in wo ld pa -
en s be ween he wo pe iods (
Dynamic Spe-
cialisa ion
). 2: sec o s wi h RTA<1 and a de-
c easing pa icipa ion in o al pa en ing (
Re-
ea
). 3: sec o s wi h RTA > 1 and a dec eas-
ing pa icipa ion in wo ld echnological dyna-
mism (
S a iona y Specialisa ion
) and 4: sec o s
wi h RTA < 1 and an inc easing pa icipa ion
in o al pa en s (
Los Oppo uni ies
).
SECTORAL CLASSIFICATION
Los Oppo uni ies Sec o s
Tanning, d essing o lea he ; manu ac u e o
luggage
Manu ac u e o ab ica ed me al p oduc s,
excep machine y and equipmen
Manu ac u e o o ice machine y and com-
pu e s
Manu ac u e o elec ic mo o s, gene a o s
and ans o me s
Manu ac u e o accumula o s, p ima y cells
and p ima y ba e ies
Manu ac u e o ligh ing equipmen and elec-
ic lamps
Manu ac u e o elec ical equipmen n.e.c.
Manu ac u e o elec onic al es and ubes
and o he elec onic componen s
Manu ac u e o ele ision and adio ansmi -
e s and appa a us o line elephony and line
eleg aphy
Manu ac u e o ele ision and adio ecei -
e s, sound o ideo eco ding o ep oducing
appa a us and associa ed goods
Manu ac u e o indus ial p ocess con ol
equipmen
Manu ac u e o op ical ins umen s, pho o-
g aphic equipmen
Manu ac u e o wa ches and clocks
Manu ac u e o mo o ehicles, aile s and
semi- aile s
Manu ac u e o o he anspo equipmen
Dynamic Specialisa ion Sec o s
Manu ac u e o ex iles
Manu ac u e o wea ing appa el; d essing;
dyeing o u
Manu ac u e o basic me als
Manu ac u e o machine y o he p oduc ion
and use o mechanical powe , excep ai c a ,
ehicle and cycle engines
Manu ac u e o o he gene al pu pose ma-
chine y
Manu ac u e o ag icul u al and o es y ma-
chine y
Manu ac u e o machine- ools (spli in o
DK2941, DK2942 and DK2943 in NACE
Re .1.1)
Manu ac u e o o he special pu pose ma-
chine y
Manu ac u e o domes ic appliances n.e.c.
Manu ac u e o elec ici y dis ibu ion and
con ol appa a us, manu ac u e o insula ed
wi e and cable

22
Manu ac u e o u ni u e; manu ac u ing n.e.c.
Re ea Sec o s
Manu ac u e o obacco p oduc s
Manu ac u e o wood and o p oduc s o
wood and co k, excep u ni u e; manu ac u e
o a icles o s aw and plai ing ma e ials
Manu ac u e o o he non-me allic mine al
p oduc s
Manu ac u e o medical and su gical equip-
men and o hopaedic appliances
Manu ac u e o ins umen s and appliances
o measu ing, checking, es ing, na iga ing
and o he pu poses, excep indus ial p ocess
con ol equipmen
S a iona y Specialisa ion Sec o s
Manu ac u e o ood p oduc s and be e ages
Manu ac u e o pulp, pape and pape p od-
uc s
Publishing, p in ing, ep oduc ion o eco ded
media
Manu ac u e o coke, e ined pe oleum p od-
uc s and nuclea uel
Manu ac u e o basic chemicals
Manu ac u e o pes icides and o he ag o-
chemical p oduc s
Manu ac u e o pain s, a nishes and simila
coa ings, p in ing ink and mas ics
Manu ac u e o pha maceu icals, medicinal
chemicals and bo anical p oduc s
Manu ac u e o soap, de e gen s, cleaning,
polishing
Manu ac u e o o he chemical p oduc s
Manu ac u e o man-made ib es
Manu ac u e o ubbe and plas ic p oduc s
Manu ac u e o weapons and ammuni ion
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion
ANNEXE B
TABLE B1: Calcula ed Va iables.
VARIABLE CALCULUS FROM PITEC VARIABLES AND DESCRIPTIÓN
EGTINN (GTINN/CIFMED*100) Inno a ion e o
GTINNpw (GTINN/TAMMED) Expendi u e in inno a ion pe wo ke
PIDTEJCpw (PIDTEJ/TAMMED*100) R&D s a pe 100 wo ke s.
PGINTID (GINTID/GTINN*100) % In e nal R&D expendi u e
PGEXTID (GEXTID/GTINN*100) % Ex e nal R&D expendi u e
PGID (PGINTID+PGEXTID) % R&D expendi u e
PGMAQUI (GMAQUI/GTINN*100) % Expendi u e in acquisi ion o machines, equipmen and
so wa e
PGTECNO (GTECNO/GTINN*100) % Expendi u e in acquisi ion o ex e nal know-how
PGPREP (GPREP/GTINN*100) % Expendi u e in p epa a ion o p oduc ion/dis ibu ion.
PGFORM (GFORM/GTINN*100) % Expendi u e in aining
PGMARKET (GMARKET/GTINN*100) % Expendi u e in in oduc ion o inno a ions
FPRO (F1) Own unds
FEMP (F2+F3+F4) Funds om o he i ms
FEMPEXT (F11+F12) Funds om o he o eign i ms
FAP (F5+F6+F7+F8) Funds om AAPPs
FUNI (F9+F15) Uni e si y unds
FIPSFL (F10+F16) Funds om IPSFLs
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion om PITEC.
23
TABLE B2: Va iables.
NAME DESCRIPTIÓN
TAMMED A e age numbe o wo ke s in he sphe e o ac i i y o which he i m belongs.
CIFMED A e age igu e o businesses in he sphe e o ac i i y o which he i m belongs
EXPMED A e age expo olume in he sphe e o ac i i y o which he i m belongs.
INVMED A e age g oss in es men in ma e ial goods in sphe e o ac i i y i belongs o.
INNOVE Ca ies ou inno a ion ac i i ies.
INNOVEM Inno a ion de eloped by i m o g oup.
INNOVEC Inno a ion de elope in coope a ion wi h o he i ms o ins i u ions.
INNOVET Inno a ion de elope by o he i ms o ins i u ions.
INNPROD Inno a ion p oduc s om ( -2) o
INNPROC Inno a ion p ocess om ( -2) o
GINTID Figu e o in e nal R&D expendi u e.
GEXTID Figu e o ex e nal R&D expendi u e.
GMAQUI Figu e o expendi u e on acquisi ion o machine y, equipmen and so wa e.
GTECNO Figu e o expendi u e on acquisi ion o ex e nal know-how.
GPREP Figu e o expendi u e on p oduc /dis ibu ion p epa a ion..
GFORM Figu e o expendi u e on aining.
GMARKET Figu e o expendi u e on in oduc ion o inno a ions.
EGTINN Inno a ion e o
PIDTEJpw EJC s a in R&D pe 100 wo ke s.
INFUN Basic o undamen al esea ch
INAPL Applied esea ch
DESTEC Technological de elopmen .
FPRO Own unds
FEMP O he i ms’ unds
FEMPEXT Funds om o he o eign i ms.
FAP AAPP unds
FUNI Uni e si y unds
FIPSFL IPSFL unds
FUE EU p og am unds
FEXT O he unds om ab oad
COOPERA Coope a ed om ( -2) a wi h o he i ms
PAT Reques o pa en s
PATNUM Numbe o eques s o pa en s
PATOEPM OEPM Pa en s
PATEPO EPO Pa en s
PATUSPTO USPTO Pa en s
PATPCT PCT Pa en s
PATINT In e na ional Pa en s (ou side OEPM)
NESTR Non- echnological inno a ion s a egy
NGEST Non- echnological inno a ion managemen
NORG Non- echnological inno a ion o ganiza ion
NMARK Non- echnological inno a ion : ma ke ing
NESTE Non- echnological inno a ion: aes he ic o subjec i e change
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion om PITEC.
24
TABLE B3: Co espondences o PITEC sec o al classi ica ion and RTA-Dynamism
sec o al ypology.
PITEC SECTOR
RAMAI
D DESCRIPTION NACE_RE
V_1
SECTORAL
TYPOLOGY
02 Manu ac u e o ood p oduc s and be e ages DA_15 3 (los oppo uni ies)
03 Manu ac u e o obacco p oduc s DA_16 2 ( e ea )
04 Manu ac u e o ex iles DB_17 1 (dynamic speciali-
sa ion)
05 Manu ac u e o clo hing / d essing and dyeing
o u DB_18 1 (dynamic speciali-
sa ion)
06 Tanning and d essing o lea he / manu ac u e
o luggage, handbags, saddle y, ha ness and
oo wea DC_19 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
07 Manu ac u e o wood and o p oduc s o wood
and co k, excep u ni u e/ manu ac u e o
a icles o s aw and plai ing ma e ial DD_20 2 ( e ea )
08 Manu ac u e o pulp, pape and pape p od-
uc s DE_21 3 (los oppo uni ies)
09 Publishing, p in ing and ep oduc ion o e-
co ded media DE_22 3 (los oppo uni ies)
10 Manu ac u e o coke, e ined pe oleum p od-
uc s and nuclea uel DF_23 3 (los oppo uni ies)
11 Manu ac u e o chemicals and chemical p od-
uc s (excep Manu ac u e o pha maceu icals,
medicinal chemicals and bo anical p oduc s)
DG_24
excep
24.4 3 (los oppo uni ies)
12 Manu ac u e o pha maceu icals, medicinal
chemicals and bo anical p oduc s DG_24.4 3 (los oppo uni ies)
13 Manu ac u e o ubbe and plas ic p oduc s DH_25 3 (los oppo uni ies)
14 Manu ac u e o ce amic iles and lags DI_26.3 2 ( e ea )
15 Manu ac u e o o he non-me allic mine al
p oduc s (excep Manu ac u e o ce amic iles
and lags)
DI_26
excep
26.3 2 ( e ea )
16 Manu ac u e o basic i on and s eel and o
e ous alloys and e ous p oduc s
DJ_27.1,
27.2, 27.3,
27.51,
27.52
1 (dynamic speciali-
sa ion)
17 Manu ac u e o basic p ecious and non-
e ous me als and non- e ous p oduc s
DJ_27.4,
27.53,
27.54
1 (dynamic speciali-
sa ion)
18 Manu ac u e o ab ica ed me al p oduc s (ex-
cep machine y and equipmen ) DJ_28 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
19 Manu ac u e o machine y and equipmen
n.e.c DK_29 1 (dynamic speciali-
sa ion)
20 Manu ac u e o o ice machine y and com-
pu e s DL_30 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
21 Manu ac u e o elec ical machine y and appa-
a us n.e.c. DL_31 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
22 Manu ac u e o elec onic al es and ubes
and o he elec onic componen s DL_32.1 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
23 Manu ac u e o adio, ele ision and commu-
nica ion equipmen and appa a us DL_32
excep 321 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
24 Manu ac u e o medical, p ecision and op ical
ins umen s, wa ches and clocks DL_33 2 ( e ea )
25 Manu ac u e o mo o ehicles, aile s and
semi- aile s DM_34 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
26 Building and epai ing o ships and boa s DM_35.1 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
27 Manu ac u e o ai c a and spacec a DM_35.3 4 (s a iona y specia-
25
lisa ion)
28 Manu ac u e o o he anspo equipmen DM_35,
excep
35.1, 35.3
4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
29 Manu ac u e o u ni u e DN_36.1 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
30 Manu ac u e o games and oys DN_36.5 4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
31 Manu ac u e o games and oys DN_36,
excep
36.1,36.5
4 (s a iona y specia-
lisa ion)
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion om PITEC and OECD pa en d