ene gies
Re iew
Re iew o Reac o s wi h Po en ial Use in
The mochemical Ene gy S o age in Concen a ed
Sola Powe Plan s
Gab iel Zsembinszki 1, A an Solé2, Camila Ba eneche 3,4 , C is ina P ie o 5,
A. Inés Fe nández 3and Luisa F. Cabeza 1,*
1GREiA Resea ch G oup, INSPIRES Resea ch Cen e, Uni e si y o Lleida, Pe e de Cab e a s/n,
25001 Lleida, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Mechanical Enginee ing and Cons uc ion, Uni e si a Jaume I, Campus del Riu Sec s/n,
12071 Cas ellóde la Plana, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o Ma e ials Science and Physical-Chemis y, Uni e si a de Ba celona, Ma íi F anqués 1,
08028 Ba celona, Spain; c.ba [email p o ec ed] (C.B.); [email p o ec ed] (A.I.F.)
4
BCES (Bi mingham Cen e o Ene gy S o age), School o Chemical Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Bi mingham,
Bi mingham B15 2TT, UK
5Abengoa, C/Ene gía Sola 1, 41012-Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-973-003576
Recei ed: 7 Augus 2018; Accep ed: 3 Sep embe 2018; Published: 6 Sep embe 2018


Abs ac :
The aim o his s udy is o pe o m a e iew o he s a e-o - he-a o he eac o s a ailable
in he li e a u e, which a e used o solid–gas eac ions o he mal decomposi ion p ocesses a ound
1000
◦
C ha could be u he implemen ed o he mochemical ene gy s o age in CSP (concen a ed
sola powe ) plan s, speci ically o SPT (sola powe owe ) echnology. Bo h di ec and indi ec
sys ems can be implemen ed, wi h di ec and closed sys ems being he mos s udied ones. Among
di ec and closed sys ems, he mos used con igu a ion is he s acked bed eac o , wi h he ixed
bed eac o being he mos equen op ion. Ou o all o he eac o s s udied, almos 70% a e used
o solid–gas chemical eac ions. Few da a a e a ailable ega ding sola e iciency in mos o he
p ocesses, and he a ailable in o ma ion indica es ela i ely low alues. Chemical eac ion e iciencies
show be e alues, especially in he case o a luidized bed eac o o solid–gas chemical eac ions,
and ixed bed and o a y eac o s o he mal decomposi ions.
Keywo ds:
high empe a u e; concen a ed sola powe (CSP); he mochemical ene gy s o age (TCM);
solid–gas eac o s; e iew
1. In oduc ion
The p oduc ion o elec ici y om concen a ed sola powe plan s, which a e known as CSP
plan s, is s ill a ma u ing echnology, al hough i has been in ope a ion comme cially a he u ili y scale
since 1985 [
1
]. Ne e heless, i has expe ienced a wo ldwide la ge inc ease in deploymen in ecen
yea s [
2
], and he e a e plans o expand i s applica ion in indus ial p ocesses and he gene a ion o
sola uels. Acco ding o he Renewable Ene gy Policy Ne wo k o he 21s Cen u y (REN21) [
3
],
o al ins alled capaci y in CSP in 2016 was 4.81 GW, g owing om 600 MW in 2009. The deploymen
was mos ly in Spain (wi h 2300 MW) and he Uni ed S a es (USA) (wi h 1738 MW). O he coun ies
wi h plan s a e India, Mo occo, Sou h A ica, he Uni ed A ab Emi a es, Alge ia, Egyp , Aus alia,
China, and Thailand. Today, pa abolic ough echnology domina es he CSP ma ke , bo h in numbe
o p ojec s and o al ins alled capaci y (a ound 85% o capaci y) [4].
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358; doi:10.3390/en11092358 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ene gies
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 2 o 23
Mo eo e , acco ding o di e en sou ces, he u u e deploymen o CSP a ound he wo ld is
b igh . The In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency (IRENA) [
5
] s a ed ha CSP will g ow be ween
52 GW (44 GW acco ding o i s REmap [
6
]) and 83 GW wi h he e e ence and Remap 2030 scena io,
espec i ely. On he o he hand, he In e na ional Ene gy Agency (IEA) [
7
] epo ed a CSP capaci y
ins alled o 110 GW in i s 450 scena ios. Acco ding o IEA [
8
], unde a high enewable ene gy scena io,
11% o elec ici y gene a ion will come om CSP in 2050, wi h 954 GW o ins alled capaci y. In he
IEA CSP echnology oadmap [
9
], he IEA upda ed he ins alled capaci y o 982 GW in 2050. Finally,
he Eu opean Sola The mal Elec ici y Associa ion (ESTELA), he CSP Eu opean indus y associa ion,
epo ed a wo ldwide implemen a ion o 1080 GW in 2050 [10].
Del Río e al. [
2
] analyzed he d i e s and ba ie s o he deploymen o CSP in Eu ope.
Those au ho s concluded ha hese d i e s and ba ie s include echno-economic, adminis a i e,
policy, and social accep ance ac o s. Acco ding o hem, he mos ele an ba ie s a e he high cos s
o he echnology and unce ain and e oac i e policies.
The bigges echnological d awback o sola ene gy is i s empo al in e mi ency. To o e come
his p oblem, backup sys ems can be used in he so-called hyb id plan s, whe e ossil uel o biomass
is bu ned; ano he solu ion is he use o he mal ene gy s o age (TES) [
11
–
14
]. P ie o e al. [
15
] s a ed
ha he e is a need o ex end he ope a ion o a CSP plan up o 15 h, in o de o achie e a plan ha is
mo e e sa ile o comply wi h unexpec ed peak demand du ing nigh ime, whe e no powe is being
p oduced. Mo eo e , he eliance du ing ope a ing hou s would inc ease.
The e a e h ee echnologies o TES: sensible ene gy s o age, la en ene gy s o age, and he mochemical
ene gy s o age (which include so p ion and chemical eac ions) [
16
,
17
]. Ming e al. [
18
] e iewed
he li e a u e on TES o CSP. These au ho s concluded ha cu en esea ch e o s in he a ea o
sensible TES ocus on he de elopmen o new mol en sal s wi h lowe eezing empe a u es and
highe decomposi ion empe a u es, he de elopmen o ionic liquids o nex gene a ion hea ans e
luids (HTFs), he u iliza ion o nano echnology o imp o e he speci ic hea capaci y and he mal
conduc i i y, and he de elopmen o low-cos solid s o age media and hei e alua ion h ough
compa ibili y es s wi h mol en sal s. On he o he hand, he esea ch on la en TES o CSP plan s has
aimed a inc easing he he mal conduc i i y o phase change ma e ials (PCM) h ough encapsula ion,
u ilizing hea pipes, and making PCMs mobile— he so-called dynamic PCM—in o de o inc ease he
discha ge phase.
In CSP, sensible ene gy s o age is he mos ma u e echnology, as well as he only ha is
comme cially a ailable oday [
19
]. Sensible s o age can be ound in comme cial plan s such as
he PS10 and PS20 p ojec s (2007 and 2009), and he Andasol 1 and Andasol 2 plan s (2008) in Spain,
and he Sola One plan (1982) in he USA [
15
]. Today, wo TES echnologies a e cu en ly implemen ed
in comme cial CSP plan s: he so-called Ru h’s s o age o di ec s eam gene a ion plan s, and he
wo- ank mol en sal s echnology [16].
A cos compa ison be ween hese wo comme cial TES sys ems o CSP was ca ied ou by
González-Roubaud e al. [
19
] using a le elized cos o elec ici y (LCOE) calcula ion. This me ic is
used in powe gene a ion in o de o compa e he cos o elec ici y be ween sou ces. The esul s show
ha he Ru h accumula o has he lowes he mal cos o s o age capaci ies lowe han 3 h, ollowed
by he di ec and indi ec mol en sal TES. The end e e ses when s o age capaci ies inc ease.
A pa allel s udy was done by Dowling e al. [
20
], whe e an economic assessmen o comple e
CSP plan s wi h wo di e en me hods, LCOE and e enue, was p esen ed. They demons a ed ha
he alue o TES is no co ec ly cap u ed when he LCOE is used, since his does no include he
economic oppo uni ies coming om he ime- a ying alue o elec ici y (which a e inc easing as
mo e non-dispa chable enewable powe is included in he g id). These au ho s s a e ha s o age
capaci y inc eases he lexibili y o CSP gene a o s, as well as he e enues ha a e a ailable o hem.
The second s o age echnology, la en hea s o age, allows la ge amoun s o ene gy o be s o ed in
ela i ely small olumes (high ene gy densi y) [
21
]. Al hough he e a e se e al s udies [
22
–
25
] ela ed
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 3 o 23
o he use o phase change ma e ials (PCM, he ma e ials used in la en hea s o age) in CSP plan s,
his echnology is s ill no ins alled in comme cial plan s.
Finally, he mochemical ene gy s o age is ecei ing inc easing a en ion among esea che s.
P ie o e al. [
15
] p esen ed a e iew o chemical eac ion p ocesses o CSP om he echnological
poin o iew. The au ho s p esen ed he di e en cycles ha ha e been s udied by o he esea che s,
such as sul u base cycles and me al oxide edox cycles (calcium ca bona e cycle, calcium hyd oxide
cycle, and manganese oxide cycle), and pe o ski e- o m s uc u es. P e iously, eac ion candida es o
medium o high- empe a u e applica ions (250–800
◦
C) we e lis ed by Felde ho e al. [
26
]. The lis ed
candida es included me al hyd ides, me al hyd oxides, and me al ca bona es. In 2014, Pa do e al. [
27
]
published a s a e-o - he-a o he he mochemical hea s o age solu ions, ocusing on empe a u es
comp ised be ween 573–1273 K, and no ocused only on CSP applica ions, bu mo e gene ally on
high empe a u e. The ma e ials lis ed a e me al hyd ides, ca bona e sys ems, hyd oxide sys ems,
edox sys ems, ammonia sys ems, and o ganic sys ems. In hei conclusions, hese au ho s claimed
ha he mochemical ene gy s o age appea s o be he mos p omising TES sys em o sola plan s
du ing long pe iods, because bo h he s o age pe iod and anspo dis ance a e heo e ically unlimi ed,
since he e is no loss o hea du ing s o age (s o age happens a ambien empe a u e).
Al hough some o hese e iews p esen and commen on he di e en con igu a ions and
p o o ypes used o each ma e ial o eac ion, none o hem has p o ided a de ailed assessmen o he
eac o i sel . The e o e, he aim o his new e iew is o ill his gap ound in he li e a u e, e alua ing
he eac o concep s, and highligh ing hei ad an ages and disad an ages.
2. Ma e ials Used in The mochemical Reac ions
Cu en ly, he e a e di e en p ocesses using sola ene gy, om CSP plan echnology o
pe o ming a chemical eac ion [
28
–
32
]. All o hem ha e in common he objec i e o educing ossil
uel consump ion, and he e o e educing CO
2
emissions. The di e en p ocesses ha equi e sola
eac o s and also wo king empe a u es abo e 1000
◦
C a e wo-s ep he mochemical H
2
O/CO
2
spli ing, he gasi ica ion/c acking o ca bonaceous eeds ock, he mochemical hea s o age, and he
ecycling/p ocu emen o aw ma e ials.
The wo-s ep he mochemical H
2
O/CO
2
spli ing [
33
,
34
] is based on a wo- edox eac ion cycle
o CO and H
2
p oduc ion, which is conside ed as sola uel. This gas is used as uel o uel cells
o eeds ock o in Fische –T opsch eac ions. In his case, in o de o spli CO
2
and H
2
O molecules,
a me al oxide is used o pe o m a he mal educ ion o me al oxide, ob aining a me al (o me al
oxide) (Equa ion (1)) ha is capable o educing (spli ) CO
2
o H
2
O (Equa ion (2)). Depending on
he me al oxide, he wo king empe a u e o he sys em p essu e mus be adjus ed [
35
]. In addi ion,
in Equa ion (1), he key is he solid p oduc o he eac ion, while in Equa ion (2), he impo an s ep is
he gas p oduc . These key issues will be he poin s a ec ing he eac o design.
MOx+Q→MOx−y+y
2O2(1)
MOx−y+yCO2/H2O→MOx+yCO/H2(2)
The p ocesses gasi ica ion/c acking o ca bonaceous eeds ock [
29
,
36
] a e based on biogas
c acking (Equa ion (3)) o ca bonaceous eeds ock gasi ica ion (Equa ion (4)) o ob ain sola uel,
o uel cell o o a Fische –T opsch eac ion. When necessa y, hese eac ions can be pe o med unde
ca aly ic eac ion o accele a e kine ics. A sys em o collec ing he gases will be signi ican o he
eac o design in his ype o p ocess:
CxHy+Q→xC +y
2H2(3)
CHxOy+(1−y)H2O+Q→x
2+1−yH2+CO (4)
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 4 o 23
The mochemical ene gy s o age [
26
,
27
] is designed o s o e hea h ough a e e sible eac ion
(Equa ion (5)). A hea exchange is equi ed o his p ocess in o de o e e he sola hea ha has
been s o ed. Howe e , al hough his echnology/p ocess has s ill no been nei he ex ensi ely s udied
no implemen ed, i s de ini ion can be ound in he li e a u e [37].
MOx+Q↔MOx−y+y
2O2(5)
Finally, he e is he ecycling/p ocu emen o aw ma e ials. As i is well known, many p ocesses
o ob aining aw ma e ials, such as Zn o CaO, equi e high-ene gy inpu s o pe o m a ca bo he mal
educ ion. In his case, se e al ma e ials can sus ain he mal educ ions by using concen a ed
sola powe .
As men ioned abo e, all o he p ocesses p io i ize some design aspec s (hea exchange , p oduc
collec ion, e sa ili y, e c.). Howe e , all o hem can be classi ied acco ding he eac ion ype, hea ing
sys em, o limi ing s ep o p ocess ( eac ion, di usion, e c.).
3. Classi ica ion o Reac o s
The e a e se e al ways o classi y he sola eac o s depending on he ocus. Classi ica ions based
on he eac o o on he sys em can be ound in he li e a u e [
28
,
38
]. The e o e, a new classi ica ion
is sugges ed based on he p ocess by i sel , which is a he end wha will gi e us he limi ing s ep.
The limi ing s ep is essen ial o p ope ly designing he eac o and he sys em con aining he u u e
TCM ( he mochemical ma e ial) selec ed eac ion, which will be implemen ed in sola powe owe
(SPT) echnology.
3.1. Classi ica ion Based in he Reac o
Figu e 1shows he classi ica ion o he eac o s ha has been aken in o accoun in Table 1.
Wi hin s acked beds (modula ones), ixed beds a e ecommended o sola ca aly ic eac ions. Fo hose
eac ions ha equi e good he mal ans e p ope ies, Ville maux [
38
] sugges ed he employmen
o luidized beds. Cyclones a e in e es ing i he u he sepa a ion be ween solid and gas is desi ed,
bu hei use is simila in e ms o he ad/disad an ages o luidized bed eac o s (Table 1).
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 22
been s o ed. Howe e , al hough his echnology/p ocess has s ill no been nei he ex ensi ely
s udied no implemen ed, i s de ini ion can be ound in he li e a u e [37].
MOx+Q ↔ MOx−y +y
2O2
(5)
Finally, he e is he ecycling/p ocu emen o aw ma e ials. As i is well known, many
p ocesses o ob aining aw ma e ials, such as Zn o CaO, equi e high-ene gy inpu s o pe o m a
ca bo he mal educ ion. In his case, se e al ma e ials can sus ain he mal educ ions by using
concen a ed sola powe .
As men ioned abo e, all o he p ocesses p io i ize some design aspec s (hea exchange ,
p oduc collec ion, e sa ili y, e c.). Howe e , all o hem can be classi ied acco ding he eac ion
ype, hea ing sys em, o limi ing s ep o p ocess ( eac ion, di usion, e c.).
3. Classi ica ion o Reac o s
The e a e se e al ways o classi y he sola eac o s depending on he ocus. Classi ica ions
based on he eac o o on he sys em can be ound in he li e a u e [28,38]. The e o e, a new
classi ica ion is sugges ed based on he p ocess by i sel , which is a he end wha will gi e us he
limi ing s ep. The limi ing s ep is essen ial o p ope ly designing he eac o and he sys em
con aining he u u e TCM ( he mochemical ma e ial) selec ed eac ion, which will be implemen ed
in sola powe owe (SPT) echnology.
3.1. Classi ica ion Based in he Reac o
Figu e 1 shows he classi ica ion o he eac o s ha has been aken in o accoun in Table 1.
Wi hin s acked beds (modula ones), ixed beds a e ecommended o sola ca aly ic eac ions. Fo
hose eac ions ha equi e good he mal ans e p ope ies, Ville maux [38] sugges ed he
employmen o luidized beds. Cyclones a e in e es ing i he u he sepa a ion be ween solid and
gas is desi ed, bu hei use is simila in e ms o he ad/disad an ages o luidized bed eac o s
(Table 1).
Figu e 1. Classi ica ion acco ding o he eac o ype.
Following a low pa e n classi ica ion, h ee main gas–solid echnologies can be ound,
including ixed, mo ing and luidized bed [39]. Thei main ad an ages and disad an ages a e
shown in Table 1. In ixed bed eac o s (also called packed bed eac o s), he solid pa icles a e
loca ed inside a essel wi h he lux o eac an s lowing h ough he s a iona y bed. When he
diame e o he packed bed inc eases, hea ans e a es a e poo ; he e o e, high hea ans e a es
should be conside ed when luidized beds a e equi ed [40]. In mobile/mo ing bed eac o s, he bed
can be mo ed con inuously o pe iodically wi h a luid ci cula ion simila o he p io one. In
addi ion, in luidized bed eac o s, he solid has a e y small diame e and is main ained in
suspension.
Reac o s
S acked
bed
Fixed Mobile Ro a o y
Fluidized
bed
Vib a ed o
pulsa ed
Fluidized
bed
Blown
bed
En ained
bed
Cyclone Pneuma ic
Figu e 1. Classi ica ion acco ding o he eac o ype.
Following a low pa e n classi ica ion, h ee main gas–solid echnologies can be ound, including
ixed, mo ing and luidized bed [
39
]. Thei main ad an ages and disad an ages a e shown in Table 1.
In ixed bed eac o s (also called packed bed eac o s), he solid pa icles a e loca ed inside a essel
wi h he lux o eac an s lowing h ough he s a iona y bed. When he diame e o he packed bed
inc eases, hea ans e a es a e poo ; he e o e, high hea ans e a es should be conside ed when
luidized beds a e equi ed [
40
]. In mobile/mo ing bed eac o s, he bed can be mo ed con inuously
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 5 o 23
o pe iodically wi h a luid ci cula ion simila o he p io one. In addi ion, in luidized bed eac o s,
he solid has a e y small diame e and is main ained in suspension.
Table 1. Compa ison be ween ixed, mo ing, and luidized bed eac o s o sola applica ions [41].
Reac o Ad an ages Disad an ages
Fixed/packed bed
Low cos
Non-pa asi ic
Easie o modeling
Low hea and mass ans e
High-p essu e d op
Di icul ies o be implemen ed in sola
ecei e ca i ies a con inuous
comme cial p ocess
S acked bed needed, wi h highe
complexi y in sola - ocused s a egies
Non-uni o m i adiance dis ibu ions on
he pa icle olume
Mobile/mo ing bed
Di ec hea ans e be ween solids
and he gas
Inc ease o he hea ans e coe icien
Di icul ies o be implemen ed in sola
eac o s
Non-uni o m i adiance dis ibu ions on
he pa icle low
Need o con ol he esidence ime o
inc ease he hea ans e ence in pa icle
ecei e
Complex hyd odynamics
Ro a y
High chemical con e sion due o high
hea and mass ans e
Ve sa ili y
Long li e componen s
Di icul ies o scalabili y o lage
comme cial sola sys ems
Inc ease o pa asi ic ene gy consump ion
due o he mo emen o he eac o
Highe isk o mechanical main enance
cos due o he use o a o a o y elemen
a high empe a u e
Fluidized bed
Minimiza ion o he isk o ho spo s
and he mal ins abili y
Hea ans e coe icien s a e high
Di icul ies o be implemen ed in sola
eac o s
Need o gas o luidiza ion
Inc ease o pa asi ic ene gy consump ion
due o he need o luidized gas
E osion o in e nal componen s
Complex eac o hyd odynamics and
modeling
3.2. Classi ica ion Based in he Sys em
As men ioned in Table 1, he implemen a ion o he eac o s in he sola plan is he main p oblem
o he sys em con igu a ion. A possible classi ica ion based on he i adia ion and he sola ecei e
can be es ablished acco ding o he hea in eg a ion mode in o he eac ion chambe . This is ela ed
wi h he maximum sys em e iciency (sola - o-chemical). Fu he mo e, sola eac o s a e indi ec o
di ec , as shown in Figu e 2.
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 22
Table 1. Compa ison be ween ixed, mo ing, and luidized bed eac o s o sola applica ions [41].
Reac o
Ad an ages
Disad an ages
Fixed/packed
bed
Low cos
Non-pa asi ic
Easie o modeling
Low hea and mass ans e
High-p essu e d op
Di icul ies o be implemen ed in sola
ecei e ca i ies a con inuous comme cial
p ocess
S acked bed needed, wi h highe complexi y
in sola - ocused s a egies
Non-uni o m i adiance dis ibu ions on he
pa icle olume
Mobile/mo ing
bed
Di ec hea ans e be ween
solids and he gas
Inc ease o he hea ans e
coe icien
Di icul ies o be implemen ed in sola
eac o s
Non-uni o m i adiance dis ibu ions on he
pa icle low
Need o con ol he esidence ime o
inc ease he hea ans e ence in pa icle
ecei e
Complex hyd odynamics
Ro a y
High chemical con e sion
due o high hea and mass
ans e
Ve sa ili y
Long li e componen s
Di icul ies o scalabili y o lage comme cial
sola sys ems
Inc ease o pa asi ic ene gy consump ion
due o he mo emen o he eac o
Highe isk o mechanical main enance cos
due o he use o a o a o y elemen a high
empe a u e
Fluidized bed
Minimiza ion o he isk o
ho spo s and he mal
ins abili y
Hea ans e coe icien s a e
high
Di icul ies o be implemen ed in sola
eac o s
Need o gas o luidiza ion
Inc ease o pa asi ic ene gy consump ion
due o he need o luidized gas
E osion o in e nal componen s
Complex eac o hyd odynamics and
modeling
3.2. Classi ica ion Based in he Sys em
As men ioned in Table 1, he implemen a ion o he eac o s in he sola plan is he main
p oblem o he sys em con igu a ion. A possible classi ica ion based on he i adia ion and he sola
ecei e can be es ablished acco ding o he hea in eg a ion mode in o he eac ion chambe . This is
ela ed wi h he maximum sys em e iciency (sola - o-chemical). Fu he mo e, sola eac o s a e
indi ec o di ec , as shown in Figu e 2.
Figu e 2. Classi ica ion acco ding o he sys em.
Sys em
Di ec
Open Closed
Indi ec
Figu e 2. Classi ica ion acco ding o he sys em.

Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 6 o 23
Indi ec eac o s a e hose whe e a con aine ma e ial is di ec ly i adia ed o hea he solid o he
hea ans e luid. This con igu a ion is mos ly used o luidized beds, whe e he solid can be o ced
upwa d h ough i adia ed ubes by an ai low, which luidizes he pa icles and inc eases he hea
ans e om he ube walls o he lowing pa icles [28,42].
On he o he hand, in di ec eac o s, eac an s a e di ec ly i adia ed and hea ed by a sola
adia ion inpu . Some o hem ha e a ecei e ape u e ha can be opened (open eac o ) o closed by
a anspa en window (mainly qua z-closed eac o s). The qua z window is manda o y in a di ec
sys em a high empe a u e in o de o educe he hea and mass losses. The design o a sui able
window o high- empe a u e p ocesses (T > 900
◦
C) is s ill a bo leneck in he design o sola ecei e s.
The e o e, o di ec eac o s (bo h con igu a ions: open and closed), i is impo an o conside
he abso p i i y/emissi i y o he ma e ial, since he mo e adia ion ha is abso bed, he highe he
eac o e iciency and con e sion, because he ma e ials a e basically hea ed by adia ion, al hough
hey a e also hea ed by con ec ion and conduc ion. Highe empe a u es a e expec ed wi hin di ec
eac o s when compa ed o indi ec eac o s, bu i is di icul o ge homogeneous empe a u es inside
he eac ion chambe .
On he o he hand, an indi ec sys em is de ined as a sys em ha uses concen a ed sola powe
o hea a black body, and hen ans e s he hea o he eac ion ca i y by conduc ion and con ec ion.
The e o e, an indi ec eac o equi es a he mal conduc o be ween he ecei e and eac o o hea he
eac ion ca i y [
43
]. Howe e , such sys ems minimize he he mal shock ( he empe a u e g adien s
a e lowe han in di ec eac o s) by main aining a uni o m empe a u e inside he eac ion chambe .
Ene gy e iciency is di ec ly a ec ed by his choice, since when ans e ing sun ene gy o
a ma e ial, he e is always some losses, which a he end is ansla ed o less sys em e iciency.
The indi ec sys em implies one mo e esis ance han he di ec sys em.
3.3. Classi ica ion Based in he P ocess Limi ing S ep
The classi ica ion shown in Figu e 3is sugges ed by he au ho s. F om he poin o iew o ou
knowledge, i is e y impo an o dis inguish be ween a eac ion wi h wo phases and a decomposi ion
o a solid due o he e ec o hea . This classi ica ion enables us o make a ela ion wi h he limi ing
s ep o he p ocess inside he eac o . Mo eo e , he limi ing s ep (chemical o di usi e con olled)
mus be iden i ied in o de o s a he eac o design.
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 22
Indi ec eac o s a e hose whe e a con aine ma e ial is di ec ly i adia ed o hea he solid o
he hea ans e luid. This con igu a ion is mos ly used o luidized beds, whe e he solid can be
o ced upwa d h ough i adia ed ubes by an ai low, which luidizes he pa icles and inc eases
he hea ans e om he ube walls o he lowing pa icles [28,42].
On he o he hand, in di ec eac o s, eac an s a e di ec ly i adia ed and hea ed by a sola
adia ion inpu . Some o hem ha e a ecei e ape u e ha can be opened (open eac o ) o closed
by a anspa en window (mainly qua z-closed eac o s). The qua z window is manda o y in a
di ec sys em a high empe a u e in o de o educe he hea and mass losses. The design o a
sui able window o high- empe a u e p ocesses (T > 900 °C) is s ill a bo leneck in he design o
sola ecei e s.
The e o e, o di ec eac o s (bo h con igu a ions: open and closed), i is impo an o conside
he abso p i i y/emissi i y o he ma e ial, since he mo e adia ion ha is abso bed, he highe he
eac o e iciency and con e sion, because he ma e ials a e basically hea ed by adia ion, al hough
hey a e also hea ed by con ec ion and conduc ion. Highe empe a u es a e expec ed wi hin di ec
eac o s when compa ed o indi ec eac o s, bu i is di icul o ge homogeneous empe a u es
inside he eac ion chambe .
On he o he hand, an indi ec sys em is de ined as a sys em ha uses concen a ed sola powe
o hea a black body, and hen ans e s he hea o he eac ion ca i y by conduc ion and con ec ion.
The e o e, an indi ec eac o equi es a he mal conduc o be ween he ecei e and eac o o hea
he eac ion ca i y [43]. Howe e , such sys ems minimize he he mal shock ( he empe a u e
g adien s a e lowe han in di ec eac o s) by main aining a uni o m empe a u e inside he eac ion
chambe .
Ene gy e iciency is di ec ly a ec ed by his choice, since when ans e ing sun ene gy o a
ma e ial, he e is always some losses, which a he end is ansla ed o less sys em e iciency. The
indi ec sys em implies one mo e esis ance han he di ec sys em.
3.3. Classi ica ion Based in he P ocess Limi ing S ep
The classi ica ion shown in Figu e 3 is sugges ed by he au ho s. F om he poin o iew o ou
knowledge, i is e y impo an o dis inguish be ween a eac ion wi h wo phases and a
decomposi ion o a solid due o he e ec o hea . This classi ica ion enables us o make a ela ion
wi h he limi ing s ep o he p ocess inside he eac o . Mo eo e , he limi ing s ep (chemical o
di usi e con olled) mus be iden i ied in o de o s a he eac o design.
Figu e 3. Classi ica ion acco ding o he he mochemical ma e ial (TCM) p ocess.
The di usion con ol s ep can be sepa a ed in wo di usion p ocesses, which occu in solid–gas
eac ions: one om he gas o he solid su ace (ex e nal di usion), and a second om he ou e
su ace o he solid pa icle o he inne pa o he pa icle (in e nal di usion) [37,38].
Ano he limi ing s ep could be he chemical eac ion, and hus kine ics i sel . The e a e se e al
c i e ia o iden i y he in luence o di usion and empe a u e di e ence wi hin he pa icle on he
eac ion a e. This should be s udied o each speci ic eac ion in o de o di e en ia e he p ocesses
con olled by chemical eac ion ( he mal decomposi ion) and p ocesses o be s udied as i s limi ing
s ep (solid–gas eac ion).
P ocess
Solid-gas
eac ion
The mal
decomposi ion
Figu e 3. Classi ica ion acco ding o he he mochemical ma e ial (TCM) p ocess.
The di usion con ol s ep can be sepa a ed in wo di usion p ocesses, which occu in solid–gas
eac ions: one om he gas o he solid su ace (ex e nal di usion), and a second om he ou e su ace
o he solid pa icle o he inne pa o he pa icle (in e nal di usion) [37,38].
Ano he limi ing s ep could be he chemical eac ion, and hus kine ics i sel . The e a e se e al
c i e ia o iden i y he in luence o di usion and empe a u e di e ence wi hin he pa icle on he
eac ion a e. This should be s udied o each speci ic eac ion in o de o di e en ia e he p ocesses
con olled by chemical eac ion ( he mal decomposi ion) and p ocesses o be s udied as i s limi ing
s ep (solid–gas eac ion).
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 7 o 23
4. Reac o s Used in Sola Plan s
Table 2is a summa y o all o he a ailable expe imen al eac o s ha ha e been published un il
Sep embe 2017, o which mos wo k a empe a u es abo e 1000 ◦C (1273 K).
Six y-eigh expe imen al eac o s ha e been ound in he li e a u e wo king a high empe a u es,
including 48 o hem wo king abo e 1000
◦
C. Bo h he mal decomposi ion and solid–gas chemical
eac ion p ocesses a e ca ied ou in hese eac o s, wi h he chemical eac ion ype he being he
dominan one. Mos o he eac o s (81%) a e pa o a di ec and closed sys em, ollowed by indi ec
sys ems (15%); di ec and open sys ems only make up 3%. Then, when looking a he highes -le el
g oup o sys em con igu a ions (di ec and closed), he main obse a ions a e:
•All o he a ailable and desc ibed eac o ypes a e p esen ed: en ained, s acked, and luidized.
•The main a ailable eac o s ha ha e been es ed a he lab scale a e s acked/ ixed bed, 50%.
•Fluidized beds a e he second mos epo ed op ion, wi h a ound 21%.
•
S acked/
o a y eac o s
a e in hi d posi ion, wi h 15% o he implemen a ion wi hin his g oup.
•Cyclone eac o s
ha e been implemen ed in all o he possible sys em con igu a ions:
di ec /open, di ec /closed, and indi ec . The mos a ailable ones a e in ac i e/di ec /closed
sys em con igu a ion.
In gene al, and as a summa y o all o he eac o con igu a ions lis ed in Table 2, he s a is ics o
di e en combina ions o sys em, eac o s, and p ocesses a e p esen ed in Table 3.
The
o a y eac o s
, which a e wi hin he s acked bed eac o s, a e mainly ound in he di ec
and closed sys em g oup, wi h hal o hem using decomposi ion p ocesses, and he o he hal using
chemical eac ions. Those eac o s accoun o a ound 24% o he o al
decomposi ion p ocesses
.
The sola e iciencies o hese decomposi ion p ocesses a e be ween 12–88%, and chemical con e sion
a ies be ween 30–95% in hese eac o s. Ro a y eac o s educe adia ion losses wi h cons an
empe a u e in he in e nal wall. Mo eo e , he mo emen o he pa icles inc eases he hea ans e [
44
].
Fluidized beds
a e used in eac o s in di ec /closed sys ems, wi h mos o hem using
solid–gas
eac ions
(13 ou o 14). They ep esen 28% o he o al numbe o eac o s used o solid–gas eac ions.
Chemical con e sions a y om less han 10% o 100%. Da a ega ding sola e iciency is only a ailable
o h ee o he eac o s, wi h alues anging be ween 10–15%.
Fixed bed eac o s
, which a e he mos equen ype o eac o s, ha e been used o bo h
p ocesses; almos 32%
o he mal decomposi ion
and 68% o
solid–gas eac ions
. They ep esen
49% o he eac o s used o solid–gas eac ions. Chemical con e sions a y om 25% o 100% o
he mal decomposi ion and om less han 15% o 85% o solid–gas eac ions (no e ha he e is
a eac o p esen ing a 2% chemical con e sion, which uses a oam ma ix, and has been disca ded in
his compa ison [
28
]). Fu he mo e, e y li le da a is a ailable conce ning sola e iciency, especially
o di ec , closed ixed bed eac o s, due o he di icul ies o scaling up his echnology in comme cial
sola applica ions.
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 8 o 23
Table 2. Summa y o eac o con igu a ions.
P ocess Hea ed Sys em Reac o Type The mochemical P ocess Tes ed in Powe
[kW] Tmax [K]
Sola
E iciency
[%]
Chemical
E iciency
[%]
Re e ence
The mal
decomposi ion Di ec
Open
En ained
cyclone Calci e decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 18–28 1273 43 90 [28,45,46]
S acked
bed-Ro a y kiln
Decomposi ion o limes one
(CaCO3)
PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 10 1423 20 95 [47]
Closed
En ained
cyclone The mal spli ing me hane Weizmann
Ins i u e (Is ael) n.a. 1320 n.a. 28.1 [48–50]
Fluidized bed Calci e decomposi ion
CNRS-PROMES
sola u nace
(F ance)
2 1573 14 n.a. [28]
Mn2O3 educ ion IMDEA (Spain) 10−31020 n.a. n.a. [51]
S acked
bed-Fixed bed
MnO2 educ ion IMDEA (Spain) n.a. 2100 n.a. 25 [28,52]
Mn3O4 educ ion IMDEA (Spain) 1 1673 n.a. 60 [28]
Mn
2
O
3
, Mn
3
O
4
, CeO educ ion
IMDEA (Spain) 2 1723 47 100 [28]
ZnO he mal decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 45 2400 n.a. n.a. [30,53,54]
CeO2/Ce2O3 he mal
educ ion o H2p oduc ion n.a. 2 2273 n.a. 95 [54]
CeO2/H2Dish/S a ling 10 kWe 1773 n.a. 40 [55]
ZnO, SnO2 he mal educ ion
cycle o H2p oduc ion
CNRS-PROMES
sola u nace
(F ance)
1 1900 n.a. 48/72 [28,31,56]
Fe3O4/FeO/CO2spli ing
CNRS-PROMES
sola u nace
(F ance)
1.5 1873 n.a. 97 [36,39]
Biomass gasi ica ion CEA-LITHEN
(F ance) 1 1673 n.a. 28 [57]
S acked
bed-Mobile bed
ZnO, he mal educ ion cycle
o H2p oduc ion
PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 10 1900 n.a. n.a. [28,58]
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 9 o 23
Table 2. Con .
P ocess Hea ed Sys em Reac o Type The mochemical P ocess Tes ed in Powe
[kW] Tmax [K]
Sola
E iciency
[%]
Chemical
E iciency
[%]
Re e ence
S acked
bed-Ro a y kiln
ZnO he mal decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 10 2000 n.a. 35 [59,60]
ZnO he mal decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 10 1900 12 95 [60,61]
ZnO he mal decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 10 2136 n.a. 90 [30,62]
ZnO he mal decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 15 2023 n.a. 30 [63]
ZnO he mal decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 115 2000 0.88 3 [64]
Indi ec S acked
bed-Fixed bed
CaCO3lime decomposi ion PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 10 1873 35 95 [65]
Wood
CNRS-PROMES
sola u nace
(F ance)
1 1673 28 82 [66]
Chemical
eac ion Di ec Closed
En ained bed
cyclone
ZnO educ ion wi h CH4and
syngas p oduc ion
PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 5 1600 n.a. 90 [67]
S eam gasi ica ion o pe coke PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 5 1818 9 87 [67,68]
Fluidized bed
ZnO educ ion wi h CH4and
syngas p oduc ion
PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) 2.9 1373 n.a. 43 [69]
CaO/CaCO
3
, a mosphe ic CO
2
cap u e
PSI u nace
(Swi ze land) n.a. 1150 n.a. 71 [70]
NiFe2O4/m-ZnO
he mochemical cycle/H2
p oduc ion
Niiga a
Uni e si y sola
simula o
(Japan)
2 1473 n.a. 45 [71–73]
S eam gasi ica ion o cha coal
CNRS-PROMES
sola u nace
(F ance)
2 1773 10 100 [29,74,75]
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 16 o 23
Table 3. Con .
Type o Reac o Numbe o Reac o s The mal Decomposi ion Chemical Reac ion
Indi ec S acked Mobile 1 0 — 1
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 22
Indi ec
S acked
Mobile
1
0
---
1
[119,120]
Indi ec
En ained
Cyclone
1
0
---
1
[110,111]
Di ec /Indi ec
CONTISOL con igu a ion
1
0
---
1
[111]
TOTAL
68
21
---
47
---
[119,120]
Indi ec En ained Cyclone 1 0 — 1
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 22
Indi ec
S acked
Mobile
1
0
---
1
[119,120]
Indi ec
En ained
Cyclone
1
0
---
1
[110,111]
Di ec /Indi ec
CONTISOL con igu a ion
1
0
---
1
[111]
TOTAL
68
21
---
47
---
[110,111]
Di ec /Indi ec CONTISOL con igu a ion 1 0 — 1
Ene gies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 22
Indi ec
S acked
Mobile
1
0
---
1
[119,120]
Indi ec
En ained
Cyclone
1
0
---
1
[110,111]
Di ec /Indi ec
CONTISOL con igu a ion
1
0
---
1
[111]
TOTAL
68
21
---
47
---
[111]
TOTAL 68 21 — 47 —

Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 17 o 23
5. Conclusions
The analysis o he a ailable li e a u e shows ha he e will no be a single eac o con igu a ion
o be applied o sola he mochemical p ocess. The di e si y o he de ailed p oblems shows ha he
echnology is s ill in low echnology eadiness le el (TRL)—less han i e—and signi ican esea ch
and de elopmen a e s ill demanded. The design and op imiza ion o he eac o o be used mus be
de ined by he chemis y o he eac ion, he dominan ans e mechanisms, and he compa ibili y o
he ma e ials. Mo eo e , all o his mus be designed wi h ambi ious sola e iciency objec i es in o de
o minimize he cos o he sola ield, which con inues o be one o he limi a ions in he cos sa ings
o CSP.
Reac o s implemen ed in di ec sys ems a e by a he mos s udied ones. A e y high pe cen age
o bo h solid–gas eac ions and he mal decomposi ions, a ound 81% o he o al sys ems analyzed,
consis s o a di ec and closed sys em con igu a ion. Wi hin his con igu a ion, he majo i y o all o
he p ocesses—a ound 69%— ake place in s acked eac o s, and wi hin his eac o ype, ixed bed
eac o s a e p e e ed (68%). The di ec con igu a ion has a signi ican lowe cos han an indi ec
sys em. Addi ionally, he closed con igu a ion is manda o y a high empe a u e o inc ease he sola
e iciency in he eac o ecei e .
Fixed beds a e being used o unde go bo h p ocesses; hey a e mo e used o chemical eac ions
and show be e chemical con e sion in he mal decomposi ion p ocesses. Howe e , hei use in
sola applica ions is a a e y p elimina y s age o applica ion. The con ol o he empe a u e in
he i adia ed solid, he uni o mi y o he lux map, he e ec o he di usion mechanism, and he
scalabili y o he p ocesses makes hei applicabili y di icul .
Fluidized beds a e p e e ed o solid–gas eac ions, and a e known o inc ease wo phases
(gas and solid) con ac and hus hea and mass ans e . The e o e, hey a e ecommended o solid–gas
eac ions, whose limi ing s ep is di usion, which is ei he ex e nal o in e nal. Ne e heless, complexi y
in design, inc ease in he sel -consump ion, and he e osion/wea o in e nal componen s a e big
d awbacks o o e come.
Sola e iciencies up o now ha e been e y low. Those alues canno be compa ed, since e y
li le da a is ound in he published pape s. The s a e-o - he-a showed 50% as he maximum solid
ecei e e iciency achie ed so a ; howe e , a alue highe han 80% is equi ed o make his sola
sys em economically easible.
Chemical con e sions a e accep able in some speci ic cases; hese a e mainly luidized bed eac o s
o solid–gas chemical eac ions, and ixed bed eac o s and o a y eac o s o he mal decomposi ions.
Mos o he p oblems ound when wo king expe imen ally wi h hese eac o s a e due o ma e ial
esis ance and low chemical con e sions due o an insu icien adia ion powe o bad use o i .
Impo an ope a ional and design pa ame e s when wo king wi h a CSP eac o a e he geome y o
he eac o , which needs o be op imized, he p ehea ing o he inle gas, he eac o con igu a ion
(con inuous o ba ch), and e- adia ion losses.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, L.F.C. and C.P.; Me hodology, A.I.F. and G.Z.; Fo mal Analysis, G.Z.
and A.S.; In es iga ion, C.B. and A.S.; W i ing-O iginal D a P epa a ion, G.Z., A.S. and C.B.; W i ing-Re iew &
Edi ing, L.F.C. and C.P.; Supe ision, L.F.C. and A.I.F.
Funding:
The wo k is pa ially unded by he Spanish go e nmen (ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R (MINECO/FEDER)
and ENE2015-64117-C5-2-R (MINECO/FEDER)). The au ho s would like o hank he Ca alan Go e nmen o
he quali y acc edi a ion gi en o hei esea ch g oups GREA (2017 SGR 1537) and DIOPMA (2017 SGR 118).
GREA and DIOPMA a e ce i ied agen s TECNIO in he ca ego y o echnology de elope s om he Go e nmen
o Ca alonia. D . A an Soléwould like o hank Minis e io de Economía y Compe i i idad de España o G an
Juan de la Cie a, FJCI-2015-25741.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Ene gies 2018,11, 2358 18 o 23
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