TEACHING INTERJECTIONS IN THE ESL/EFL CLASS:
A PRAGMATIC APPROACH
Manuel Padilla C uz
Uni e si y o Se ille
1. In oduc ion
Unde he label o in e jec ions linguis s ha e ga he ed wo ds ha exp ess emo ions, as in (1)
below, wo ds and exp essions used o ca y ou some con e sa ional ou ines (2), swea wo ds and
imp eca ions (3), a en ion-ge ing signals (4), some pa icles and esponse wo ds (5), wo ds di ec ed
a animals (6), and, p obably, onoma opoeias (7) (Wie zbicka 1991: 290, 1992: 194; Ameka 2006:
743):
(1) Yuk! Ugh! Phew!
(2) Hello! Thank you! Good bye!
(3) Shi ! Bas a d! Hell!
(4) Hey! Pss! Eh!
(5) Yes! No!
(6) Whoa!
(7) Hehe!
T adi ionally, in e jec ions ha e been conside ed o be pa alinguis ic elemen s because o hei
phonological and mo phological anomalies, lack o deno a i e meaning and ela i e syn ac ic
independence (e.g. Qui k e al. 1985; Nicolo 1990; Wie zbicka 1991, 1992; Ameka 1992, 2006; B es
1995; López Bobo 2002; Świa kowska 2007; Aijme 2004). This conside a ion migh be he eason
why hey a e paid li le a en ion in ESL/EFL classes. In ac , some eaching ma e ials only deal wi h
hei ole as con e sa ion ille s o back-channelling de ices. Assuming ha in e jec ions dese e
mo e a en ion, his pape will sugges app oaching hem in he ESL/EFL class and adop ing a
p agma ic pe spec i e in o de o make s uden s awa e o o he ypes and unc ions o in e jec ions, as
well as o hei con ibu ion o communica ion.
2. In e jec ions in eaching ma e ials
I one has a look a he a ailable ESL ma e ials o beginne and elemen a y le els, i can be
seen ha in e jec ions a e no included among he ini ial g amma ical o lexical issues o be deal wi h
(e.g. le Mais e and Lewis 2002; Jones and Golds ein 2005; Reds on and Cunningham 2005a;
Cland ield 2006, 2007; Sc i ene and Saye 2006). The same si ua ion can be a es ed a he p e-
in e media e uppe -in e media e and ad anced le els, al hough a hese le els s uden s a e ce ainly
exposed o he in e jec ions occu ing in lis ening ma e ials and in hei eache s’ discou se (c . Cla e
and Wilson 2002; Cunningham and Mohamed 2002; Golds ein 2005; Reds on and Cunningham
2005b; Sc i ene 2005; Kay e al. 2006; Ke 2006; Maggs and Quin ana 2006; Ke and Jones 2007;
Reds on and Cunningham 2007; Sc i ene and Bingham 2007; No is 2008). A he uppe -
in e media e and ad anced le els, u he mo e, he lack o a en ion o in e jec ions can be mo i a ed
by a mo e necessa y emphasis on o he g amma ical, lexical o ex ual issues. A he in e media e
le el, howe e , some ma e ials (e.g. Ke and Jones 2006; Sc i ene and Bingham 2006) include
in e jec ions among hei syllabi, al hough hey add ess hem unde he ub ic o con e sa ion ille s o
exp ess ag eemen (8), su p ise (9) o unde s anding (10):
(8) Yeah! Uh-huh! Al igh !
(9) Ah! Oh! My goodness! Really!
(10) Mm! OK! Al igh !
By doing so, hose ma e ials s ess he impo ance ha becoming a compe en lis ene has
when lea ning English as an SL/FL. Indeed, s uden s mus be conscious ha , as lis ene s, hey ha e a
e y ac i e ole in in e ac ion because hey bea he esponsibili y o in e p e ing messages and
con ibu ing o he a oidance o misunde s andings by showing ha hey do o do no unde s and wha
hei in e locu o s say (Ga cés Conejos and Bou F anch 2002). In e jec ions used as a ec -neu al
minimal esponses (‘mm!’, ‘uh-huh!’, ‘yeah!’) o suppo i e minimal esponses wi h which s uden s
can exp ess an inc ease in deg ee o in ol emen wi h hei in e locu o s (S ubbe 1998) a e ce ainly
c ucial when in e ac ing in he L2 because hey ul il h ee essen ial unc ions (Ga cés Conejos and
Bou F anch 2002: 91-92):
a) A cogni i e unc ion, in ha he hea e shows he speake ha he is p ocessing wha she
says.
b) A social unc ion, as in e jec ions signal in ol emen , a ec o in e es .
c) A discou se- egula o y unc ion because hey a i y he assignmen o speake - and
hea e - oles and con ibu e o he shaping o discou se.
In spi e o his ea men o in e jec ions, nei he eache s no s uden s a e p o ided wi h much
in o ma ion abou hem. Wha can be no mally ound in hose ma e ials a e lis s o addi ional
con e sa ion ille s ha eache s can ell s uden s. This may be due o he belie ha con e sa ion
ille s a e simila in he s uden s’ L1 and L2, so hey acili a e posi i e ans e in o he L2. Howe e ,
in many cases his is no so, and s uden s mus be ale ed o di e ences and peculia i ies o
in e jec ions in hei L1 and L2 (Aijme 2004). Mo eo e , he ole o in e jec ions in communica ion
mus no be limi ed o he ul ilmen o hese h ee unc ions. S uden s mus know ha he e a e
di e en ypes o in e jec ions, bu , mo e impo an ly, ha some o hem a e used o exp ess emo ions
and as di ec i es.
3. Types o in e jec ions
Some p agma is s ha e classi ied in e jec ions adop ing unc ional c i e ia. Fo ins ance,
Wie zbicka (1991: 291, 1992: 165) so s in e jec ions in o emo i e, which ha e he unde lying
seman ic con en “I eel X” and exp ess a ange o emo ions such as disgus (14), su p ise (15), o pain
o so ow (16); oli i e, which ha e he seman ic con en “I wan X” and can be add essed o pe sons
(17) o animals (18); and cogni i e, which ha e he seman ic con en “I hink X” o “I belie e X” and
exp ess amazemen o success owa d some hing he speake disco e s (19).
(11) Yuk! Phew!
(12) Wow! Oops!
(13) Ouch!
(14) Sh!
(15) Ps !
(16) Aha! Oh!
Along simila lines, Ameka (1992: 113, 2006: 744-745) di e en ia es be ween exp essi e
in e jec ions, which subsume Wie bicka’s (1991, 1992) emo i e and cogni i e in e jec ions; cona i e
in e jec ions, which co espond o oli i e in e jec ions, and pha ic in e jec ions, which a e hose used
o es ablish o main ain he in e ac i e con ac . Cona i e o oli i e in e jec ions co espond o wha
Mon es calls p ojec i e in e jec ions in he axonomy, as “[…] hey signal o poin o an objec o
e en in he con ex , o o an u e ance in he immedia e discou se” (1999: 1296). On he con a y,
emo i e o exp essi e in e jec ions co espond o subjec i e in e jec ions, which d aw he hea e ’s
a en ion owa ds a eac ion by he speake , who has no iced some hing ha has a ec ed he physically
o emo ionally. Con e sa ion ille s would be clea examples o pha ic in e jec ions1.
1 O he classi ica ions o in e jec ions a e, o ins ance, hose made by Almela (1985), who
di e en ia es in e jec ions o judgemen , ul ilmen , comp omise, beha iou and a gumen a ion, and
Alcaide La a (1996), who di e en ia es be ween exp essi e in e jec ions, which con ey he speake ’s
a i ude owa d wha su ounds he and wha o he people say, and appealing in e jec ions, which a e
a ge ed o he hea e in o de o d aw his a en ion, wa n him o some hing, make him do some hing,
e c (“eh!”, “come on!”). Exp essi e in e jec ions a e u he subdi ided in o (i) emo i e in e jec ions,
which show he speake ’s emo ions (“bah!”, “ah!”, “oh my God!”, e c.); (ii) in e jec ions o
assessmen , which in ol e he speake ’s commen on he su ounding eali y, and may cas a doub
(“pss!”, “ah!”) o a (posi i e o nega i e) e alua ion (“go geous!”, “dam i !”, “ uck!”) ; (iii) op a i e
in e jec ions, which can ha e an exp essi e o appealing modal alue (“holy c ab!”), and (i )
onoma opoeic exp essi e in e jec ions.
Au ho s make sligh ly di e en classi ica ions depending on he speci ic c i e ia hey ely on.
Thei classi ica ions ha e he ad an age o e lec ing and helping ESL/EFL s uden s g asp he many
exp essi e shades and communica i e alues ha in e jec ions can ha e. Howe e , wha s uden s may
need o know is how in e jec ions con ibu e o communica ion and whe e hei in e ac i e impo ance
lies. Wi hin he cogni i e p agma ic amewo k o ele ance heo y (Spe be and Wilson 1986, 1995;
Wilson and Spe be 2004), Wha on (2000, 2001, 2003) has a emp ed o answe hese ques ions.
4. How in e jec ions con ibu e o communica ion
Assuming ha he esul o he decoding o u e ances is a logical o m2 ha mus be
p agma ically en iched un il i becomes a ully p oposi ional o m o , in he ele ance- heo e ic
e minology, he explica u e o he u e ance, and ha he hea e u he embeds ha explica u e unde
a p oposi ional-a i ude o a speech-ac desc ip ion hus ob aining i s highe -le el explica u e (Spe be
and Wilson 1986, 1995; Wilson and Spe be 2004), Wha on (2000, 2001, 2003) has sugges ed ha
in e jec ions con ibu e o communica ion by guiding he hea e in he eco e y o he highe -le el
explica u es o u e ances. In e jec ions encode a p ocedu al meaning which makes hea e s embed he
p oposi ion ha an u e ance exp esses unde a speech-ac o p oposi ional-a i ude desc ip ion by
cons uc ing highe -le el explica u es (Wha on 2001: 148, 2003: 54). Acco dingly, he in e jec ions
‘huh!’ and ‘wow!’ in (17a) and (18a) encou age hei hea e s o de i e he explica u es in (17b) and
(18b), espec i ely:
(17) a. Pe e is a nice guy, huh!
b. I is absu d/ idiculous/s upid o hink ha Pe e is a nice guy.
(18) a. Wow! I ha e won €1000 in he lo e y!
b. The speake is deligh ed/pleased/happy ha he has won €1000 in he lo e y.
This accoun sa is ac o ily applies o hose cases in which in e jec ions a e appended o
jux aposed o a p oposi ion and p ojec an a i ude owa ds ha p oposi ion, and in hose cases in
which, al hough he e is no immedia e p oposi ion, he e is a pe cep ible s imulus owa ds which an
a i ude is p ojec ed. Howe e , he e a e plen y o cases in which in e jec ions appea alone, as ull
u e ances, and he e is no adjacen p oposi ion. In hem, in e jec ions would no guide hea e s in he
eco e y o p oposi ional-a i ude desc ip ions, o no p oposi ion could be embedded unde such a
desc ip ion. The e o e, wha in e jec ions con ibu e is “[…] some hing ep esen a ional […]”, a
eeling o emo ion wi h which he speake “[…] e eals some hing abou he in e nal s a e” (Wha on
2003: 57).
Since in e jec ions lack concep ual meaning, when hey appea alone hei p ocedu al meaning
leads he hea e o ac i a e di e en a i udinal concep s (Wha on 2003: 60). Fo ins ance, an
in e jec ion such as ‘wow!’ makes he hea e ac i a e concep s including DELIGHT, SURPRISE o
EXCITEMENT; while ‘yuk!’ encou ages he hea e o ac i a e a concep o DISGUST, e c. Thei
p ocedu al meaning, mo eo e , di ec s he hea e o ac i a e some con ex ual assump ions and o
expec some cogni i e e ec s in each si ua ion (Wha on 2003: 59). Fo ha eason, in e jec ions
beha e as con ex - es ic o s ha indica e “[…] he gene al di ec ion in which he in ended meaning is
o be sough ” (Wha on 2003: 58). Acco dingly, in a con ex in which a gi l is se ed a dish o soup,
as es i and u e s (19), he hea e would ha e o ac i a e assump ions such as hose in (20) o
unde s and ha he gi l is exp essing a eeling o disgus :
(19) Yuk!
(20) a. Susan has been se ed a dish o soup.
b. The soup looks ho ible.
c. Susan has ied he soup.
d. The e is a s ange g imace on he ace.
e. People o en shou “yuk!” when hey do no like some hing.
. Susan migh no like he soup.
2 A logical o m is a s uc u ed se o concep s (Spe be and Wilson 1986, 1995).
Al hough he same in e jec ion can po en ially ac i a e a wide ange o possible p oposi ional-
a i ude desc ip ions o a i udinal concep s, he exac one ha he hea e will ac i a e will depend on
he con ex he selec s o p ocess an in e jec ional u e ance.
Wha on’s accoun o in e jec ions is a good ini ial s a ing poin o accoun o hei
con ibu ion o communica ion. Howe e , he e a e many occasions in which in e jec ions occu alone,
wi hou any adjacen p oposi ion, and hey canno be said o ansmi he speake ’s eeling o emo ion.
The ques ion ha now a ises is whe he hey only con ibu e o communica ion in he way explained
by Wha on.
5. Adop ing an al e na i e p agma ic pe spec i e
S uden s mus be awa e ha speake s use calls o ale s and o he cona i e o oli i e
in e jec ions o communica e some hing e y p ecise. Fo communica ion o succeed in hose cases,
hea e s mus (i) ealise ha hose in e jec ions a e in en ionally p oduced and (ii) in e wha hei
speake s in end o communica e, which is no e balised o communica ed by means o ph asal,
clausal o sen en ial u e ances. Those examples o in e jec ions occu ing alone and no exp essing he
speake ’s eeling o emo ion seem o sugges ha hey may encode a di e en ype o p ocedu al
meaning ha enables in e jec ions o con ibu e o communica ion di e en ly.
Teache s mus highligh ha in e jec ions a e con en ionalised linguis ic elemen s ha canno
be eely eplaced by o he in e jec ions in a speci ic con ex (Schou up 2001). As a esul o hei
epea ed usage in a con ex wi h a pa icula meaning, hey ge connec ed wi h ha meaning (Wilkins
1992). I ha connec ion is oo close, i can e en be hough ha some in e jec ions a e associa ed wi h
a pa icula concep , e en i ague o gene al (e.g. FEELING, ORDER). Tha ague o gene al
concep could ei he subsume o he mo e speci ic concep s (e.g. HAPPINESS, SADNESS – in he
case o emo i e o exp essi e in e jec ions), which could be u he speci ied by hea e s du ing
comp ehension (e.g. EUPHORIA, DISAPPOINTMENT).
In e jec ions, mo eo e , a e also indexical elemen s. Indexicali y is a p ope y ha allows
hem o “[…] index en i ies in he ex alinguis ic con ex as ille s o he a gumen posi ion in [a]
p oposi ion unde lying [ hem]” (Wilkins 1992: 132). Tha could imply ha in e jec ions ha e a so o
p oposi ional empla e associa ed wi h hem. Thus, emo i e o exp essi e in e jec ions would
subca ego ise a i s pe son subjec as an expe ience o a ce ain eeling and be associa ed o an
unde lying p oposi ional empla e such as ha in (21), in which he hea e would ha e o speci y he
eeling o emo ion he speake exp esses and wha o igina es ha eeling o emo ion o o wha i is
a ge ed:
(21) [EXPERIENCER] FEEL [FEELING/EMOTION] [>< (X)]
On he con a y, cona i e o oli i e in e jec ions would be associa ed o a p oposi ional
empla e such as ha in (22), in which he e would be an ac ion ha he speake , subca ego ised by he
in e jec ion as a subjec , wan s he hea e , subca ego ised as an objec -agen , (no ) o do (c . Vassile a
1994; Vázquez Veiga and Alonso Ramos 2004):
(22) [SUBJECT] ORDER [OBJECT-AGENT] [(no ) DO (X)]
S uden s should unde s and indexicali y as he possibili y o poin o he ex e nal wo ld. Such
p ope y ce ainly enables in e jec ions, along wi h speci ic con ex ual in o ma ion, such as mani es
ac s, s imuli o assump ions and p eceding o ollowing discou se, o con ey p oposi ions in an
ex emely schema ic way (Schou up 2001; Świa kowska 2006). Howe e , indexicali y is undamen al
o hink ha he p ocedu al meaning o in e jec ions can be di e en om ha p oposed by Wha on.
Ins ead o exclusi ely helping hea e s eco e highe -le el explica u es, in e jec ions could be hough
o encode ins uc ions o eco e speci ic con ex ual ma e ial ha hea e s would use o unde s and
wha speake s in end o communica e (Padilla C uz 2009). This would no exclude he possibili y ha
hea e s also exploi in e jec ions o cons uc highe -le el explica u es.
Acco dingly, emo i e o exp essi e in e jec ions would signal some con ex ual elemen ha
causes he eeling he speake exp esses o owa ds which ha eeling is p ojec ed. In u n, cona i e o
oli i e in e jec ions would signal an ac ion ha he speake expec s a pa icula indi idual (no ) o
pe o m. Teache s should make i clea ha , al hough in e jec ional u e ances do no ha e a ph asal,
clausal o sen en ial su ace s uc u e, he ins uc ions in e jec ions encode can guide he hea e o
access some con ex ual ma e ial ha he will need so as o in e wha he speake means and cons uc a
ce ain p oposi ion ha he hinks co esponds o i . Thus, in a con ex in which an indi idual is alking
du ing a lec u e, he will in e p e he in e jec ion in (23) as a eques o o de o be quie (25) as a
esul o ha ing ac i a ed a concep such as ORDER and ha ing ound a pa icula ac ion poin ed by
he speake (24):
(23) Sh!
(24) [YOU] SHUT UP.
(25) My in e locu o wan s/o de s me o shu up.
Likewise, in a con ex in which an indi idual is abou o en e a ecen ly cleaned oom which
he speake does no wan him o en e , he will in e p e (26) as an o de no o en e he oom (28) as a
consequence o ha ing ac i a ed a simila concep and ha ing ealised ha he speake signals a
speci ic ac ion (27) ha she expec s him no o do:
(26) Oi!
(27) [YOU] (no ) ENTER ROOM.
(28) My in e locu o wan s/o de s me no o en e he dinning- oom.
Finally, in a con ex in which wo iends mee in he s ee , he hea e o an in e jec ion such
as (29) will also ac i a e a concep such as HAPPINESS o PLEASURE, no e ha he speake signals
some ac ion ha o igina es he eeling she is exp essing (30) and ob ain a p oposi ion such as ha in
(31):
(29) Wow! Pe e !
(30) [I] MEET (YOU).
(31) John is happy/glad/pleased o mee me.
Gi en ha e bal communica ion is no a ailu e-sa e ac i i y, he p oposi ion ha he hea e
in e s and cons uc s om an in e jec ional u e ance may no ma ch he speake ’s ac ual in o ma i e
in en ion3. Howe e , i he hea e a ends join ly wi h he speake o some e en s, ac s, s imuli o
s a es o a ai s signalled and poin ed, he can be a he likely o unde s and wha she means.
6. Conclusion
This pape has shown ha , apa om conside ing in e jec ions as con e sa ion ille s which
ul il h ee impo an communica i e unc ions, eache s mus make s uden s awa e o o he unc ions
o in e jec ions and how hey con ibu e o communica ion. In o de o do so, eache s can ce ainly
bene i om he wo k on in e jec ions made in p agma ics o e he las decades.
I one o he aims o SL o FL eaching is o make lea ne s communica i ely compe en
indi iduals, hei SL/FL compe ence also equi es a ce ain mas e y o he usage o in e jec ions.
Teache s may no be able o de elop ha compe ence i hey lack aining in p agma ics o i hey a e
no o e ed mo e in o ma ion abou such issues. The e o e, ex books and eaching esou ces should
de o e mo e space o and include mo e aspec s o in e jec ions so as o aise bo h eache s and
s uden s’ awa eness o he impo ance o such linguis ic i ems o in e ac ion.
Re e ences
Aijme , Ka in. “In e jec ions in a Con as i e Pe spec i e.” Emo ion in Dialogic In e ac ion: Ad ances
in he Complex. Ed. W. Edda. Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2004: 99-120.
Alcaide La a, Espe anza. “La in e jección.” La exp esión de la modalidad en el habla de Se illa. Eds.
Ca alina Fuen es Rod íguez and Espe anza Alcaide La a. Se ille: Se icio de Publicaciones
del Ayun amien o de Se illa, 1996.
Almela Pé ez, R. Apun es g ama icales sob e la in e jección. Mu cia: Publicaciones de la Uni e sidad
de Mu cia, 1985.
3 In ele ance- heo e ic e ms, he speake ’s in o ma i e in en ion is he se o assump ions ha she
in ends o make mani es o he hea e (Spe be and Wilson 1986, 1995).

Ameka, Felix. “In e jec ions: he Uni e sal ye Neglec ed Pa o Speech.” Jou nal o P agma ics 18
(1992): 101-118.
Ameka, Felix. “In e jec ions”. Encyclopaedia o Language and Linguis ics. Ed. K. B own.
Ams e dam: Else ie , 2006: 743-746.
B es, Jacques. “In e jec ions/C is/Inju es.” Fai s de Langues 6 (1995): 81-91.
Cland ield, Lindsay. S aigh o wa d. Elemen a y S uden ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan, 2006.
Cland ield, Lindsay. S aigh o wa d. Beginne S uden ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan, 2007.
Cla e, An onia and J. J. Wilson. Language o Go. Uppe -In e media e S uden ’s Book. Ha low:
Pea son Educa ion Limi ed, 2002.
Cunningham, Gillie and Sue Mohamed. Language o Go. P e-In e media e S uden ’s Book. Ha low:
Pea son Educa ion Limi ed, 2002.
Ga cés Conejos, Pila and Pa icia Bou F anch. “A P agma ic Accoun o Lis ene ship: Implica ions
om Fo eign/Second Language Teaching.” Re is a Alican ina de Es udios Ingleses 15 (2002):
81-102.
Golds ein, Ben. F amewo k. Le el 2. S uden ’s Book. London: Richmond, 2005.
Jones, Ce i and Ben Golds ein. F amewo k. Le el 1. Elemen a y. London: Richmond, 2005.
Kay, Sue, Jon Hi d and Pe e Maggs. Mo e. Uppe -In e media e. Cou se Book. Ox o d: Macmillan,
2006.
Ke , Philip. S aigh o wa d. P e-In e media e S uden ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan, 2006.
Ke , Philip and Ce i Jones. S aigh o wa d. In e media e S uden ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan, 2006.
Ke , Philip and Ce i Jones. S aigh o wa d. Uppe In e media e S uden ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan,
2007.
Le Mais e, Simon and Ca ina Lewis. Language o Go. Elemen a y. Ha low: Pea son Educa ion
Limi ed, 2002.
López Bobo, Ma ía Jesús. La in e jección. Aspec os g ama icales. Mad id: A co Lib os, 2002.
Maggs, Pe e and Jenny Quin ana. Mo e. P e-In e media e. Cou se Book. Ox o d: Macmillan, 2006.
Mon es, Rosa G. “The De elopmen o Discou se Ma ke s in Spanish: In e jec ions.” Jou nal o
P agma ics 31 (1999): 1289-1319.
Nicolo , F ank. “How so/such/wha /how exclama o ies mean.” G aze Linguis ische S udien 33-34
(1990): 207-225.
No is, Roy. S aigh o wa d. Ad anced S uden ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan, 2008.
Padilla C uz, Manuel. “Towa ds an Al e na i e Rele ance- heo e ic App oach o In e jec ions”.
In e na ional Re iew o P agma ics 1 (2009): 1-25.
Qui k, Randolph, Sidney G eenbaum, Geo ey Leech and Jan S a ik. A Comp ehensi e G amma
o he English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Reds on, Ch is and Gillie Cunningham. Face2 ace. Elemen a y S uden ’s Book. Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2005a.
Reds on, Ch is and Gillie Cunningham. Face2 ace. P e-In e media e S uden ’s Book. Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2005b.
Reds on, Ch is and Gillie Cunningham. Face2 ace. Uppe -In e media e S uden ’s Book. Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2007.
Schou up, Law ence. “Re hinking well.” Jou nal o P agma ics 33 (2001): 1025-1060.
Sc i ene , Jim. S aigh o wa d. P e-In e media e Teache ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan, 2005.
Sc i ene , Jim and Celia Bingham. S aigh o wa d. In e media e Teache ’s Book. Ox o d:
Macmillan, 2006.
Sc i ene , Jim and Celia Bingham. S aigh o wa d. Uppe -In e media e Teache ’s Book. Ox o d:
Macmillan, 2007.
Sc i ene , Jim and Mike Saye . S aigh o wa d. Elemen a y Teache ’s Book. Ox o d: Macmillan,
2006.
S ubbe, Ma ia. “A e You Lis ening? Cul u al Di e ence on he Use o Suppo i e Ve bal Feedback in
Con e sa ion.” Jou nal o P agma ics 29 (1998): 257-289.
Spe be , Dan and Dei d e Wilson. Rele ance. Communica ion and Cogni ion. Ox o d: Blackwell,
1986.
Spe be , Dan and Dei d e Wilson. Rele ance. Communica ion and Cogni ion. 2nd Edi ion. Ox o d:
Blackwell, 1995.
Świa kowska, Ma cela. “L’in e jec ion: en e deixis e anapho e.” Langages 161 (2006): 47-56.
Wha on, Tim. “In e jec ions, E olu ion and he ‘Showing’/‘Saying’ Con inuum”. Pape p esen ed a
The E olu ion o Language Con e ence. Uni e si é de Pa is, 2000.
Wha on, Tim. “Na u al P agma ics and Na u al Codes.” UCL Wo king Pape s in Linguis ics 13
(2001): 109-161.
Wha on, Tim. “In e jec ion, Language, and he ‘Showing/Saying’ Con inuum.” P agma ics and
Cogni ion 11 (2003): 39-91.
Wie zbicka, Anna. C oss-Cul u al P agma ics: The Seman ics o Human In e ac ion. Be lin: Mou on
de G uy e , 1991.
Wie zbicka, Anna. “The Seman ics o In e jec ion.” Jou nal o P agma ics 18 (1992): 159-192.
Wilson, Dei d e and Dan Spe be . “Rele ance Theo y.” The Handbook o P agma ics. Eds. Lau ence
Ho n and G ego y Wa d. Ox o d: Blackwell, 2004: 607-632.
Wilkins, D. P. “In e jec ions as Deic ics.” Jou nal o P agma ics 18 (1992): 119-158.