Espacio,
Tiempo
y
Fo ma,
Se ie
VI,
Geog a ia,
. V, 1992,
págs.
67-90
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics
in he me opoli an á eas o Mad id
and Copenhagen
T. RUBIO. *
G.
KRISTENSEN.
T. ROJO. ***
1. INTRODUCTION
A Ci y is a socio-spa ial uni , which equi es o s eng hen in eg a ion
in wo le éis o in e ac ion —bo h he social and he physical— in o de
o de elop cohesi eness amongs i s inhabi an s.
By cohesión we unde s and he sha ing o common cul u e, in he
sense o mo al no ms o beha io and echniques. Rela ed o he equen-
cy o pa e ned in e ac ion is a measu e o alué in eg a ion, ha is he
sha ing by he membe s o alúes and belie s. In collec i es whe e a high
deg ee o consensus exis s, he e is less beha io al de iance han in
g oups whe e consensus is a enua ed
(DURKHEIM,
1897).
The longe he in eg a ion has been going on, amongs g oups, he
mo e se ied he no ma i e beha io . The accep ance o no ms and alúes
akes place mainly in he p ima y g oups
(COOLEY,
1902): " hose cha ac-
e ized by in íma e ace o ace associa ion and coope a ion. They a e
p i-
ma y in se e al senses bu chie ly in ha hey a e undamen al in o ming
he social na u e and ideáis o indi iduáis".
Those who mig a e lose hei in e ac ion wi h hei p ima y g oups o
closes social ne wo k
(BOTT,
1957). Tha is why, in ci ies, ins i u ional p o-
Dep .
Geog a ia.
UNED, Mad id, Spain.
Dep .
o
Economics.
Uni e si y
o
Odense.
Denma k.
*
Dep .
Sociología.
UNED, Mad id, Spain.
67
T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
mo ion o social in e ac ion is specially ele an o hose who ha e mo ed
in ecen ly (new dwelle s), because hey become loóse in alúes and
no m ein o cemen ha w/as usually held by hei g oup back in hei com-
muni ies o o igin.
Fo a socie y o build a common cul u e, I s membe s ha e o in e ac
and ne ií indi iduáis (mig an s) ha e o ind o build an in eg a lon ne wo k
in which o ge hold o he no ma i o beha io o hei new socie y. The
idea o one sel is buil h ough Communica ions wi h o he s
(COOLEY,
1902
and
MEAD,
1934). To Pa sons (1951), he ounda ions o a social sys em
a e mo i a ed ac o s, who play oles go e ned by he expec a ions o
o he ac o s in ol ed wi h hem in a web o social in e ac ion.
2.
MEASURING SOCIO-SPATIAL INTERACTION IN RESIDENTIAL ÁREAS
Since he Chicago School o Sociology, du ing he 1920's in he Uni ed
S a es, and up o now, social seg ega ion in ci ies has been s udied in
many occasions. Some selec ions o a icles can be ound in Hawley and
Rock (1973), and in F isbie and Kasa d (1988).
In his pape an e o is made o in oduce speci ic indica o s, bo h o
gene al in e ac ion o di e en g oups de ined on occupa ional basis, as
well as in eg a ion policios o mig an s. We assume ha he housing ma -
ke p omo es o es ic s social in eg a ion h ough housing a ailabili y o
di e en g oups.
Wi h he da a a ailable, we a e able o measu e he physical p oximi y
in he same municipaii ies o di e en social g oups. The indica o we a e
using o measu e socio-spa ial in eg a ion o g oups is he p esence o
each social g oup in a gi en municipali y ela ed o he a e age p esence
in he conside ed me opoli an communi y. The mix o di e en occupa-
ional g oups in esiden ial á ea will be used as an indica o o social
in e ac ion.
I is also es ed how housing p ices a ec di e en occupa ional g oups
(conside ed as income g oups) o mo e in o ou o a municipali y.
In ha sence ou conclusions will be in e ms o es ing whe he he
housing ma ke p ices a e inc easing o dec easing he oppo uni ies o
socio-spa ial in e ac ion amongs g oups and likewise he le el o social
cohesión in a ci y.
Ve y o en disin eg a ion o seg ega ion has a nega i o emo ional
sound while in eg a ion mos o en has a posi i e sound. Mo ill (1991) e.g.
68
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o ...
says:
"The mo i a ions o seg ega ion a e s uc u al — ha is a desi e o
minimize in e ac ion wi h ce ain o he kinds o people". This sen ence
can o cou se be u ned a ound in a posi i a s a emen : "The mo i a ions
o seg ega ion a e s uc u al— ha is a desi e o maximize in e ac ion
be ween ce ain kinds o people".
This a icle ies, based on empí ica! da a, o discuss cos s as well as
bene i s o socio-spa ial in eg a ion in a dynamic amewo k.
3. SOCIO-SPATIAL EQUILIBRIUM AND GOALS AND ME ASURES OF
THE POLITICAL AUTHORITIES TO INFLUENCE THE GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF PEOPLE
3.1.
Socio-spa ial Equilib ium
People in a ee socie y ac unde he imp ession o ex e na! a iables,
o condi ions gi en om ou side. Social seg ega ion is based on economic
ac o s such as income dis ibu ion, housing p ice s uc u e, manu ac u -
ing s uc u e. Unde ee cholee he ci izen
will,
gi en he ex e na! condi-
ions,
ind he óp ima! place o se ie. In his sea ch o he bes place he
wiü y o minimize dis ance o Job, minimize housing cos s a he quaü y
he wan s, minimize dis ance o s o es, schools and iends and y o ind
he mos beau i u! á ea. Unde he gi en backg ound a iables a ce ain
social seg ega ion wil! occu . I he backg ound a iables e.g. he p ice
s uc u e o housing o he income dis ibu ion is changed a new/ socio-
spa ial equilib ium will occu and he seg ega ion s uc u e wiü change.
3.2. Goals o In eg a ion
The decisión made by he public au ho i ies o in luence he cholee o
he indi idua! depends on a numbe o public goals o which he ollowing
6 seem ele an o ou discussion;
1.
Spa ial socio-economic equilib ium.
2.
In eg a ion.
3. F eedom o mo e and se ie in a non-disc imina o y way.
4.
Possibili y o choose.
5. A ac (good) ax paye s.
69
T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
6. «Equal» dis ibu ion o bu dens om social g oups.
In his a icle he socio-spa ial equilib ium and he de elopmen in his
equilib ium in Mad id and Copenhagen will be discussed as he gene al
backg ound o he si ua ion as he poli icians wan o «adjus ».
3.3. Measu es
The poli ical measu es o in luence he se iemen o people a e in a
ee socie y only mino . The e a e wo dinnensions in in luencing (adjus -
ing) he ee se iemen , one o in luence he se iemen «be ween» munic-
ipal uni s and one o in luence he se iemen «wi hin» a municipal uni .
Mo ing people be ween he municipals has he cha ac e o compe i ion
on he dis ibu ion o weal h, g ow h and bu dens.
Wi hin a municipal uni he ques ions o ca e aking as well as in eg a-
on a e mo e domina ing. The measu es a e:
a) Ci y de elopmen plans.
b) House building p og ams.
c) Dis ibu ion o appa men s.
1.
Social disad an aged.
2.
Immig an s, e ugees.
The socio-spa ial «equilib ium» and he poli ical «adjus men s» shall
now be discussed on empi ical basis.
4. EMPIRICAL DESCRIPTION AND INVESTIGATION OF THE SOCIO-
SPATIAL EQUILIBRIUM
The compa a i e desc ip ion o he socio-spa ial s uc u e o Mad id
and Copenhagen gi es p oblema conce ning he a ailable s a is ics in
pa icula h ee á eas: he ime pe iods a ailable, di e en geog aphical
adminis a i e s uc u e and di e en me hods o classi ica ion o social
g oups. In o de o make some so o compa ison i has been necessa y
o accep smalle di e ences in he ime pe iods used o he wo ci ies,
o accep di e ences in geog aphical uni s and qui e big di e ences in he
de ini ion o social g oups.
70
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o
4.1.
Main Lines in Popula ion and Income De elopmen in Spain and
Denma k
The gene al de elopmen has been di e en in Spain and Denma k o
he conside ad pe iod 1981-1988. The Spanish popula ion is s ill g owing
and he me opoli an á ea is g owing as
well,
only Mad id Ci y (Cen al
Dis ic s) has a declining popula ion. The Danish popula ion is s agna ing,
he me opoli an popula ion is declining and Copenhagen Ci y (municipal-
i y) is declining e en mo e apidly. In Denma k he income le el was
abou wo and a hal imes highe han in Spain. The economic g ow h
a e a li le highe o Spain han o Denma k.
TABLE 1. POPULATION AND INCOME PER CAPITA (1987) AND GROWTH OF
POPULATION AND INCOME PER YEAR IN SPAIN (1981-1986) AND DENMARK
(1982-1988)
POPULATION POP. GROWTH PC. INC INC GROWTH
ÁREA .-„„
1986 %/YEAR $/YEAR %/YEAR
Spain 38.800.000 0.4 7.454 3.1
Mad id 4.323.495
Mad id C.D
1.029.010
1988
Denma k 5.100.000 0.0 19.866 2.1
Copenhagen
1.711.730
Copenh.
Ci y 467.850
4.2. The Me opoli an Sub-a eas
In discussing he deg ee o seg eg a ion he measu ing uni s o á eas
and social ca ego ies a e impo an . I he á eas conside ed cons i u e
g ea sha es o he o al á ea, he deg ee o in eg a ion will seem o be
g ea . The measu e o seg eg a ion will end o ise as smalle á ea uni s
a e conside ed. The same holds o some deg ee o he size o social
ca ego y conside ed. In his a icle he á ea uni s o Mad id a e gi en on
wo le éis, agg ega ed on 9 uni s o which 4 a e cen al dis ic s and 5
me opoli an municipali ies, on his agg ega ed le el house p ises we e
a ailable o 1982 and 1987. Disagg ega ed da a we e a ailable o Mad id
on 43 municipal uni s o which La ina was he mos densely popula ed in
1986 wi h 282.460 inhabi an s and he smalles was Villanue a P. wi h
1.497 inhabi an s. Fo Copenhagen he uni s a e 50 municipal á eas, o
71
0.4
0.3
•1.2
0.0
-.2
-.8
7.454
—
—
19.866
21.924
17.804

T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
MADRID METR OPOLITAN ÁREA MUNICIPALITIES
NO^*^"-
Alcobendas EAST: Coslada SOUTH: Alco cón SOUTH:Fuenlab ada WEST:Boadill,
Colmena V. Mejo ada
S.Sebas ián
Pa acuellos
Ri as-Vac.
S.Fe nando
H:
To ejón A.
Velilla S.A.
Ge a e WEST Mós oles
Leganés Pa la
Pin o
B úñe e
Majadah.
Pozuelo
Rozas(Las)
Villanue a
Villa iciosE
72
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o
which he Copenhagen municipali y wi h 467.850 inh. was he mos dense-
ly popula ed in 1988, and he smalles was Skae inge wi h 4.946 inh. Fo
all hese á eas housing p ices we e a ailable, besides he e a e da a on
ou pendiing om each municipal uni . Fo he Copenhagen municipali y
u he da a on mo e disagg ega ed geog aphicai le el we e a ailable.
When compa ing Mad id and Copenhagen some di icul ies a ise due
o di e ences in adminis a i o á eas. Due o he impo ance o he size
o he geog aphicai á ea and because he ci y cen es di e om he su -
ounding á eas a ension will also be paid o he me opoli an cen es be-
low whe e Mad id Ci y (Cen al Dis ic s) will be hold up agains Copen-
hagen Ci y (municipali y).
4.3. The Social Ca ego ies
No only he geog aphicai á eas gi e oubie in he compa ison e en
wo se a e he he compa ison o social g oups. Di e en ca ego ies a e
a ailable o Mad id as well as o Copenhagen. The wo se o de ini ions
which seemed o be he mos in o ma i o we e:
The social ca ego ies used o Mad id
Technicians
Manage s
Public Adminis a ion Employees
Comme ce/T ade
Se ices
Ag icul u e
T anspo a ion and Building indus y
A mad Fo ces
No Speci ied
Unemployed
No in Labou Fo cé
and o Copenhagen
Sel -employed
Whi e Colla Wo ke s
Biue Colla Skilled Wo ke s
Blue Colla Unskilled Wo ke s
No Speci ied
Unemployed
No in Labou Fo cé
73
T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
TABLE 2. DEVELOPMENT IN POPULATION AND SOCIAL GROUPS IN THE
MADRID METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1981 TO 1986
1981 1986 1981 1986 %
SHARE OF POP. GROWTH
To . pop 4.258.835 4.323.495 100 100 1.5
Tech 184.219 224.013
Mana 27.840 46.794
Pub.
Adm 305.312 335.224
Com/T ade 135.803 127.166
Se ices 172.136 165.408
Ag icul 8.966 6.537
T a/Bulld 419.877 344.404
A m.
Fo 16.322 18.879
No Spec 16.318 21.157
Unempl 251.840 335.940
No in L 2.720.208 2.697.679 63.9 62.4 -0.9
TABLE 3. DEVELOPMENT IN POPULATION AND SOCIAL GROUPS IN THE
COPENHAGEN METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1984 TO 1988
4.3
0.7
7.2
3.2
4.0
0.2
9.9
0.4
0.4
5.9
5.2
1.1
7.8
2.9
3.8
0.2
8.0
0.4
0.5
7.8
21.5
68.1
9.8
-6.4
-3.9
-27.1
-18.0
15.8
29.7
33.4
YEAR 1984
1988
1.711.730
67.812
520.189
93.203
151.098
100.789
68.120
710.449
1984 1988
SHARE OF POP.
100.0
3.9
28.7
5.5
9.2
5.7
4.0
42.9
100.0
4.0
30.4
5.4
8.8
5.9
4.0
41.5
%
GROWTH
-0.6
1.5
5.1
-2.4
-4.8
3.0
-2.1
-3.9
To . pop
1.722.792
Sel -empl 66.821
Whi e Col 494.832
Skill 95.534
Unsklll 158.655
No Spec 97.893
Inemp 69.587
No In L 739.490
No ice ha he wo ables 2. and 3. can no be compa ed di ec iy. Fo
Copenhagen he l s se en ca ego ies a e inclusi e o child en and he
young unde educa lon, ela ed o he sepá a e g oups. This is no he
case o Mad id.
Al hough he di e ences In he wo se o da a ma e ial a e g ea hey
ne e heless indíca e a pa allel de elopmen in he social s uc u e in he
wo á eas. The e is a clea de elopmen in he di ec ion o mo e highiy
educa ed people and ewe less educa ed people. F om he da a i seems
^jalis ic o compa e public adminis a ion employees wi h whi e colla
74
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o
wo ke s and o compa e he g oup anspo a ion and building indus y
wi h blue colla wo ke s (skilled and unskllled).
4.4. The Social In eg a ion in Me opoli an Municipali ies
In his sec ion he deg ee o social in eg a ion will be de ined sum-
ma ily as he simila i y be ween he indi idual municipals composi ion o
social g oups wi h he composi ion in he whole me opoli an á ea. I will
be measu ed as he highes sha e which any municipal has o a ce ain
social g oup compa ed wi h he a e age o he whole á ea.
TABLE 4. HIGHEST SHARE OF A SOCIAL GROUP IN A MUNICIPAL UNIT IN
MADRID METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1986 (43 UNITS) COMPARED WITH ÁREA
AVERAGE
HIGHEST AVERAGE
%
Tech 12.3 5.2
Mana 4.5 1.1
Pub.
Adm 12.8 7.8
Com/T ade 5.1 2.9
Se ices 5.5 3.8
Ag icul 4.1 0.2
T a/Bulld 21.4 8.0
A m.
Fo 1.4 0.4
No . Spec 1.3 0.5
Unempl 10.8 7.8
No in L 70.1 62.4
TABLE 5. HIGHEST SHARE OF A SOCIAL GROUP IN A MUNICIPAL UNIT IN
COPENHAGEN METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1988 (50 UNITS) COMPARED WITH ÁREA
AVERAGE
HIGHEST AVERAGE
%
Sel -employed 8.6 4.0
Whi e Colla Wo ke s 42.0 30.4
Blue Colla Wo ke s (sk+unsk) 22.5 14.2
No Speci ied 8.1 5.9
Unemployed 6.5 4.0
No in Labou Fo cé 46.5 41.5
75
T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
gi es 55.8 %. The e o e i seems plausible o assume o he Copenhagen
me opoli an á ea he social seg eg a ion gi es lowe cos s o pendiing
o blue colla wo ke s.
4.7. The Gene al Equilib ium and U ban Dynamics
Wi hou in e en ion om public au ho i ies he ma ke o ces c éa e a
gene al equilib ium cha ac e ized by a ce ain social seg ega ion. Fi s
he abo e discussion shows, ah he seg ega ion is no specially high nei-
he in Mad id ño in Copenhagen on he municipal le el. Second ha he
socio-spa ial equilib ium has been changed in bo h owns among o he
easons due o changed s uc u e o housing p ices.
When aiking abou "equilib ium" i should be no iced ha he ac ual
si ua ion a a gi en momen can mo e likely be desc ibed as "disequili-
b ium",
because he adjus men p ocess mos ce ainly is no inished. I
mus be assumed ha he e is a con inous low o people decided by di -
e ences in house-p ices.
5. THE
CENTRAL
ÁREAS. MADRID AND
COPENHAGEN
CITY
As desc ibed abo e he di e ences in size be w/een he municipal uni s
in Copenhagen we e e y big. Besides i was men ioned ha changing Job
oppo uni ies in di e en á eas migh in luence he deg ee o seg ega ion,
inally he cen e wo ks in a way which di e s om he subu bs. The e o e
he Mad id Ci y (Cen al Dis ic s) and he Copenhagen Ci y (municipal)
will be desc ibed sepa a ely.
Calcula ions show ha he g oup «No Speci ied» mos likely ep esen
high income g oups.
The able 10. and 11. show simila i ies and di e ences be ween Mad id
Ci y and Copenhagen Ci y. In bo h ci ies he sha e o high income g oups
a e ising mo e apidly han in he me opoli an á ea, bu while in Mad id
Ci y he high income g oups a e o e ep esen ed compa ed wi h he me -
opoli an as a whole he high income g oups a e unde ep esen ed in Co-
penhagen Ci y. The chango in social s uc u e in he Ci y is due o new
Job oppo uni ies because he indus ial s uc u e changes. The mos in-
s uc i o examples o his is he de elopmen in he labou di isión be-
ween he ci y co e and i s su oundings. Table 12 shows he de elopmen
in sha e o jobs in he Copenhagen municipali y in manu ac u ing com-
pa ed o inance and business se ice.
82

Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o
TABLE 10. SHARE OF SOCIAL GROUP IN MADRID CITY 1981 1986 COMPARED
WITH METROPOLITAN AVERAGE 1986
MADRID CITY
AVERAGE AVERAGE
METRÓPOLIS
AVERAGE
1981 1986 1986
Tech 7.7
Mana 1.1
Pub.
Adm 9.2
Com/T ade 3.4
Se ices 4.9
Ag icul 0.1
T a/Build 4.7
A m.
Fo 0.5
No Speci ied 0.4
Unempl 5.1
No in L 37.3
8.7
1.8
9.8
2.8
3.6
0.1
3.5
0.6
1.0
7.0
i8.8
5.2
1.1
7.8
2.9
3.8
0.2
8.0
0.4
0.5
7.8
62.4
TABLE 11. SHARE OF SOCIAL GROUPS IN COPENHAGEN CITY 1983 AND 1988
COMPARED WITH METROPLITAN AVERAGE 1988
COPENHAGEN CITY METRÓPOLIS
AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE
1983
Sel -employed 2.7
Whi e Colla Wo ke s 23.8
Blue Colla Wo ke s (Skilled) 15.1
No Speci ied 4.8
Unemployed 5.2
No in Labou Fo cé 48.4
1988 1988
2.7
26.3
14.3
5.7
4.7
46.2
4.0
30.4
14.2
5.9
4.0
41.5
In he Ci y job oppo uni ies ise o whi e colla wo ke s (especially
he highes payed wi hin his g oup) and he decline o blue colla (esp.
unskilled) wo ke s. This gi es whi e colla wo ke s mo i e o mo e in and
blue colla wo ke s a mo i e o mo e ou . Due o he di e en poin o
depa u e his de elopmen makes be e «in eg a ion» in Copenhagen
and «seg ega ion» in Mad id.
83
T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
TABLE 12. SHARE OF JOBS IN MANUFACTURING AND IN FINANCE AND
BUSINESS SERVICE FOR COPENHAGEN CITY AND ALL DENMARK
(PARENTESES)
1982
Manu ac u ing 13.7 (19.2)
Finance and Business Se . 13.40 (7.16)
1988
11.4 (19.6)
18.0 (8.8)
TABLE 13. CHANGE IN SOCIAL GROUPS IN MADRID CITY 1981-1986
TOTAL
GHANGE
Technicians 5.920
Manage s 6.373
Public Aminis a ion Employees 641
Comme ce/T ade - 8.275
Se ices -15.857
Ag icul u e - 941
T anspo a ion and Building Indus y -15.685
A med Fo ces 599
No Speci ied 5.390
Unemployed 16.172
No in Labou Fo cé - 6.861
To al - 59.197
Due o i s "un a o able" popula ion connposi ion Copenhagen has as
goal "g adually o change he physical en i onmen s in such a way, ha
hey will o a g ea e deg ee be a ac i e o popula ion g oups, which
g adually can supplemen he ac ual popula ion owa ds one wi h espec
o age, educa ion and employmen mo e balanced popula ion composi-
ion"
(The Copenhagen Ci y Plan 1989 p. 22). This nneans ha "in eg a-
ion"
de ined as mo ing owa ds he a e age connposi ion o he popula-
ion in he me opoli an á ea is a goal o Conpenhagen Ci y. I seenns
howe e as i Conpenhagen would no nnind o ollow Mad id beyond a
balanced popula ion composi ion because he plan adds: "Pa allel wi h
his he municipal will y o suppo hose p o essions and b anches, who
ha e special need o a cen al loca ion...". The Copenhagen popula ion
poli ics seem o be a mix u e o in eg a ion poli ics, poli ics o ma ching
Jobs wi h inhabi an s and he poli ics o a ac ing good axpaye s. The ac-
ual change o social g oups in Mad id and Copenhagen ci y á ea has o al
igu es de eloped as shown in able 13. and 14.
84
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas oí...
TABLE 14. CHANGE IN SOCIAL GROUPS IN COPENHAGEN 1983-1988
TOTAL
GHANGE
Sel -empIyed - 294
Whi e Colla Wo kes 7.088
Blue Colla Wo ke s - 6.408
No Speci ied 3.499
Unemployed - 2.968
No in Labou Fo cé -18.806
To al -17.889
O e he yea s he ma ke mechanism has aised mise able dis ic s
o weal hy á eas, while ich dis ic s ha e de e io a ed, which indica es
ha he "equilib ium poin " migh no only change bu also be uns able,
and/o he e migh be se e a! equilib ium poin s.
Conscious poli ics o in eg a ion migh he e o e be expensí e and ap-
idly ou da ed.
6. HOUSING POLITICS IN SPAIN AND DENMARK
As shown abo e in able 4. and 5. he e was no ala ming seg ega ion
when he municipal uni s we e used as he geog aphical uni and he ap-
plied social ca ego ies. E en on dis ic le e! he da a did no e eal
ala ming seg ega ion. The e o e we now conside a lowe le el o geo-
g aphical uni s: housing blocks and expand he social ca ego ies o In-
clude immig an s and e ugees.
6.1 Social Housing Cons uc ions
To a oid seg ega ion, he mos impo an expe iences in Spain a e
hose p ac iced a e he p incipies used in I aly e.g. Bologna, whe e he
quali y o housing is imp o ed in cen e neighbo hoods while s ong e -
o s a e made o secu e ha he usual esiden s do no ha e o mo e o
cheepe á eas.
In Denma k mos blocks a e buil and adminis a ed by "social housing
coo po a ions" which a e o mally independen en e p ises bu unde
g ea in luence o he municipali ies. The leade ship o hese coope a ions
85
T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
is ei he he municipal o he esiden s o a combina ion o
bo h.
The coo -
pe a ion pays no inconne ax and can ecel e inancia! suppo om he
municipal.
A municipal can in luence i s housing a ailabili y h ough i s
engagemen in he cons ucion o social housing, deciding he ype, p ice
ange and composi ion o he housing suppiy. The eby i has indi ec ly
some possiblli y o in luence i s popula ion composi ion and localiza ion.
Some municipals engage in he cons uc ions in o de o a ac people o
he municipali y. An o en usad a gumen is o a ac he people who ac-
ually wo k in he municipal bu li e (and pay axes) ou side.
6.2 Social In eg a ion in Social Housing
Ren ing he appa men s a e supposed o be on a ou able condi ions,
bu a e ne e heless cióse o ma ke condi ions. In inding he esiden s
he coo po a ion is obliged o ake social ega ds and ese e he lowes
p iced appa men s o he low income people. Some "social" appa men s
a e higly expensi e and assigned o people wi h high incomes.
I is he du y o he housing coope a ion o make a disposal up o one
o each h ee ee sel appa men o he municipali y. Beyond ha he
municipal au ho i ies dispose o 25 % o he appa men s o e-housing
people om condemned houses, his means ha he municipali y can dis-
pose o up o 50 % o he ee appa men s. Those pe cen ages a e ela ed
o each single depa men . By he assignmen s he municipali y shall y
o secu e a " easonable in eg a ion be ween di e en popula ion g oups
in he indi idual housing depa men s".
I necessa y he municipali y can demand ha hey shall app o e e e y
single assignmen made by he housing coope a ion.
6.3 Ga an eed Máximum Pe cen age o Income o be Payed in House
Ren
In o de o suppo each indi idual in his eedom o choose he e has
in Denma k been an inc easing unde s anding o he impo ance o gi ing
economic suppo o pe sons no o houses. The Dweiling Secu i y Law
has as main ule ha people can pay up o 15 % o hei income (a e
deduc ion o child en) in house en , i he income is belo kí 110.000 dk
( ound 20.000 $). O ha sha e which is abo e 110.000 dk people could
pay 25 % in housing en . The emaining en is payed by he go e nmen
i he en ed dweiling has a easonable size.
86
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o
7. INTEGRATION OF IMMIGRANTS REFUGEES IN DENMARK
Since 1960 Denma k has ecei ed a li le mo e hen 50.000 inmig an s
om hi d coun ies de ined as coun ies ou side Eu ope and No h-Ame-
ica.
In he daily deba e he in eg a ion o hose g oups akes he g ea es
space.
7.1 The Ishoj Case
ishoj is a municipal uni in he sou h eas o he Copenhagen me o-
poli an á ea. No o he municipal uni is a home o so many people om
hi d coun ies as Ishoj, which in 1990 had abou 11 % o i s popula ion
om hi d coun ies. In ce ain g oups o housing blocks up o 20 % was
om hi d coun ies. Fo he Copenhagen me opoli an as a whole he pe -
cen age is abou 3 %.
In 1976 he Mayo o Ishoj ecommended a housing coope a ion no o
e en ee appa men s o inmig an s i al eady mo e hen 10 % o he
popula ion in ha block was om hi d coun ies. The eason was o achie-
e a mo e di e si ied popula ion composi ion in o de o p omo e in eg a-
ion.
The ecommanda ion opened a deba e whe he his was ace disc i-
mina ion and agains he ule o se e all people equal. The Public P os-
cecu o ealized ha he ecommenda ion was agains he wo ds o § 1 o
he law o ace disc imina ion. The in ensión o he ecommenda ion was
howe e o omi ace disc imina ion by in eg a ion he e o e he Public
P ocecu o ound ha i could no be conside ed as illegal. This poin o
wie was app o ed by he Minis y o Jus ice and accep ed by he Om-
budsmand (The Pa liamen a y Commissione o Adminis a ion).
In 1980 he council o Ishoj decided ha e en ing o ee appa men s
should be app o ed by he municipali y, and he ecomanda ion o no e-
en ing o immig an s was epeled.
In 1987 and 1988 app o al was denied in 8 and 5 cases e e ing o
na ionali y.
In 1990 howe e a commi y agains acism b ough he ques ion in o
cou and he ecommanda ion and ollowing p ac ice was ound no o be
legal.
I seems ha he au ho i ies, in o de o p omo e in eg a ion can pu
unde ep esen ed people in a house bu no keep o e ep esen ed g oups
ou o a house.
87

T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
7.2 The Ves e b o Case
The lack o abili y o s op indi iduáis om o e ep esen ed g oups o
mo e ¡n has led o he si ua ion whe e he schools in Ves e b o, a dis ic
in he cen e o Copenhagen, has go 52 % child en om hi d coun ies.
The pa en s o he child en blamed he poli icians o lack o cou age by
no en o cing an e ec i e educa ion in Danish and mee ing discipline o
he o ign school child en.
7.3 The Re ugees
The poli ics o in eg a ing e ugees is o make an "e en dis ibu íon"
o e ugees on municipal uni s so ha all ecei e almos he some quo a
pe capi a. Besides he in ensión is o hold amilies o iends oge he o
i someone has a i ed alone o place hem oge he wi h people om
hei own coun y. This dis ibu ion poli ic has been men ioned as "dis i-
bu ing in g oups" so ha in eg a ion wi h he Danish popula ion no means
seg ega ion om iends.
8. CHRISTIANIA:
GHETTO
OR POSSIBILITY OF
FREE CHOICE
Fo wen y yea s he e has been mo e o less o ganized esis ance
agains own eno a ions. Emp y condemned buildings ha e been occu-
pied by slum s o me s who wan ed o posses and p ese e he oíd build-
ings.
One o he mos signi ican o hose ac ions ook place in Copenhag-
en in 1972 whe e condemned mili a y ba acks we e «libe a ed» by slum
s o me s who decla ed he á ea o he « ee s a e o Ch is iania» an al-
e na i e socie y and a social expe imen . Reluc ance om poli ical au-
ho i ies o es o e «law and o de » has b ough up wo decades o dis-
cussion o making Ch is iania legal. O special poin s can men ioned ha
ba s and inns ha e exis ed in he á ea wi hou egis a ion and au ho is-
a ion,
ade wi h d ugs is supposed o be e y
high,
he same is he case
o ade wi h s olen goods.
Ch is iania has a highiy a ying popula ion, wi h mos people in he
summe . The pe manen popula ion was 910 inhabi an s on 1.1.-1989. I s
dis ibu ion is shown in abie 15. compa ed wi h he dis ibu ion o he Co-
penhagen me opoli an popula ion.
The á ea o Ch is iania is wha Rojo and Rubio (1990) desc ibe as a
«bag o po e y». The ci es does no howe e ell he whole s o y. Many
88
Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o
15.
SHARE OG SOCIAL GROUPS IN THE COPENHAGEN METROPOLITAN ÁREA
AND CHRiSTIANIA 1988/1989
Sel -empiyed
Whi e Colla Wo ke s
Blue Colla Wo ke s (Sk+Unsk)
No Speci ied
Unemployed
No in Labou Fo cé
people ha e exp essed ha hey eel ha in Ch is iania hey ha e ound
a humani y which hey had missed. Ch is iania unde line he ac ha only
di e ences can gi e people he possibili y o choice.
METRÓPOLIS
4.0
30.4
14.2
5.9
4.0
41.5
CHRISTIA
3.0
5.5
3.1
1.4
24.3
62.2
9. CONCLUSIÓN
I seems o be ciea ha income o occupa ionai g oups end o seg-
ega e in he me opoli an á ea a e p ices o housing. The end is p ob-
ably less no iceable in sho e m basis han in long e m basis. The mo-
biii y will pa ly depend on he p opo ion o home owne ship and public
egula ions.
The way homes a e made a ailable in such a classi ied way, due o
zoning egula ions and due o he land p ices — eia ed o quali y o Se -
ices—
in each á ea, seems o be he nex eie an a iable o go deepe
in o.
I he housing a ailabili y pa e ns he display o income g oups, he
ac ions o inc eas-ing socio-spa ial in eg a ion should go in he di ec ion
o di e si ying he houses o e ed as well inside in he same building as
in he neighbo hood.
In he compa a i e s udy we ha e had some ouble because he s a-
is ics a e no made uni o miy. I ules o he in eg a ion poli ic some day
should be handed o e o he Common Ma ke i would demand a
s an-
da dised Eu opean s a is ic. Howe e as shown in eg a ion is a highiy lo-
cal ma e which ha dly passes he municipal bo de s. The e o e he e
seems no need o coo dína e s a is ics o he pu pose o in eg a ion.
89
T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO
ABSTRACT
I is well known ha owns end o seg ega e socially, wi h lowe in-
e ac ion be ween di e en social g oups, as a consequence. The ole o
he housing ma ke is c ucial in his p ocesa.
The pu pose o his pape is o discuss he social dynamics and he
s uc u ing capaci y o housing o e social in e ac ion o g oups, on he
basis o compa a i e empí ica! da a, o he Mad id and Copenhagen me -
opoli an á eas.
Keywo ds: in eg a ion, spa ial equilib ium, ghe o, e ugees.
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90