Socio-spatial integration and dynamics in the metropolitan áreas of Madrid and Copenhagen

Espacio, Tiempo y Fo ma, Se ie VI, Geog a ia, . V, 1992, págs. 67-90 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o Mad id and Copenhagen T. RUBIO. * G. KRISTENSEN. T. ROJO. *** 1. INTRODUCTION A Ci y is a socio-spa ial uni , which equi es o s eng hen in eg a ion in wo le éis o in e ac ion —bo h he social and he physical— in o de o de elop cohesi eness amongs i s inhabi an s. By cohesión we unde s and he sha ing o common cul u e, in he sense o mo al no ms o beha io and echniques. Rela ed o he equen- cy o pa e ned in e ac ion is a measu e o alué in eg a ion, ha is he sha ing by he membe s o alúes and belie s. In collec i es whe e a high deg ee o consensus exis s, he e is less beha io al de iance han in g oups whe e consensus is a enua ed (DURKHEIM, 1897). The longe he in eg a ion has been going on, amongs g oups, he mo e se ied he no ma i e beha io . The accep ance o no ms and alúes akes place mainly in he p ima y g oups (COOLEY, 1902): " hose cha ac- e ized by in íma e ace o ace associa ion and coope a ion. They a e p i- ma y in se e al senses bu chie ly in ha hey a e undamen al in o ming he social na u e and ideáis o indi iduáis". Those who mig a e lose hei in e ac ion wi h hei p ima y g oups o closes social ne wo k (BOTT, 1957). Tha is why, in ci ies, ins i u ional p o- Dep . Geog a ia. UNED, Mad id, Spain. Dep . o Economics. Uni e si y o Odense. Denma k. * Dep . Sociología. UNED, Mad id, Spain. 67 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO mo ion o social in e ac ion is specially ele an o hose who ha e mo ed in ecen ly (new dwelle s), because hey become loóse in alúes and no m ein o cemen ha w/as usually held by hei g oup back in hei com- muni ies o o igin. Fo a socie y o build a common cul u e, I s membe s ha e o in e ac and ne ií indi iduáis (mig an s) ha e o ind o build an in eg a lon ne wo k in which o ge hold o he no ma i o beha io o hei new socie y. The idea o one sel is buil h ough Communica ions wi h o he s (COOLEY, 1902 and MEAD, 1934). To Pa sons (1951), he ounda ions o a social sys em a e mo i a ed ac o s, who play oles go e ned by he expec a ions o o he ac o s in ol ed wi h hem in a web o social in e ac ion. 2. MEASURING SOCIO-SPATIAL INTERACTION IN RESIDENTIAL ÁREAS Since he Chicago School o Sociology, du ing he 1920's in he Uni ed S a es, and up o now, social seg ega ion in ci ies has been s udied in many occasions. Some selec ions o a icles can be ound in Hawley and Rock (1973), and in F isbie and Kasa d (1988). In his pape an e o is made o in oduce speci ic indica o s, bo h o gene al in e ac ion o di e en g oups de ined on occupa ional basis, as well as in eg a ion policios o mig an s. We assume ha he housing ma - ke p omo es o es ic s social in eg a ion h ough housing a ailabili y o di e en g oups. Wi h he da a a ailable, we a e able o measu e he physical p oximi y in he same municipaii ies o di e en social g oups. The indica o we a e using o measu e socio-spa ial in eg a ion o g oups is he p esence o each social g oup in a gi en municipali y ela ed o he a e age p esence in he conside ed me opoli an communi y. The mix o di e en occupa- ional g oups in esiden ial á ea will be used as an indica o o social in e ac ion. I is also es ed how housing p ices a ec di e en occupa ional g oups (conside ed as income g oups) o mo e in o ou o a municipali y. In ha sence ou conclusions will be in e ms o es ing whe he he housing ma ke p ices a e inc easing o dec easing he oppo uni ies o socio-spa ial in e ac ion amongs g oups and likewise he le el o social cohesión in a ci y. Ve y o en disin eg a ion o seg ega ion has a nega i o emo ional sound while in eg a ion mos o en has a posi i e sound. Mo ill (1991) e.g. 68 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o ... says: "The mo i a ions o seg ega ion a e s uc u al — ha is a desi e o minimize in e ac ion wi h ce ain o he kinds o people". This sen ence can o cou se be u ned a ound in a posi i a s a emen : "The mo i a ions o seg ega ion a e s uc u al— ha is a desi e o maximize in e ac ion be ween ce ain kinds o people". This a icle ies, based on empí ica! da a, o discuss cos s as well as bene i s o socio-spa ial in eg a ion in a dynamic amewo k. 3. SOCIO-SPATIAL EQUILIBRIUM AND GOALS AND ME ASURES OF THE POLITICAL AUTHORITIES TO INFLUENCE THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PEOPLE 3.1. Socio-spa ial Equilib ium People in a ee socie y ac unde he imp ession o ex e na! a iables, o condi ions gi en om ou side. Social seg ega ion is based on economic ac o s such as income dis ibu ion, housing p ice s uc u e, manu ac u - ing s uc u e. Unde ee cholee he ci izen will, gi en he ex e na! condi- ions, ind he óp ima! place o se ie. In his sea ch o he bes place he wiü y o minimize dis ance o Job, minimize housing cos s a he quaü y he wan s, minimize dis ance o s o es, schools and iends and y o ind he mos beau i u! á ea. Unde he gi en backg ound a iables a ce ain social seg ega ion wil! occu . I he backg ound a iables e.g. he p ice s uc u e o housing o he income dis ibu ion is changed a new/ socio- spa ial equilib ium will occu and he seg ega ion s uc u e wiü change. 3.2. Goals o In eg a ion The decisión made by he public au ho i ies o in luence he cholee o he indi idua! depends on a numbe o public goals o which he ollowing 6 seem ele an o ou discussion; 1. Spa ial socio-economic equilib ium. 2. In eg a ion. 3. F eedom o mo e and se ie in a non-disc imina o y way. 4. Possibili y o choose. 5. A ac (good) ax paye s. 69 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO 6. «Equal» dis ibu ion o bu dens om social g oups. In his a icle he socio-spa ial equilib ium and he de elopmen in his equilib ium in Mad id and Copenhagen will be discussed as he gene al backg ound o he si ua ion as he poli icians wan o «adjus ». 3.3. Measu es The poli ical measu es o in luence he se iemen o people a e in a ee socie y only mino . The e a e wo dinnensions in in luencing (adjus - ing) he ee se iemen , one o in luence he se iemen «be ween» munic- ipal uni s and one o in luence he se iemen «wi hin» a municipal uni . Mo ing people be ween he municipals has he cha ac e o compe i ion on he dis ibu ion o weal h, g ow h and bu dens. Wi hin a municipal uni he ques ions o ca e aking as well as in eg a- on a e mo e domina ing. The measu es a e: a) Ci y de elopmen plans. b) House building p og ams. c) Dis ibu ion o appa men s. 1. Social disad an aged. 2. Immig an s, e ugees. The socio-spa ial «equilib ium» and he poli ical «adjus men s» shall now be discussed on empi ical basis. 4. EMPIRICAL DESCRIPTION AND INVESTIGATION OF THE SOCIO- SPATIAL EQUILIBRIUM The compa a i e desc ip ion o he socio-spa ial s uc u e o Mad id and Copenhagen gi es p oblema conce ning he a ailable s a is ics in pa icula h ee á eas: he ime pe iods a ailable, di e en geog aphical adminis a i e s uc u e and di e en me hods o classi ica ion o social g oups. In o de o make some so o compa ison i has been necessa y o accep smalle di e ences in he ime pe iods used o he wo ci ies, o accep di e ences in geog aphical uni s and qui e big di e ences in he de ini ion o social g oups. 70 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o 4.1. Main Lines in Popula ion and Income De elopmen in Spain and Denma k The gene al de elopmen has been di e en in Spain and Denma k o he conside ad pe iod 1981-1988. The Spanish popula ion is s ill g owing and he me opoli an á ea is g owing as well, only Mad id Ci y (Cen al Dis ic s) has a declining popula ion. The Danish popula ion is s agna ing, he me opoli an popula ion is declining and Copenhagen Ci y (municipal- i y) is declining e en mo e apidly. In Denma k he income le el was abou wo and a hal imes highe han in Spain. The economic g ow h a e a li le highe o Spain han o Denma k. TABLE 1. POPULATION AND INCOME PER CAPITA (1987) AND GROWTH OF POPULATION AND INCOME PER YEAR IN SPAIN (1981-1986) AND DENMARK (1982-1988) POPULATION POP. GROWTH PC. INC INC GROWTH ÁREA .-„„ 1986 %/YEAR $/YEAR %/YEAR Spain 38.800.000 0.4 7.454 3.1 Mad id 4.323.495 Mad id C.D 1.029.010 1988 Denma k 5.100.000 0.0 19.866 2.1 Copenhagen 1.711.730 Copenh. Ci y 467.850 4.2. The Me opoli an Sub-a eas In discussing he deg ee o seg eg a ion he measu ing uni s o á eas and social ca ego ies a e impo an . I he á eas conside ed cons i u e g ea sha es o he o al á ea, he deg ee o in eg a ion will seem o be g ea . The measu e o seg eg a ion will end o ise as smalle á ea uni s a e conside ed. The same holds o some deg ee o he size o social ca ego y conside ed. In his a icle he á ea uni s o Mad id a e gi en on wo le éis, agg ega ed on 9 uni s o which 4 a e cen al dis ic s and 5 me opoli an municipali ies, on his agg ega ed le el house p ises we e a ailable o 1982 and 1987. Disagg ega ed da a we e a ailable o Mad id on 43 municipal uni s o which La ina was he mos densely popula ed in 1986 wi h 282.460 inhabi an s and he smalles was Villanue a P. wi h 1.497 inhabi an s. Fo Copenhagen he uni s a e 50 municipal á eas, o 71 0.4 0.3 •1.2 0.0 -.2 -.8 7.454 — — 19.866 21.924 17.804 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO MADRID METR OPOLITAN ÁREA MUNICIPALITIES NO^*^"- Alcobendas EAST: Coslada SOUTH: Alco cón SOUTH:Fuenlab ada WEST:Boadill, Colmena V. Mejo ada S.Sebas ián Pa acuellos Ri as-Vac. S.Fe nando H: To ejón A. Velilla S.A. Ge a e WEST Mós oles Leganés Pa la Pin o B úñe e Majadah. Pozuelo Rozas(Las) Villanue a Villa iciosE 72 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o which he Copenhagen municipali y wi h 467.850 inh. was he mos dense- ly popula ed in 1988, and he smalles was Skae inge wi h 4.946 inh. Fo all hese á eas housing p ices we e a ailable, besides he e a e da a on ou pendiing om each municipal uni . Fo he Copenhagen municipali y u he da a on mo e disagg ega ed geog aphicai le el we e a ailable. When compa ing Mad id and Copenhagen some di icul ies a ise due o di e ences in adminis a i o á eas. Due o he impo ance o he size o he geog aphicai á ea and because he ci y cen es di e om he su - ounding á eas a ension will also be paid o he me opoli an cen es be- low whe e Mad id Ci y (Cen al Dis ic s) will be hold up agains Copen- hagen Ci y (municipali y). 4.3. The Social Ca ego ies No only he geog aphicai á eas gi e oubie in he compa ison e en wo se a e he he compa ison o social g oups. Di e en ca ego ies a e a ailable o Mad id as well as o Copenhagen. The wo se o de ini ions which seemed o be he mos in o ma i o we e: The social ca ego ies used o Mad id Technicians Manage s Public Adminis a ion Employees Comme ce/T ade Se ices Ag icul u e T anspo a ion and Building indus y A mad Fo ces No Speci ied Unemployed No in Labou Fo cé and o Copenhagen Sel -employed Whi e Colla Wo ke s Biue Colla Skilled Wo ke s Blue Colla Unskilled Wo ke s No Speci ied Unemployed No in Labou Fo cé 73 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO TABLE 2. DEVELOPMENT IN POPULATION AND SOCIAL GROUPS IN THE MADRID METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1981 TO 1986 1981 1986 1981 1986 % SHARE OF POP. GROWTH To . pop 4.258.835 4.323.495 100 100 1.5 Tech 184.219 224.013 Mana 27.840 46.794 Pub. Adm 305.312 335.224 Com/T ade 135.803 127.166 Se ices 172.136 165.408 Ag icul 8.966 6.537 T a/Bulld 419.877 344.404 A m. Fo 16.322 18.879 No Spec 16.318 21.157 Unempl 251.840 335.940 No in L 2.720.208 2.697.679 63.9 62.4 -0.9 TABLE 3. DEVELOPMENT IN POPULATION AND SOCIAL GROUPS IN THE COPENHAGEN METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1984 TO 1988 4.3 0.7 7.2 3.2 4.0 0.2 9.9 0.4 0.4 5.9 5.2 1.1 7.8 2.9 3.8 0.2 8.0 0.4 0.5 7.8 21.5 68.1 9.8 -6.4 -3.9 -27.1 -18.0 15.8 29.7 33.4 YEAR 1984 1988 1.711.730 67.812 520.189 93.203 151.098 100.789 68.120 710.449 1984 1988 SHARE OF POP. 100.0 3.9 28.7 5.5 9.2 5.7 4.0 42.9 100.0 4.0 30.4 5.4 8.8 5.9 4.0 41.5 % GROWTH -0.6 1.5 5.1 -2.4 -4.8 3.0 -2.1 -3.9 To . pop 1.722.792 Sel -empl 66.821 Whi e Col 494.832 Skill 95.534 Unsklll 158.655 No Spec 97.893 Inemp 69.587 No In L 739.490 No ice ha he wo ables 2. and 3. can no be compa ed di ec iy. Fo Copenhagen he l s se en ca ego ies a e inclusi e o child en and he young unde educa lon, ela ed o he sepá a e g oups. This is no he case o Mad id. Al hough he di e ences In he wo se o da a ma e ial a e g ea hey ne e heless indíca e a pa allel de elopmen in he social s uc u e in he wo á eas. The e is a clea de elopmen in he di ec ion o mo e highiy educa ed people and ewe less educa ed people. F om he da a i seems ^jalis ic o compa e public adminis a ion employees wi h whi e colla 74 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o wo ke s and o compa e he g oup anspo a ion and building indus y wi h blue colla wo ke s (skilled and unskllled). 4.4. The Social In eg a ion in Me opoli an Municipali ies In his sec ion he deg ee o social in eg a ion will be de ined sum- ma ily as he simila i y be ween he indi idual municipals composi ion o social g oups wi h he composi ion in he whole me opoli an á ea. I will be measu ed as he highes sha e which any municipal has o a ce ain social g oup compa ed wi h he a e age o he whole á ea. TABLE 4. HIGHEST SHARE OF A SOCIAL GROUP IN A MUNICIPAL UNIT IN MADRID METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1986 (43 UNITS) COMPARED WITH ÁREA AVERAGE HIGHEST AVERAGE % Tech 12.3 5.2 Mana 4.5 1.1 Pub. Adm 12.8 7.8 Com/T ade 5.1 2.9 Se ices 5.5 3.8 Ag icul 4.1 0.2 T a/Bulld 21.4 8.0 A m. Fo 1.4 0.4 No . Spec 1.3 0.5 Unempl 10.8 7.8 No in L 70.1 62.4 TABLE 5. HIGHEST SHARE OF A SOCIAL GROUP IN A MUNICIPAL UNIT IN COPENHAGEN METROPOLITAN ÁREA 1988 (50 UNITS) COMPARED WITH ÁREA AVERAGE HIGHEST AVERAGE % Sel -employed 8.6 4.0 Whi e Colla Wo ke s 42.0 30.4 Blue Colla Wo ke s (sk+unsk) 22.5 14.2 No Speci ied 8.1 5.9 Unemployed 6.5 4.0 No in Labou Fo cé 46.5 41.5 75 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO gi es 55.8 %. The e o e i seems plausible o assume o he Copenhagen me opoli an á ea he social seg eg a ion gi es lowe cos s o pendiing o blue colla wo ke s. 4.7. The Gene al Equilib ium and U ban Dynamics Wi hou in e en ion om public au ho i ies he ma ke o ces c éa e a gene al equilib ium cha ac e ized by a ce ain social seg ega ion. Fi s he abo e discussion shows, ah he seg ega ion is no specially high nei- he in Mad id ño in Copenhagen on he municipal le el. Second ha he socio-spa ial equilib ium has been changed in bo h owns among o he easons due o changed s uc u e o housing p ices. When aiking abou "equilib ium" i should be no iced ha he ac ual si ua ion a a gi en momen can mo e likely be desc ibed as "disequili- b ium", because he adjus men p ocess mos ce ainly is no inished. I mus be assumed ha he e is a con inous low o people decided by di - e ences in house-p ices. 5. THE CENTRAL ÁREAS. MADRID AND COPENHAGEN CITY As desc ibed abo e he di e ences in size be w/een he municipal uni s in Copenhagen we e e y big. Besides i was men ioned ha changing Job oppo uni ies in di e en á eas migh in luence he deg ee o seg ega ion, inally he cen e wo ks in a way which di e s om he subu bs. The e o e he Mad id Ci y (Cen al Dis ic s) and he Copenhagen Ci y (municipal) will be desc ibed sepa a ely. Calcula ions show ha he g oup «No Speci ied» mos likely ep esen high income g oups. The able 10. and 11. show simila i ies and di e ences be ween Mad id Ci y and Copenhagen Ci y. In bo h ci ies he sha e o high income g oups a e ising mo e apidly han in he me opoli an á ea, bu while in Mad id Ci y he high income g oups a e o e ep esen ed compa ed wi h he me - opoli an as a whole he high income g oups a e unde ep esen ed in Co- penhagen Ci y. The chango in social s uc u e in he Ci y is due o new Job oppo uni ies because he indus ial s uc u e changes. The mos in- s uc i o examples o his is he de elopmen in he labou di isión be- ween he ci y co e and i s su oundings. Table 12 shows he de elopmen in sha e o jobs in he Copenhagen municipali y in manu ac u ing com- pa ed o inance and business se ice. 82 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o TABLE 10. SHARE OF SOCIAL GROUP IN MADRID CITY 1981 1986 COMPARED WITH METROPOLITAN AVERAGE 1986 MADRID CITY AVERAGE AVERAGE METRÓPOLIS AVERAGE 1981 1986 1986 Tech 7.7 Mana 1.1 Pub. Adm 9.2 Com/T ade 3.4 Se ices 4.9 Ag icul 0.1 T a/Build 4.7 A m. Fo 0.5 No Speci ied 0.4 Unempl 5.1 No in L 37.3 8.7 1.8 9.8 2.8 3.6 0.1 3.5 0.6 1.0 7.0 i8.8 5.2 1.1 7.8 2.9 3.8 0.2 8.0 0.4 0.5 7.8 62.4 TABLE 11. SHARE OF SOCIAL GROUPS IN COPENHAGEN CITY 1983 AND 1988 COMPARED WITH METROPLITAN AVERAGE 1988 COPENHAGEN CITY METRÓPOLIS AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE 1983 Sel -employed 2.7 Whi e Colla Wo ke s 23.8 Blue Colla Wo ke s (Skilled) 15.1 No Speci ied 4.8 Unemployed 5.2 No in Labou Fo cé 48.4 1988 1988 2.7 26.3 14.3 5.7 4.7 46.2 4.0 30.4 14.2 5.9 4.0 41.5 In he Ci y job oppo uni ies ise o whi e colla wo ke s (especially he highes payed wi hin his g oup) and he decline o blue colla (esp. unskilled) wo ke s. This gi es whi e colla wo ke s mo i e o mo e in and blue colla wo ke s a mo i e o mo e ou . Due o he di e en poin o depa u e his de elopmen makes be e «in eg a ion» in Copenhagen and «seg ega ion» in Mad id. 83 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO TABLE 12. SHARE OF JOBS IN MANUFACTURING AND IN FINANCE AND BUSINESS SERVICE FOR COPENHAGEN CITY AND ALL DENMARK (PARENTESES) 1982 Manu ac u ing 13.7 (19.2) Finance and Business Se . 13.40 (7.16) 1988 11.4 (19.6) 18.0 (8.8) TABLE 13. CHANGE IN SOCIAL GROUPS IN MADRID CITY 1981-1986 TOTAL GHANGE Technicians 5.920 Manage s 6.373 Public Aminis a ion Employees 641 Comme ce/T ade - 8.275 Se ices -15.857 Ag icul u e - 941 T anspo a ion and Building Indus y -15.685 A med Fo ces 599 No Speci ied 5.390 Unemployed 16.172 No in Labou Fo cé - 6.861 To al - 59.197 Due o i s "un a o able" popula ion connposi ion Copenhagen has as goal "g adually o change he physical en i onmen s in such a way, ha hey will o a g ea e deg ee be a ac i e o popula ion g oups, which g adually can supplemen he ac ual popula ion owa ds one wi h espec o age, educa ion and employmen mo e balanced popula ion composi- ion" (The Copenhagen Ci y Plan 1989 p. 22). This nneans ha "in eg a- ion" de ined as mo ing owa ds he a e age connposi ion o he popula- ion in he me opoli an á ea is a goal o Conpenhagen Ci y. I seenns howe e as i Conpenhagen would no nnind o ollow Mad id beyond a balanced popula ion composi ion because he plan adds: "Pa allel wi h his he municipal will y o suppo hose p o essions and b anches, who ha e special need o a cen al loca ion...". The Copenhagen popula ion poli ics seem o be a mix u e o in eg a ion poli ics, poli ics o ma ching Jobs wi h inhabi an s and he poli ics o a ac ing good axpaye s. The ac- ual change o social g oups in Mad id and Copenhagen ci y á ea has o al igu es de eloped as shown in able 13. and 14. 84 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas oí... TABLE 14. CHANGE IN SOCIAL GROUPS IN COPENHAGEN 1983-1988 TOTAL GHANGE Sel -empIyed - 294 Whi e Colla Wo kes 7.088 Blue Colla Wo ke s - 6.408 No Speci ied 3.499 Unemployed - 2.968 No in Labou Fo cé -18.806 To al -17.889 O e he yea s he ma ke mechanism has aised mise able dis ic s o weal hy á eas, while ich dis ic s ha e de e io a ed, which indica es ha he "equilib ium poin " migh no only change bu also be uns able, and/o he e migh be se e a! equilib ium poin s. Conscious poli ics o in eg a ion migh he e o e be expensí e and ap- idly ou da ed. 6. HOUSING POLITICS IN SPAIN AND DENMARK As shown abo e in able 4. and 5. he e was no ala ming seg ega ion when he municipal uni s we e used as he geog aphical uni and he ap- plied social ca ego ies. E en on dis ic le e! he da a did no e eal ala ming seg ega ion. The e o e we now conside a lowe le el o geo- g aphical uni s: housing blocks and expand he social ca ego ies o In- clude immig an s and e ugees. 6.1 Social Housing Cons uc ions To a oid seg ega ion, he mos impo an expe iences in Spain a e hose p ac iced a e he p incipies used in I aly e.g. Bologna, whe e he quali y o housing is imp o ed in cen e neighbo hoods while s ong e - o s a e made o secu e ha he usual esiden s do no ha e o mo e o cheepe á eas. In Denma k mos blocks a e buil and adminis a ed by "social housing coo po a ions" which a e o mally independen en e p ises bu unde g ea in luence o he municipali ies. The leade ship o hese coope a ions 85 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO is ei he he municipal o he esiden s o a combina ion o bo h. The coo - pe a ion pays no inconne ax and can ecel e inancia! suppo om he municipal. A municipal can in luence i s housing a ailabili y h ough i s engagemen in he cons ucion o social housing, deciding he ype, p ice ange and composi ion o he housing suppiy. The eby i has indi ec ly some possiblli y o in luence i s popula ion composi ion and localiza ion. Some municipals engage in he cons uc ions in o de o a ac people o he municipali y. An o en usad a gumen is o a ac he people who ac- ually wo k in he municipal bu li e (and pay axes) ou side. 6.2 Social In eg a ion in Social Housing Ren ing he appa men s a e supposed o be on a ou able condi ions, bu a e ne e heless cióse o ma ke condi ions. In inding he esiden s he coo po a ion is obliged o ake social ega ds and ese e he lowes p iced appa men s o he low income people. Some "social" appa men s a e higly expensi e and assigned o people wi h high incomes. I is he du y o he housing coope a ion o make a disposal up o one o each h ee ee sel appa men o he municipali y. Beyond ha he municipal au ho i ies dispose o 25 % o he appa men s o e-housing people om condemned houses, his means ha he municipali y can dis- pose o up o 50 % o he ee appa men s. Those pe cen ages a e ela ed o each single depa men . By he assignmen s he municipali y shall y o secu e a " easonable in eg a ion be ween di e en popula ion g oups in he indi idual housing depa men s". I necessa y he municipali y can demand ha hey shall app o e e e y single assignmen made by he housing coope a ion. 6.3 Ga an eed Máximum Pe cen age o Income o be Payed in House Ren In o de o suppo each indi idual in his eedom o choose he e has in Denma k been an inc easing unde s anding o he impo ance o gi ing economic suppo o pe sons no o houses. The Dweiling Secu i y Law has as main ule ha people can pay up o 15 % o hei income (a e deduc ion o child en) in house en , i he income is belo kí 110.000 dk ( ound 20.000 $). O ha sha e which is abo e 110.000 dk people could pay 25 % in housing en . The emaining en is payed by he go e nmen i he en ed dweiling has a easonable size. 86 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o 7. INTEGRATION OF IMMIGRANTS REFUGEES IN DENMARK Since 1960 Denma k has ecei ed a li le mo e hen 50.000 inmig an s om hi d coun ies de ined as coun ies ou side Eu ope and No h-Ame- ica. In he daily deba e he in eg a ion o hose g oups akes he g ea es space. 7.1 The Ishoj Case ishoj is a municipal uni in he sou h eas o he Copenhagen me o- poli an á ea. No o he municipal uni is a home o so many people om hi d coun ies as Ishoj, which in 1990 had abou 11 % o i s popula ion om hi d coun ies. In ce ain g oups o housing blocks up o 20 % was om hi d coun ies. Fo he Copenhagen me opoli an as a whole he pe - cen age is abou 3 %. In 1976 he Mayo o Ishoj ecommended a housing coope a ion no o e en ee appa men s o inmig an s i al eady mo e hen 10 % o he popula ion in ha block was om hi d coun ies. The eason was o achie- e a mo e di e si ied popula ion composi ion in o de o p omo e in eg a- ion. The ecommanda ion opened a deba e whe he his was ace disc i- mina ion and agains he ule o se e all people equal. The Public P os- cecu o ealized ha he ecommenda ion was agains he wo ds o § 1 o he law o ace disc imina ion. The in ensión o he ecommenda ion was howe e o omi ace disc imina ion by in eg a ion he e o e he Public P ocecu o ound ha i could no be conside ed as illegal. This poin o wie was app o ed by he Minis y o Jus ice and accep ed by he Om- budsmand (The Pa liamen a y Commissione o Adminis a ion). In 1980 he council o Ishoj decided ha e en ing o ee appa men s should be app o ed by he municipali y, and he ecomanda ion o no e- en ing o immig an s was epeled. In 1987 and 1988 app o al was denied in 8 and 5 cases e e ing o na ionali y. In 1990 howe e a commi y agains acism b ough he ques ion in o cou and he ecommanda ion and ollowing p ac ice was ound no o be legal. I seems ha he au ho i ies, in o de o p omo e in eg a ion can pu unde ep esen ed people in a house bu no keep o e ep esen ed g oups ou o a house. 87 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO 7.2 The Ves e b o Case The lack o abili y o s op indi iduáis om o e ep esen ed g oups o mo e ¡n has led o he si ua ion whe e he schools in Ves e b o, a dis ic in he cen e o Copenhagen, has go 52 % child en om hi d coun ies. The pa en s o he child en blamed he poli icians o lack o cou age by no en o cing an e ec i e educa ion in Danish and mee ing discipline o he o ign school child en. 7.3 The Re ugees The poli ics o in eg a ing e ugees is o make an "e en dis ibu íon" o e ugees on municipal uni s so ha all ecei e almos he some quo a pe capi a. Besides he in ensión is o hold amilies o iends oge he o i someone has a i ed alone o place hem oge he wi h people om hei own coun y. This dis ibu ion poli ic has been men ioned as "dis i- bu ing in g oups" so ha in eg a ion wi h he Danish popula ion no means seg ega ion om iends. 8. CHRISTIANIA: GHETTO OR POSSIBILITY OF FREE CHOICE Fo wen y yea s he e has been mo e o less o ganized esis ance agains own eno a ions. Emp y condemned buildings ha e been occu- pied by slum s o me s who wan ed o posses and p ese e he oíd build- ings. One o he mos signi ican o hose ac ions ook place in Copenhag- en in 1972 whe e condemned mili a y ba acks we e «libe a ed» by slum s o me s who decla ed he á ea o he « ee s a e o Ch is iania» an al- e na i e socie y and a social expe imen . Reluc ance om poli ical au- ho i ies o es o e «law and o de » has b ough up wo decades o dis- cussion o making Ch is iania legal. O special poin s can men ioned ha ba s and inns ha e exis ed in he á ea wi hou egis a ion and au ho is- a ion, ade wi h d ugs is supposed o be e y high, he same is he case o ade wi h s olen goods. Ch is iania has a highiy a ying popula ion, wi h mos people in he summe . The pe manen popula ion was 910 inhabi an s on 1.1.-1989. I s dis ibu ion is shown in abie 15. compa ed wi h he dis ibu ion o he Co- penhagen me opoli an popula ion. The á ea o Ch is iania is wha Rojo and Rubio (1990) desc ibe as a «bag o po e y». The ci es does no howe e ell he whole s o y. Many 88 Socio-spa ial in eg a ion and dynamics in he me opoli an á eas o 15. SHARE OG SOCIAL GROUPS IN THE COPENHAGEN METROPOLITAN ÁREA AND CHRiSTIANIA 1988/1989 Sel -empiyed Whi e Colla Wo ke s Blue Colla Wo ke s (Sk+Unsk) No Speci ied Unemployed No in Labou Fo cé people ha e exp essed ha hey eel ha in Ch is iania hey ha e ound a humani y which hey had missed. Ch is iania unde line he ac ha only di e ences can gi e people he possibili y o choice. METRÓPOLIS 4.0 30.4 14.2 5.9 4.0 41.5 CHRISTIA 3.0 5.5 3.1 1.4 24.3 62.2 9. CONCLUSIÓN I seems o be ciea ha income o occupa ionai g oups end o seg- ega e in he me opoli an á ea a e p ices o housing. The end is p ob- ably less no iceable in sho e m basis han in long e m basis. The mo- biii y will pa ly depend on he p opo ion o home owne ship and public egula ions. The way homes a e made a ailable in such a classi ied way, due o zoning egula ions and due o he land p ices — eia ed o quali y o Se - ices— in each á ea, seems o be he nex eie an a iable o go deepe in o. I he housing a ailabili y pa e ns he display o income g oups, he ac ions o inc eas-ing socio-spa ial in eg a ion should go in he di ec ion o di e si ying he houses o e ed as well inside in he same building as in he neighbo hood. In he compa a i e s udy we ha e had some ouble because he s a- is ics a e no made uni o miy. I ules o he in eg a ion poli ic some day should be handed o e o he Common Ma ke i would demand a s an- da dised Eu opean s a is ic. Howe e as shown in eg a ion is a highiy lo- cal ma e which ha dly passes he municipal bo de s. The e o e he e seems no need o coo dína e s a is ics o he pu pose o in eg a ion. 89 T. RUBIO - G. KRISTENSEN - T. ROJO ABSTRACT I is well known ha owns end o seg ega e socially, wi h lowe in- e ac ion be ween di e en social g oups, as a consequence. The ole o he housing ma ke is c ucial in his p ocesa. The pu pose o his pape is o discuss he social dynamics and he s uc u ing capaci y o housing o e social in e ac ion o g oups, on he basis o compa a i e empí ica! da a, o he Mad id and Copenhagen me - opoli an á eas. Keywo ds: in eg a ion, spa ial equilib ium, ghe o, e ugees. LITE R ATURE BoLiGMiNisTERiET, «Bekend g0 else om almenny ig bolig i ksomhed», Lo idende (N . 2. 24. maj 1985) BoLiGMiNisTERiET, "Ci kulae e om o ganisa ion og udlejning a almenny ig bygge i», Lo i- dende (N . 27. 14. ma s 1986.) BoTT, E. (1957): Family and Social Ne wo k. Roles, No mes and Ex e nal Rela ionship in O - dina y U ban Families (F ee P ess, McMillan, New Yo k 1971). CooLEY, C. N. (1902): Human Na u e and he Social O de (New Yo k, Schocken, 1962). DANMARKS STATISTIK, Ejendomssalg 1984 (Sales o eal p ope y 1983). (Kobenha n). DANMARKS STATISTIK, A bejdsma ked. S a is iske E e e ninge 1987, 1990. (KGbenha n). DuRKHEiM, E. (1987): The Suicide (The F ee P ess, 1951). FRISBIE, W. P AND KASARDA, J. D. (1988): Spa ial P ocesses (In SMELSER, N. J. (ed.), Handbook oí Mode n Sociology (Be e iy Hills, CA: Sage, Inc, 1988, pp. 629-666) Kobenha ns Magis al. O e bo gmes e ens A deling (1989): Koben-Ha ns Kommuneplan 1989 (The Copenhagen Ci y Plan 1989). MEAD, G. H. (1934): Mind Sel and Socie y (The Uni e si y o Chicago P ess, Chicago) MoRRiLL, R. L. (1991): On he Measu e o Geog aphic Seg ega ion. Geog aphy Resea ch Fo- um. Vol. 11, 1991: 25-36. PARSONS, T. (1951): The Social Sys em (The F ee P ess, New Yo k, 1959) ROJO, T. AND RUBIO, T., «Residen ial loca ion and housing ma ke s in Mad id. Social In eg a- ion S a egies» (Pape p esen ed o 30 h Regional Science Associa ion Eu opean Con- g ess, Is anbul 1990). SOCIALMINISTERIET (1987): In o ma ion om lyg ninge. (FIy. k . ]. n . 480-16, 26 m s. 1987) SociALMiNisTERiET (1990); Om o delingen a lyg ninge m. l. pá kommune og am skommune (Depa emen e 5. k ., j. n . 485-3- h) S a is isk °A bog. S a is ical Yea book Denma k. S a is isk °A bog o Kobenha n 1986, 1990 (S a is ical Yea book o Copenhagen 1986, 1990) (Kobenha n). 90