In e na ional Re iew o he
Sociology o Spo
2016, Vol. 51(6) 679 –698
© The Au ho (s) 2014
Rep in s and pe missions:
sagepub.co.uk/jou nalsPe missions.na
DOI: 10.1177/1012690214551182
i s.sagepub.com
Spo s, mo ali y and body:
The oices o spo swomen
unde F anco’s dic a o ship
Xa ie Pujadas
Ramón Llull Uni e si y, Spain
Bea iz Ga ai
Basque Coun y Uni e si y (UPV/EHU), Spain
Fe nando Gimeno
Uni e si y o Za agoza, Spain
Ramón Llopis-Goig
Uni e si y o Valencia, Spain
Gonzalo Ramí ez-Macías
Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain
José M Pa illa-Fe nández
Uni e si y o O iedo, Spain
Abs ac
The aim o his esea ch is o s udy spo swomen’s pe cep ions and expe iences o women’s
spo in F ancois Spain (1939–1975). The main objec i e is o analyse he social, mo al and
aes he ic elemen s ha a e p esen in he expe ience o hese a hle es. This s udy was ca ied
ou wi h an in en ional sample o 24 women om Andalusia, A agon, As u ias, Basque Coun y,
Ca alonia and Valencia. They we e in e iewed by a ne wo k o esea che s om six uni e si ies.
Ou s anding esul s show he exis ence o social limi a ions o s a spo s p ac ice (pa icula ly in
he pos -wa pe iod); he impo ance o spo as a cha ac e -building aspec ; spo ’s ema kable
in luence on hei body sel -concep ; and he incidence on spo s o he mains eam mo al
Co esponding au ho :
Gonzalo Ramí ez-Macías, Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Spo , Facul y o Educa ional Sciences,
Uni e si y o Se ille, C/ Pi o ecnia s/n 41013 Se ille, Spain.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
551182IRS0010.1177/1012690214551182In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo Pujadas e al.
esea ch-a icle2014
Resea ch A icle
680 In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo 51(6)
discou se, which c ea ed a emale model ha e en a ec ed spo s clo hing. The main conclusion
is ha spo swomen in ha pe iod we e pionee s and had o igh agains mos o socie y in o de
o de elop hei ace as a hle es, as hey would no ollow he es ablished model.
Keywo ds
F anco’s egime, gende , his o y o Spain, social his o y, women’s spo
In oduc ion
Resea ch on he his o y o women in mode n spo s p ac ice may be in e p e ed as s ud-
ies on he p ocesses o social inclusion o women, as women’s inco po a ion in o spo
con ibu ed in he pas o hei inclusion in he wel a e socie y (T angbaek, 2007).
In his con ex , s udying he e olu ion o spo om a gende pe spec i e p o ides us
wi h social and cul u al ac o s ha a e ele an o unde s anding he con empo a y spo s
phenomenon and essen ial o ebuilding he ole o women in he de elopmen o spo ,
associa ion mo emen s, educa ion, public and p i a e li e, spec a o spo , mass cul u e
and compe i ion in a socie y – ha o he 20 h cen u y – mainly domina ed by men.
In his sense, wi hin he Spanish con ex , he s udy o women’s spo du ing F anco’s
pe iod is pa icula ly ele an , as i encompasses almos 40 yea s in he 20 h cen u y and,
in his pe iod, spo s unde wen a clea ascis -like ans o ma ion (González, 1999),
which is s ill in luen ial in ou imes.
Al hough his opic has been poin ed ou by many esea che s (as will sui ably be
jus i ied in he sec ion o heo e ical backg ound: Women and spo in F anco’s egime),
no esea ch was based on he pe sonal expe iences o spo swomen o ha ime. In his
sense, i is necessa y o conduc s udies ha , like his one, a e based on o al his o y as a
sou ce o da a collec ion.1
The ac o collec ing da a om he li e s o ies o spo swomen who li ed du ing
F anco’s egime is no only qui e a no el y in compa ison o p e ious s udies on his
opic, bu i also c ea es a ool o he eco e y o he his o ical memo y in spo (pa icu-
la ly women’s spo ), as his is a his o ical pe iod wi h sca ce e idence in his sense and
he possibili y o da a collec ion p og essi ely dec eases o pu ely ch onological ea-
sons. This kind o in o ma ion (p ope ly eco ded, iled and ca alogued) can be he basis
o u he esea ch and o social dissemina ion.
Wi h his pe spec i e, we p oposed his explo a o y esea ch wi h wo main objec i es:
i s ly, o analyse he social, mo al and aes he ic elemen s ha we e p esen in he expe i-
ence o women p ac ising spo du ing F anco’s egime (1939–1975), om an in en ional
sample o 24 o al his o y in e iews in six egions: Andalusia, A agon, As u ias, Basque
Coun y, Ca alonia and Valencia,2 secondly, o eco e and p ese e he o al memo y o
women who li ed in his dic a o ial pe iod in connec ion o spo and physical ac i i y,
wi h he aim o p omo ing he eco e y o his o ical memo y in his ield.
Wi h his wo old objec i e, we de eloped a p ojec coo dina ed among Ramon Llull
Uni e si y, he Uni e si y o Valencia, he Uni e si y o Se ille, he Uni e si y o
Za agoza, he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV-EHU) and he Uni e si y o
O iedo, wi h esea che s om hese cen es se ing up a Red de In es igación de His o ia
Pujadas e al. 681
de las Muje es y el Depo e (RIHMUD) [Resea ch Ne wo k on His o y o Women and
Spo ],3 app o ed by he P og amme ‘Women and Spo ’ o he Spo s Council (Spanish
Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e and Spo ).
To selec he sample, we used wo c i e ia, one ela ed o he his o ical pe iod when
in e iewees p ac ised some kind o spo , wi h a di ision o wo g oups co esponding
o he pe iods 1939–1960 and 1960–1975. The la e g oup co esponds o he de elop-
men al pe iod, when he Spanish spo s eali y unde wen ema kable changes. The o he
c i e ion e e s o habi a size, wi h he sample ha ing a simila ep esen a ion o u al
and u ban en i onmen s. A de ailed accoun o he in o ma ion om e e y in e iewee
can be ound in he Appendix o his a icle.
Once he sample was loca ed, we ca ied ou he in e iews, which had wo di e en i-
a ed pa s, one ocused and ano he semi-s uc u ed wi h an open end. The i s pa was
abou he expe iences o in e iewees as spo swomen; he second, wi h ques ions p e-
sen ed in a p e-es ablished o de (Hamme and Wilda sky, 1990), was aimed a ge ing o
know he social, mo al and aes he ic de e minan s o hese women’s spo s expe ience.
These kinds o de e minan s, collec ed in p e ious s udies (Pujadas, 2007), ul ima ely
p o ide us wi h a wide ision o he in e iewees’ spo s expe ience. Social de e minan s
include such aspec s as socio-economic le el, amily, gende oles o social isibili y o
women’s spo . Mo al de e minan s e e o eligious p essu e, mo al alues in spo s
p ac ice, induced guil o equi emen s o modes y. Thi dly, aes he ic de e minan s ocus
on such aspec s as clo hing, body sel -pe cep ion o eminini y.
In his sense, h ee dimensions we e es ablished, one o each kind o de e minan .
E e y dimension had speci ic ques ions. Finally, he end o he in e iew was open so
ha in e iewees could add wha hey conside ed app op ia e in connec ion o hei
spo s expe ience.
As equi ed, be o e doing his kind o in e iew, he g oup o in e iewe s was spe-
ci ically ained in o de o gua an ee he co ec use o his echnique.
Once he in e iews we e inished and he audio isual and w i en ma e ial was an-
sc ibed and s o ed, wo pa allel da a analyses we e ca ied ou by g ouping hem in o
ca ego ies pa icula o he social, mo al and aes he ic dimensions. The iangula ion o
he ca ego ies esul ing om he wo analyses achie ed a le el o conco dance highe
han 90%, wi h he sca ce disc epancies being sol ed by ag eemen o he eams in ol ed
in he analyses.
In he ollowing sec ions, a e he necessa y heo e ical backg ound, we ocus on he
main cha ac e is ics o he h ee dimensions analysed. These esul s will be discussed,
bea ing in mind o he ou s anding p e ious esea ch, and hen conclusions will be
speci ied.
Women and spo in F anco’s egime
Du ing F anco’s egime, spo unde wen a ascis -inspi ed ans o ma ion, as happened
wi h all he o he domains o socie y (González, 2005). Righ a he beginning o he
Regime, i was used as a use ul mechanism o ansmi i s ideology and, so, as Cazo la
P ie o (1979) obse ed, he egime had no doub o submi physical educa ion and he
en i e spo s sys em o igid discipline and con ol by public au ho i ies, wi h
682 In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo 51(6)
no possibili y o social mani es a ion. Ac ually, wha happened om 1939 was he
eplacemen o he libe al spo s sys em by a sys em o poli ical con ol in he hands o
Mo imien o Nacional and, wi hin i , o he Sec e a ía Gene al del Mo imien o, which
was con olled by he domain o he sec o ha was ideologically iden i ied wi h he
Falange Española T adicionalis a y de las Jun as de O ensi a Nacional Sindicalis a
(FET y de las JONS) [T adi ionalis Spanish Phalanx o he Assemblies o he Na ional
Syndicalis O ensi e] (Pas o P adillo, 1997). The Sec e a ía Gene al del Mo imien o
was di ided in o i e a eas: he F en e de Ju en udes (FJ) [You h F on ], he Sección
Femenina (SF) [Women´s Sec ion], he Sindica o Español Uni e si a io (SEU) [Spanish
Uni e si ies Syndica e], he Ob a Sindical de Educación y Descanso (OSED) [Syndica ed
Ac ion o Educa ion and Res ] and, las ly, he Delegación Nacional de Depo es (DND)
[Na ional Spo s Delega ion].
Spo , as es ablished in he P eamble o he Dec ee o 22 Feb ua y 1941 ha se up
he DND (Bole ín O icial del Es ado, 1941), is de ined as a ield in which he Phalanx
S a e ound one o he main ools o he global educa ion o he Spanish man. The e o e,
i was no a pu ely associa i e and pedagogical ac i i y anymo e and became an ins u-
men wi h he main aim o dissemina ing he social and poli ical model o an au ho i a -
ian s a e, pa icula ly in he wo king class, which had o be augh in o de o ans o m
hem in o ‘new men and women’ who ollowed F ancois ideology (Delgado-G anados
and Ramí ez-Macías, 2014).
This idea was no new a all, bu a copy om he Nazi and ascis ideologies ega ding
spo . In ac , as poin ed ou by He e o (2002), he pu pose was ollowing he Ge man
model e en hough F anco did no decide o in es delibe a ely in his ield ( aining,
ields,…), which p o oked a e y poo spo de elopmen .
DND’s s uc u e was di ided in o h ee sec ions: ede a i e spo s, mili a y spo s and
spo s o he Mo emen . This was combined wi h a s ic con ol conce ning he dissemi-
na ion o ideas in spo s p ess and mass media (Viuda-Se ano, 2011).
F om hese sec ions, he mos in luen ial one o spo was spo s o he Mo emen ,
since he e we e ew ede ed spo swomen and, ob iously, women could no access his
ield. The spo s o he Mo emen included all he spo ac i i ies ha we e o ganized by
he SF, he FJ, he SEU and he OSED. Wi hin hese o ganiza ions, he SF was he only
one exclusi ely o women and, he e o e, i would be he main agen in cha ge o emi-
nine spo . The SEU (dedica ed o he uni e si y con ex ) and he OSED (speci ic om
he wo king sphe e) should no be o go en.
Anyway, we mus highligh ha he aining pu pose was speci ically ma ked in he
spo s o he Mo emen . In ac , h ough spo , hese o ganiza ions’ goal was no o
ansmi hei ideological p inciples bu he pa icipan s’ a ilia ion o hem. These o gan-
iza ions e en sea ched in a speci ic way, among hese men and women, o hose who
we e highly capable, wi h he aim o a ac ing hem o highe esponsibili ies wi hin he
Mo imien o Nacional.
As Man ique (2012) s a es, he g ea o ganiza ion ha exis ed in spo did no lea e
any space o spo p ac ice ee om poli ical con ol. This shows he impo ance ha
F ancoism ga e o spo and how i was used as a way o ain.
Howe e , he social ma e ializa ion o he new e a in Spanish spo was pa icula ly
s e ile in he i s wo decades o F anco’s egime, no only conce ning he showie ield
Pujadas e al. 683
o in e na ional compe i ion, bu also, and especially, conce ning he impulse o spo s
ac i i y among he popula ion. A he end o he 1950s, he adjus men s ca ied ou
showed a change o endency ha would be appa en in he ollowing decade, he begin-
ning o he so-called de elopmen al pe iod (San acana, 2011). Du ing his pe iod and up
o he dic a o ’s dea h, he ob ious socio-cul u al and economic ans o ma ions in ol ed
signi ican changes in he ci izens’ ela ionship wi h spo . These changes, which canno
be ega ded as opening, we e pa icula ly spo i e and no exclusi ely indoc ina ing.
The mos ema kable changes we e hese ones: he public expe ience owa ds spec a o
spo h ough he eme gence o TV (in his sense, oo ball is wo h men ioning as he
main pa adigm o spec a o spo in Spain); he p o agonis s’ cul o in e na ional spo s
ea s, which happened despi e sho ages and lack o e icien policies o he p epa a ion
o op-le el a hle es (González, 2011); he enac men o he Law o Physical Educa ion,
20 h Decembe 1961 (Bole ín O icial del Es ado, 1961), which acknowledged physical
educa ion as an e icien ins umen in he aining sphe e and as a p e en i e way o
p omo ing heal h; and he de elopmen o new habi s in connec ion wi h leisu e and
spo , o eg ounding he campaign ‘Spo o All’, whose mo o was ‘we coun on you’.
In he ield o physical educa ion and women’s spo , F anco’s pe iod implied an
impo an s op in hei de elopmen , which had begun in Spain i e decades be o e and
which was s eng hened du ing he 2nd Republic (Sánchez and Ri e o, 2013). In pa icu-
la , he special se back o high-le el compe i i e spo (Olympic Games and in e na-
ional championships) mus be poin ed ou , in which eminine pa icipa ion was, in hei
bes si ua ions, es imonial and many imes non-exis en , as happened in London 1948
and Helsinki 1952 Olympic Games (Ma ín, 2010). I seems ob ious ha he no so much
socio-spo ing bu s uc u al e ec s in he F ancois poli ical-spo ing o ganiza ion had a
huge bea ing on he p ocess o expansion o he spo s phenomenon among women.
F om he beginning, aking he complex o ganiza ion explained abo e in o accoun ,
he ole o physical educa ion and spo s in he educa ion o women had a di ec ela ion-
ship wi h he oles ha hey had been gi en om he es ablished social o de . Du ing
F anco’s egime, a woman was de ined as a being subs an ially di e en om a man o
eligious and biological easons. Wo ks by such au ho s as Gallego (1983), Puig (1987),
Ba achina (1989), Al ed (1991) and Man ique (2010) allow us o es ablish he basic
cha ac e is ics ha de e mined he emale model: being a mo he and wi e, always in he
same con ex , he household, and always submi ing o he male head o household.
Physical educa ion and spo became a simple ins umen o educa e mo he s o bea ing
s ong, heal hy child en, all seasoned wi h knowledge abou child ca e and heal h, which
we e also undamen al elemen s in hei educa ion.
The jus i ica ion o spo s p ac ice speci ic o women was de i ed, as was clea ly
explained by Man ique e al. (2009), om explana ions ha came om di e en ields
(scien i ic-medical, eligious, and poli ical).
Fi s ly, scien i ic-medical a gumen s de e mined he need o es ablish a body hygiene
and heal h p og amme, always on he basis o hei main ea hly mission: mo he hood.
Thus, exe cise was always guided owa ds heal h p omo ion, ying o p ese e hei
p oc ea i e unc ion, which con ibu ed o p omo ion o he s e eo ype o agile people
wi h li le ap i ude o physical e o . In line wi h his, he ac i i ies conside ed as app o-
p ia e o women we e gymnas ics, dance, swimming, hockey, skiing, baske ball and

684 In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo 51(6)
handball (Suá ez, 1993). As explained by Zagalaz (2001), a hle ics we e excluded om
spo s pa icula o he SF un il 1961, due o he physical e o implied and because i
was conside ed o be masculinizing.
Secondly, he e a e a gumen s based on he undamen alis Ca holicism o ha ime,
which pos ula ed ha e e y physical ac i i y o women had o s ic ly ollow he ul a-
conse a i e mo al ules imposed by he Chu ch. This included e e y hing om hei
clo hing o deco ous beha iou , and he ac ha spo s p ac ice should no be agains
good Ch is ian cus oms. This undamen alism could each he ex eme ha , o example,
in 1950 he A chbishop o Valladolid wen as a as o o bid women om iding a bicy-
cle as he conside ed i o be sin ul (Al ed, 1991).
Thi dly, adi ionalis poli ics, om he beginning, used spo wi h an app oach ha
subo dina ed i o he poli ical ideal o se ice o he Na ion, based on i s indoc ina ing
po en ial (Cha es, 1960). Thus, spo and physical educa ion we e conside ed as physi-
cal p epa a ion o o i y Spain: he man should be eady o se e his coun y, as well as
he woman, bu in his case she had o do so in he speci ic ield, which was unning he
household and aking ca e o he child en and husband.
I is also ue ha he changes p oduced in his de eloping pe iod so ened he spo s
indoc ina ing o ce, bu in he case o women, hese changes we e less subs an ial han
in he case o men. Hence, e en in he de eloping s age, he e was a highe le el o con-
ol and indoc ina ing in eminine spo han in he masculine one.
The inal aim was dissemina ing and consolida ing he emale model ha he dic a o -
ship in ended o impose, since women we e conside ed as he amilia basis and his was
he basic uni ha socie y ied o impose (Ramí ez-Macías, 2012).
Social de e minan s o women’s spo
This sec ion e e s o he social s uc u es and de e minan s ha had a ele an ole in he
spo s p ac ice o ou in e iewees.
Fi s ly, in ela ion o hei immedia e social en i onmen , he ole o he in e iewees
is usually conside ed o be ha o people who b oke he mould and e en we e agains
ce ain social s e eo ypes o hei imes. In his sense, we can clea ly g asp some posi i e
sel -pe cep ion, bu di e en ia ed be ween people:
To me, wha kep me going was sel - espec (…) F om he day I s a ed as an a hle e un il he
day I le … he i s gymnas ics membe he e in he Sou h, ha was me, he i s emale (…)
b eaking he mould. (ACP, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
Howe e , his cou age con inuously came up agains he social p essu e on women in
a ou o he imposed emale model. Hence, he a ibu es associa ed wi h hose women
who dis ega ded social con ol and he es ablished model we e no exemp om male
chau inis ic o ce ulness:
(…) due o he people’s hinking, because hey hough ha we gi ls doing spo we e hal
bu ch, and he e was a endency ha he woman should no do spo , you see, hose we e
complica ed yea s o people who wan ed o do spo like us, mos ce ainly. (PSE, 2011,
pe sonal in e iew)
Pujadas e al. 685
Howe e , when e e ing o he social con ex , i is also impo an o emphasize some
aspec s ha p omo ed spo s p ac ice o women. In his sense, bo h he exis ence o
physical-spo s p ac ice in he ield o o mal educa ion (physical educa ion in educa-
ional cen es) and he suppo om hei iends had a c ucial ole in he p omo ion o
spo . The ollowing quo e p o ides us wi h an illus a i e example:
A school, we we e a g oup o classma es o iends, hose wi h whom you ge along be e , we
we e e y es less, and hen o cou se he gymnas ics class was easy o us, we hough ha i
was a bi oo ou ine, ha i could ha dly be called exe cise, and hen he a he o a iend o
mine who was al eady a coach because he used o coach us when we had he baske ball eam.
(PFG, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
Equally impo an o he in oduc ion in o spo was he in o mal ield o sociabili y
in he spo s ield, ep esen ed by spon aneous spo s p ac ice de eloped in class, as well
as amilia in luence:
In he s ee , in hose imes, hen, we played a lo in he s ee , he e we e swings, we played
wi h spinning ops, hopsco ch, and we played oo ball a lo . Then, nea Ciudad Ja dín he e was
a child en’s pa k, and we also played he e, you could do some gymnas ics because he e we e
hoops he e … (FLA, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
My a he used o be a oo balle , he had cousins who played baske ball, he had a cousin who
played able ennis (…) in he amily he e was his spo s a mosphe e. (PSE, 2011, pe sonal
in e iew)
In his con ex , he o mal o ganiza ion o women’s spo came unde he SF, he SEU,
which also belonged o he Phalanx, and p i a e spo s clubs.
The i s o hese o ganiza ions had a ema kable ole in he egula ion o women’s
spo , pa icula ly in Andalusia, A agon and As u ias. In his sense, he explana ion gi en
by CML is wo h highligh ing:
(…) many people om he e, om Za agoza, people om known amilies, used, as I did, he
Women’s Sec ion o do spo , because e en in Moun ainee s o A agon hey ecognize his, i i
hadn’ been o he Women’s Sec ion, skiing… would only ha e been p ac ised by an eli e,
no hing, jus hal a dozen amilies would ha e been in condi ions o do so, i s because o
accommoda ion and hen because he e was nowhe e o go o lea n o ski. (CML, 2011, pe sonal
in e iew)
In i s u n, he SEU p o ided access o spo o uni e si y women. I has o be no ed
ha many o hem joined his union because o he possibili y ha i o e ed hem o
p ac ise spo and no because o ideological suppo :
Back hen, we all belonged o he SEU and his way we had he igh o do spo s… i was some
so o being a ede a ed membe , I don’ know i i was a ede a ion, wi h he excep ion o no
being p o essional. Bu a he Uni e si y being ede a ed mean belonging o he SEU, i was
he SEU ha con olled he games, e e y hing. (FLA, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
686 In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo 51(6)
P i a e spo s clubs p omo ed spo s p ac ice and compe i ion among spo swomen,
bu only in Ba celona and he Basque Coun y. Cu iously, ha was no he case in he
o he egions s udied. As an illus a i e example, you can ead BDM’s explana ion
abou he club ha she was a membe o and he ennis compe i ions ha his club ook
pa in:
As I say, in Jolase a we played ennis. When he e we e championships, you wen wi h he
Na a e people… Then he e we e some people and among hem i was me… you would play
singles, doubles and mixed, and i was a Basque-Na a e championship, now hey call i he
Euskadi championship, bu hen i was Basque-Na a e. Each p o ince had a ep esen a i e. As
Jolase a we we e he bes eam in he p o ince… All he clubs had eams bu Jolase a was he
bes . Then he champion was he ep esen a i e o he club and Biscay in he Basque-Na a e.
Then I was he ep esen a i e o he club and Biscay. The championships o ganized by clubs
we e membe championships, and hen hey we e among clubs, and hen he ede a ion, ha
was mo e … (BDM, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
Conce ning he h ee o ganiza ions ha held women’s spo , he SF is wo h men ion-
ing, as i was he ins i u ion wi h hegemony in he ield o spo s ac i i y o women. The
pe cep ion ha in e iewees had o his hegemonic si ua ion was pola ized in wo oppo-
si e posi ions. On he one hand, hose who we e membe s o he SF, such as PCF claimed
ha :
(…) he e we e many people, because wi h he Women’s Sec ion, which was he one o hugely
mobilize Physical Educa ion a school and many places, hen we s a ed o do gymnas ics wi h
he Women’s Sec ion, and o his eason I did he Physical Educa ion cou se and also s a ed
o each gymnas ics. (PCF, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
On he o he hand, o he in e iewees, who we e no linked wi h his o ganiza ion, did
no app aise he ask o he SF posi i ely; his is he case o PSE and RPC:
(…) i was complica ed i s because he e was a monopoly o he Women’s Sec ion, ha he
li le spo we did was e y monopolized by he Women’s Sec ion. (PSE, 2011, pe sonal
in e iew)
(…) I mean ha hose we e momen s ha , a he le el o spo , eal spo and well done, igh ,
he Women’s Sec ion did a g ea damage o spo , le ’s say. (RPC, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
In addi ion, and al hough he e we e o ganiza ions ha , wi h mo e o less success,
p omo ed women’s spo , he e we e also o he impo an ba ie s o he access o spo s
p ac ice. Acco ding o he in e iewees, he mos impo an ones we e he nega i e con-
side a ion o spo by pa en s, pa icula ly mo he s, he socio-economic de e minan s,
especially in he pos -wa pe iod, and he li le suppo om he amily when ha ing o
a el o pa icipa e in compe i ions.
Finally, o he kinds o ba ie s a e also wo h men ioning, hose ha led o qui ing
spo , wi h he ollowing ones being he mos usual: economic needs ha o ced hem o
gi e up p ac ising spo and ake a paid job, ma iage and spo s inju ies. Ne e heless,
Pujadas e al. 687
he mos de e mining ac o o d opping ou spo s, acco ding o he in e iewees, was
p egnancy and subsequen mo he hood. A e y cla i ying example in his sense is PSE’s
li e expe ience:
(…) because I ma ied and go p egnan , I did, and I s a ed he season bu as I go p egnan , I
ha e a b o he -in-law who is a gynaecologis and he old me le ’s d op ou his hing o spo
(…) Fo me, i was e y sa is ying, I was e y willing o ha e, ha e child en, I mean, and I
assumed ha i I had child en I wouldn’ be able o do i as spo s p ac ice, i could be as a
hobby o keep in shape one day a week and ha ’s i . (PSE, 2011, pe sonal in e iew)
In he ew cases when mo he hood and amily li e we e combined wi h spo s p ac-
ice, i is no iceable ha he e usually eme ged a sense o guil abou i :
(…) ha o he amily is wha I did he wo s because, o cou se, I would p ac ically see my
child en, hen, as much as men see hem nowadays, almos like le me kiss you goodnigh . (PIL,
2011, pe sonal in e iew)
The e o e, as a summa y, hese spo swomen did no ollow hose pa e ns imposed
on hem, which caused hem many p oblems in hei immedia e en i onmen . Howe e ,
he e we e also aspec s ha boos ed hei spo s p ac ice, such as he exis ence o Physical
Educa ion a school, hei ci cle o iends, o hose o ganiza ions ha p omo ed he
women’s spo o he pe iod. In pa icula , i is o be no ed ha 17 ou o 24 in e iewees
had male agen s in hei en i onmen as social agen s ha led hem o spo p ac ice.
Mainly, hese people we e a he s (14 cases), al hough he e we e also b o he s ( wo
cases) and a seconda y school eache . The es o he in e iewees ook up p ac ising
spo due o he SF.
In his espec , he ask o he SF is well app aised by hose in e iewees om less
de eloped a eas o Spain, as well as by hose wi h a simila ideology o ha o F anco’s
egime; i is he con a y in he case o hose who li ed in indus ialized a eas o we e
alien o his o ganiza ion. Fo he la e , he ask o he SF was nega i e, and hey assessed
spo s clubs as he o ganiza ions ha be e p omo ed women’s spo .
In ac , he numbe o women who ega ded posi i ely he SF’s ole was 12. This is
hal o he in e iewees, h ee o whom we e om Andalusia, h ee om As u ias, h ee
om Valencia and h ee om A agon. I is also impo an o no ice ha all he women
who we e in e iewed in he wo mos indus ialized a eas o he coun y, Ca alonia and
Basque Coun y, nega i ely ega ded he SF’s ole.
Finally, he main cause o d opping ou o spo was no he age o inju ies, as could
be expec ed, bu ma iage and, especially, mo he hood. This mean ha , despi e being
models ha b oke wi h s e eo ypes o he pe iod, once hey had achie ed he big mission
gi en o hem by he egime, being mo he s, hey would usually qui spo s p ac ice o
ea hei child en. Consequen ly, in hose ew cases in which his did no happen, eel-
ings o guil we e equen .
Thus, in he 24 in e iews ha we e done, in jus one case (IRM), qui ing spo ing
li e was due o an inju y. The main easons o qui ing spo we e ma iage and mo he -
hood (15 cases). O he seconda y easons was inco po a ion in o wo king li e (six cases),
694 In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo 51(6)
on ‘ he ways o eeling and applying a sys em o alues, o beha ing’ (Tuñón de La a and
Biescas, 1987), as can be g asped om ou in e iewees’ s o ies. Ne e heless, middle-
class o middle-uppe -class women, coming om he ci y and wi h a spo s amily back-
g ound, pe cei ed ha he amily would na u ally assume hei wish o p ac ice spo .
The ela ionship be ween women’s spo s p ac ice and amily con ex seems o be no
e y ele an ei he om a mo al o social poin o iew.
The body-aes he ic dimension was closely linked o he in luence o mains eam
mo ali y and o he ep esen a ion o he ideal model o Phalanx woman (Ba achina,
1989). The doc ine conce ning clo hing aspec s ha was imposed by he na ional
Ca holicism in he pos -wa pe iod esul ed in speci ic guidelines abou he size o ski s
and he use o s ockings, as well as he a i udes o women in speci ic con ex s, such as
he beach (Abella, 1978). This doc ine caused many eac ions in he women’s body sel -
pe cep ion, wi h hei common denomina o being he allusion o he emale body model
socially accep ed as a ac i e in he eyes o men: he i s kind o eac ion was posi i e
and ela ed o spo s p ac ice (because he exis ence o a ac ion is ecognized in he
spo s con ex o h ough he social accep ance o one’s own body); he second was a
nega i e sel -pe cep ion when doing spo ; and he hi d was an and ogynous, socially
non-accep ed sel -pe cep ion due o he con inued spo s p ac ice.
Those women who p ac ised spo du ing he i s yea s o F anco’s egime e e ed o
he compulso y na u e o using uni o m a school age and also men ioned he una oidable
hiding o hei body and o e lapping o clo hes. They also men ioned he sensa ion o dis-
com o and hei di icul spo s p ac ice esul ing om he need o comply wi h he guide-
lines conce ning spo s a i e. All his con i ms wha his o iog aphy has equen ly
desc ibed abou he p omo ion o ‘ex e nal appea ance and obedience’ among SF s uden s
in he 1940s (Man ique e al., 2009), as well as he mo al bias in ‘ he s yle o clo hing when
doing physical ac i i ies’ (Man ique, 2011). Spo swomen who s a ed o con inued hei
spo s p ac ice in he 1960s no iced a p ocess o change conce ning he ex e nal appea -
ance, wi h a endency o libe alize cus oms and gi e p io i y o he spo swoman’s com o .
The laxi y in he mo al doc ine conce ning clo hing was celeb a ed by hose spo swomen
who began hei spo p ac ice in he middle o he pos -wa pe iod and was pe cei ed as a
change ha had an impac on women’s libe aliza ion. This canno be conside ed as sepa a e
om he social ans o ma ion in he mo e gene al ields o u ban leisu e, ou ism and new
aspec s in he P ess Ac o 1966, which inc eased he libe aliza ion o in o ma ion and he
ansmission o new habi s and cus oms (González, 2011).
Funding
The au ho (s) disclosed eceip o he ollowing inancial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/
o publica ion o his a icle: This wo k is included in he p ojec ‘Muje es, depo e y dic adu a. La
memo ia o al de las muje es depo is as bajo el F anquismo (1939–1975)’, unded by CSD 2011
(0022/UPR 10/11).
No es
1. This s udy has led o an a icle abou he gene al esul s o he o al esea ch: Pujadas e al.
(2012).
2. The Appendix collec s he main da a o he 24 in e iewees.

Pujadas e al. 695
3. The main objec i es o his ne wo k a e he eco e y o women’s his o y in he amewo k
o he social his o y o spo in he Spanish S a e and in e e y communi y s udied by he
esea ch g oups, as well as he de elopmen o s udies coo dina ed among he di e en pa -
icipa ing eams and uni e si ies. The ne wo k was se up in he yea 2010 and has been
ecen ly enla ged wi h esea ch eams om he Uni e si y o La Co uña and Camilo José Cela
Uni e si y in Mad id.
4. The e m puchos is a synonym o pololos (knicke bocke s): hey we e sho loose ouse s,
adjus ed a knee le el; gi ls would pu hem on op o hei ski s o do spo .
5. Wi h he wo d ‘companion’, he in e iewee e e s o iends om he opposi e sex wi h
whom hey began he iendship a e p ac ising spo . I has o be o eg ounded ha , wi hin
his con ex , condi ions we e he same o men. This was no obse ed in o he social sphe es.
6. By saying ‘ hem’, he in e iewee e e s o boys om he age, who wa ched he while p ac is-
ing spo .
7. The in e iewee means ha he ideal o spo swomen ( hin, skil ul and pa icula ly eminine)
was no expec ed in women who, as she was, we e s ong and b a e e en hough hey we e
also spo swomen.
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Appendix 1
In o ma ion abou he in e iewees
Table 1. Re e ences abou he in e iewees.
Name Yea and place o
bi h
Ci y Region Linking
wi h SF
(Y/N)
Socio-
economic
le el
O igin
( u al/
u ban)
Spo s
CRP 1920, Ba celona Ba celona Ca alonia N Middle U Moun ainee ing,
climbing, encing,
skiing, and a hle ics
IRM 1952, La Línea de
la Concepción
(Cádiz)
Ba celona Ca alonia N Low U Foo ball
PSE 1937, Ba celona Ba celona Ca alonia N Middle U Baske ball and
swimming
RPC 1930, Ba celona Ba celona Ca alonia N Middle U Swimming, ennis,
moun ainee ing, and
climbing
LAI 1924, Pola de
La iana (As u ias)
Pola de
La iana
(As u ias)
As u ias Y Low R Handball
EAC 1930, O iedo Gijón As u ias Y Middle U Baske ball
LVV 1948, Gijón Gijón As u ias Y Middle U Volleyball
LMG 1945, Gijón Gijón As u ias N Middle U Canoeing, baske ball,
skiing, olleyball, and
moun ainee ing
BDM 1929, Bilbao Bilbao Basque
Coun y
N Uppe U Tennis and gol
MMJ 1933, Begoña
(Biscay)
Bilbao Basque
Coun y
N Uppe U Swimming and
oo ball
MGC 1927, Vi o ia Vi o ia Basque
Coun y
N Middle U Swimming, skiing,
moun ainee ing, and
gymnas ics
ELB 1933, Las A enas-
Ge xo (Biscay)
Las A enas-
Ge xo
(Vizcaya)
Basque
Coun y
N Middle U Gol
(Con inued)
698 In e na ional Re iew o he Sociology o Spo 51(6)
Name Yea and place o
bi h
Ci y Region Linking
wi h SF
(Y/N)
Socio-
economic
le el
O igin
( u al/
u ban)
Spo s
ACP 1943, Se illa Se illa Andalusia Y Middle U Gymnas ics and
pa achu e jumping
PCF 1925, San Vicen e
de Alcán a a
(Badajoz)
Se illa Andalusia Y Middle R Gymnas ics,
baske ball, and
handball
OMH 1935, Se illa Se illa Andalusia N Low U Baske ball
FLA 1937, Se illa Se illa Andalusia N Uppe U Baske ball, handball,
and olleyball
ADL 1921, Xà i a
(Valencia)
Xà i a
(Valencia)
Valencia Y Uppe U Field hockey,
oo ball, handball,
and swimming
MPA 1938, Xà i a
(Valencia)
Xà i a
(Valencia)
Valencia Y Middle U Volleyball, baske ball,
gymnas ics, a hle ics,
and swimming
RLF 1938, La Pobla
Lla ga (Valencia)
Xà i a
(Valencia)
Valencia Y Middle U Volleyball and
baske ball
VBL 1937, El Be gel
(Alican e)
Valencia Valencia N Low R Swimming
PFG 1952, Ando a
(Te uel)
Ando a
(Te uel)
A agon N Middle R Baske ball and
a hle ics
PIL 1944, Za agoza Za agoza A agon Y Uppe U Tennis, swimming,
a hle ics, and
baske ball
ASM 1933, Reus
(Ta agona)
Za agoza A agon N Middle U Spea ishing, ho se
iding, a hle ics,
ennis, and
moun ainee ing
CML 1928, Pe al a
(Na a a)
Za agoza A agon Y Middle U Swimming, skiing,
baske ball, and
ennis
SF: Sección Femenina.
Table 1. (Con inued)