Eu J Educ. 2023;58:681–698.
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DOI: 10.1111/ejed.12580
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Impac o COVID- 19 on pa icipa ion and ba ie s
in non o mal adul educa ion in he Czech
Republic
Jan Kalenda1 | Ilona Koč a o áa1 | Ellen Boe en2
1Resea ch Cen e o he Facul y o
Humani ies, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y, Zlín,
Czech Republic
2School o Educa ion, Uni e si y o
Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Co espondence
Jan Kalenda, Resea ch Cen e o he Facul y
o Humani ies, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y, nám.
T. G. Masa yka 5555, Zlín 760 01, Czech
Republic.
Email: kalenda@u b.cz
Abs ac
The impac ha he COVID- 19 pandemic has had on non o -
mal adul educa ion has become a equen ly discussed issue
in li elong lea ning. Non o mal adul educa ion is unde s ood
he e as all o ganised adul lea ning ou side o mal educa ion
ha usually does no esul in o icial ce i ica ion. Many
schola s ha e conside ed he pandemic as he leading cause
o bo h dec eased pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa-
ion and inc eased inequali y among adul s. Ne e heless,
i has no ye been empi ically es ablished how p o ound
his ou come has been o pa icipa ion pa e ns, inequal-
i y and pe cei ed ba ie s o in ol emen in non o mal adul
educa ion. Acco dingly, his s udy explo ed how much he
pandemic con ibu ed o a dec ease in o e all pa icipa ion,
changes in pa icipa ion pa e ns, as well as con ibu ed o
an inc ease in ela ed inequali ies in he Czech Republic.
This a icle epo s on esul s om a na ional ep esen a i e
su ey in June 2020 (N = 1013) conduc ed be ween he i s
and second wa e o he pandemic. T ends in pa icipa ion in
non o mal adul educa ion along wi h ba ie s we e mapped
o he 12 mon hs p eceding he su ey. To es ablish ends,
we compa ed ou esul s wi h da a om he Adul Educa ion
Su ey conduc ed in 2011 and 2016, espec i ely. Ou ana-
ly ical app oach is p ima ily based on desc ip i e s a is ics
and modelling ac o s in luencing he in ol emen o adul s
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2023 The Au ho s. Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
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1 | INTRODUCTION
The consequences o he COVID- 19 pandemic, as unde s ood oday, a e wo se han anyone could ha e imagined
in he all o 2019. The epo ed numbe o cases eached o e 460 million wo ldwide, wi h o e 6 million dea hs
egis e ed (Hopkins, 2021). The global economy su e ed an es ima ed medium- e m economic loss o app oxi-
ma ely six een illion dolla s (Cu le & Summe s, 2020).
Whe he he COVID- 19 pandemic is conside ed a disjunc u e (Bju sell, 2020), a ca alys (Käpplinge &
Lich e, 2020), a dis up ion (Pacio ek e al., 2021), o as some hing ha exposed he “ agili y o educa ion sys ems”
(Milana e al., 2021, p. 111), i has p o oundly changed he landscape o adul educa ion and lea ning. As a lead-
ing in e na ional expe no ed in an in e iew o an ongoing in e na ional Delphi p ojec in es iga ing he ou -
comes o he pandemics, “ he lockdown o physical coope a ion ouches he hea o adul educa ion” (Käpplinge &
Lich e, 2020, p. 782). The wo ldwide sp ead o he disease has led o an in e up ion o long- s anding p ac ices o
adul educa ion and aining based on in pe son in e ac ion o ins uc o s and lea ne s in class oom se ings, wi h
ui ion o en p o ided a he wo kplace i sel .
The e ec s o he COVID- 19 pandemic ep esen a opic ha is inc easingly discussed in he con ex o li elong
lea ning. Ye , ela i ely li le di ec empi ical e idence has been accumula ed on how i has shaped he immedia e
pa e n o pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion as well as ba ie s o his ype o adul educa ion. Acco dingly,
he main pu pose o his s udy was o explo e how go e nmen al heal h measu es and es ic ions pu in place
du ing he i s wa e o he pandemic in he Czech Republic a ec ed pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion.
In his a icle, non o mal adul educa ion is unde s ood as lea ning ac i i ies conduc ed ou side he o mal
educa ion sys em ha usually do no esul in o icial ce i ica ion. Non o mal adul educa ion includes all o -
ganised and planned de elopmen lea ning oppo uni ies o adul s, such as cou ses, wo kshops, p i a e ui ion
as well as guided aining in he wo kplace o a an o si e loca ion. F om a con en poin o iew, his includes
bo h job- o ien ed o oca ional as well as non- job- o ien ed lea ning, e.g., ci ic, communi y, o leisu e ac i i ies
(Eu os a , 2016; UNESCO, 2020).
The esul s o many policy pape s (EC, 2021; OECD, 2019; UNESCO, 2020) and schola s (e.g., Boe en, 2016;
Field, 2012; Iñiguez- Be ozpe e al., 2020; Van Nieuwenho e & De We e , 2021) ag ee ha non o mal adul ed-
uca ion helps indi iduals o de elop he skills and quali ica ions needed o a pa icula job, as well as o adap o
eal o po en ial di icul ies on he labou ma ke , e.g. wo ke obsolescence. Fu he mo e, non o mal adul educa-
ion also inc eases oppo uni ies o ci ic pa icipa ion and imp o es o e all heal h and well- being.
Unde s anding changes in he pa e n o pa icipa ion is impo an gi en he ans o ma ional signi icance
o hese pa e ns on he mic o- social cha ac e is ics o adul s' access o non o mal adul educa ion. The lack
o access is conside ed he mos pe inen ac o o educa ional inequali y in adul educa ion and aining
in non o mal adul educa ion. We ound ha o e all pa ici-
pa ion in non o mal adul educa ion dec eased om June
2019 o June 2020 o i s lowes eco ded le el. Fu he mo e,
he esul s indica e ha inequali y based on educa ional a -
ainmen , as well as he pe cep ion o subs an ial ins i u-
ional and si ua ional ba ie s ha e signi ican ly inc eased.
KEYWORDS
adul educa ion and lea ning, ba ie s o pa icipa ion, COVID- 19
pandemic, Czech Republic, inequali y, non o mal educa ion,
pa icipa ion
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(see e.g., Allmendinge e al., 2011; Boe en, 2016, 2017; Cincinna o e al., 2016; Dämm ich e al., 2014;
Ho dhaugen & Opheim, 2018; Lee & Desja dins, 2019).
Cu en esea ch abou he impac s o he COVID- 19 pandemic on non o mal adul educa ion has p oduced
e idence on how educa o s ha e applied new ypes o pedagogies o social solida i y (Smy he e al., 2021); new
modes o communi y lea ning has eme ged in ci ies (Webb e al., 2020); and he issue o exclusion o ce ain social
g oups om lea ning ac i i ies. Exclusion is an issue especially o hose who be o e COVID had al eady been
highly o a leas pa ially excluded (Milana e al., 2021; Walle e al., 2020). A ecen OECD epo i led Adul
Lea ning and COVID- 19: How much in o mal and non- o mal lea ning a e wo ke s missing? (Pacio ek e al., 2021) p o-
ides es ima es o he consequences o COVID- 19 es ic ions on he in ol emen o adul s in in o mal and non-
o mal lea ning. The only o he ecen la ge- scale da a on ela ionships be ween pandemics and he pa icipa ion
o adul s in non o mal adul educa ion can be ound in Eu os a 's Labou Fo ce Su ey (LFS). This EU moni o ing
ool adi ionally maps pa icipa ion a es in bo h o mal and non o mal educa ion and aining, in he 4 weeks
p eceding he su ey, among adul s aged 25– 64 yea s. Table 1. summa ises he de elopmen ac oss he las ew
yea s along wi h c ucial changes om 2019 o 2020.
The able shows ha some coun ies in Eu ope expe ienced a highe decline du ing he i s wo wa es o he
pandemic han did o he na ions. The pa icipa ion a e in adul educa ion ell a an especially high a e in F ance,
Czech Republic, Poland, and Aus ia, wi h all hese coun ies unde going a ela i e dec ease in pa icipa ion o highe
han 20 pe cen . In e es ingly, hese coun ies do no all in o he same ca ego ies wi h ega d o pa icipa ion a e,
o skill- o ma ion egime (Busemeye , 2015), wel a e- s a e model (Rubenson & Desja dins, 2009), o adul educa ion
sys em (Desja dins e al., 2006; Desja dins & Ioannidou, 2020). The pandemic also hi ha d in he Scandina ian coun-
ies o Denma k, Sweden, and No way, whe e a dec ease in pa icipa ion o be ween 15 and 17 pe cen was no ed. In
con as , pa icipa ion a es in o he s a es dec eased signi ican ly less; a numbe o coun ies expe ienced s agna ion
o e en modes g ow h in 2020— Spain, Po ugal, G eece and Li huania (see Table 1.).
S a is ics om he Labou Fo ce Su ey can p o ide a gene al o e iew o COVID- 19 ela ed ends h oughou
Eu ope. Howe e , hese da a canno ell he whole s o y o how he pandemic impac ed he pa icipa ion pa e ns
in non o mal adul educa ion; ha is, he signi icance o mic o- social ac o s in luencing he in ol emen o adul s in
his kind o o ganised lea ning and he ba ie s ha hey ace. Such pa e ns subsequen ly de e mine he in ol emen
o di e en social g oups in non o mal adul educa ion, wi h he esul being a u he deepening o al eady exis ing
inequali ies. Da a om he Labou Fo ce Su ey also co e a sho e ime ame (4 weeks) compa ed o o he in e na-
ional su eys measu ing pa icipa ion in adul educa ion and aining such as he Adul Educa ion Su ey (AES) and he
P og amme o he In e na ional Assessmen o Adul Compe encies (PIAAC). Bo h AES and PIAAC a e ca ied ou o e
he cou se o 12 mon hs. Addi ionally, hese su eys collec ex a in o ma ion on ba ie s p e en ing pa icipa ion.
1.1 | Con ex and aims o he s udy
The e a e signi ican di e ences among Eu opean coun ies ega ding he impac o he COVID- 19 pandemic on
non o mal adul educa ion om la e 2019 o 2020. Fo his eason, we begin by b ie ly desc ibing he con ex o
he sp ead o he i us in he Czech Republic and he concomi an go e nmen al eac ions.
Since Feb ua y 2020, he COVID- 19 pandemic has a ec ed adul s and hei amilies in many ways in he Czech
Republic. The main pa o he i s wa e las ed only 4 mon hs (Ma ch o June). The e was a low numbe o casu-
al ies compa ed o o he coun ies in Eu ope (e.g., I aly o Spain). S ill, he Czech go e nmen in oduced many
social con ac es ic ions also ypical o o he Cen al Eu opean coun ies such as Ge many, Aus ia, Slo akia,
and Poland (Ba be ia e al., 2021).
The main di ec i es ook e ec on 12 Ma ch 2020, when he go e nmen decla ed a 30- day s a e o eme -
gency ha was la e ex ended un il 30 Ap il 2020. F om 12 Ma ch, all o mal and o icial non- o mal adul educa-
ional acili ies such as p i a e language schools and eskilling o ganisa ions we e closed, wi h e en s o ganised
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TABLE 1 De elopmen o pa icipa ion in adul educa ion in Eu ope om 2015 o 2020.
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Di .
2015– 2019a
Rela i e. Di .
2015– 2019
Di .
2019– 2020a
Rela i e. Di .
2019– 2020
EU 27 coun ies 10.1 10.3 10.4 10.6 10.8 9.4 0.7 6.0 −1.4 −13.0
Coun ies wi h high pa icipa ion a es (o e 15% in 2015)
Denma k 31.5 28.0 26.9 23.5 25.3 20.4 −6.2 −25.0 −4.9 −19.0
Sweden 29.4 29.6 30.4 31.4 34.3 28.6 4.9 14.0 −5.7 −17.0
No way 20.1 19.6 19.9 19.7 19.3 16.4 −0.8 −4.0 −2.9 −15.0
Finland 25.4 26.4 27.4 28.5 29.0 27.3 3.6 12.0 −1.7 −6.0
Ne he lands 18.9 18.8 19.1 19.1 19.5 18.8 0.6 3.0 −0.7 −4.0
F ance 18.6 18.8 18.7 18.6 19.5 13.0 0.9 5.0 −6.5 −33.0
Coun ies wi h medium pa icipa ion a es (8%– 15% in 2015)
Aus ia 14.4 14.9 15.8 15.1 14.7 11.7 0.3 2.0 −3.0 −20.0
Es onia 12.4 15.7 17.2 19.7 20.2 17.1 7.8 3.0 −3.1 −15.0
Spain 9.9 9.4 9.9 10.5 10.6 11.0 0.7 7.0 0.4 4.0
Po ugal 9.7 9.6 9.8 10.3 10.5 10.5 0.8 8.0 00.0
Ge many 8.1 8.5 8.4 8.2 8.2 7.7 0.1 1.0 −0.5 −6.0
Czech Republic 8.5 8.8 9.8 8.5 8.1 5.5 −0.4 −5.0 −2.6 −32.0
Coun ies wi h low pa icipa ion a es (unde 8% in 2015)
Li huania 5.8 6.0 5.9 6.6 7.0 7.2 1.2 11.0 0.2 3.0
Hunga y 7.1 6.3 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.1 −1.3 −22.0 −0.7 −12.0
I aly 7.3 8.3 7.9 8.1 8.1 7.2 0.8 10.0 −0.9 −11.0
La ia 5.7 7.3 7.5 6.7 7.4 6.6 1.7 23.0 −0.8 −11.0
Se bia 4.8 5.1 4.4 4.1 4.3 3.7 −0.5 −12.0 −0.6 −14.0
Poland 3.5 3.7 4.0 5.7 4.8 3.7 1.3 27.0 −1.1 −23.0
G eece 3.3 4.0 4.5 4.5 3.9 4.1 0.6 15.0 0.2 5.0
No e: Da a p o ided as pe cen ages; pa icipa ion measu ed as in ol emen in all adul educa ion ac i i ies as o 4 weeks p io o su ey.
aDi e ence in pe cen age poin s. Pa icipa ion o adul s aged 25– 64 yea s calcula ed oge he in bo h o mal and non- o mal educa ion.
Sou ce: Table cons uc ed by au ho s using 2021 da a om Eu os a (LFS, 2021).
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KALENDA e al.
by hese ins i u ions p ohibi ed. Fu he mo e, he go e nmen al measu es also included s ingen es ic ions o
b ick- and- mo a business es ablishmen s in ol ed in e ail sales and o he se ices, wi h physical p emises gen-
e ally o de ed o close o hei ac i i ies s ic ly egula ed (Czech Go e nmen , 2021). In an a emp o alle ia e
he nega i e social and economic e ec s o hese di ec i es, he go e nmen quickly de eloped and ins i u ed
suppo p og ams o companies and wo ke s, e.g., by compensa ing wo ke s o los wages and implemen ing
online lea ning ini ia i es ac oss he o mal educa ion sys em.
Only a e 30 Ap il, when he i s ound o p o ec i e measu es began o be elaxed, we e businesses g ad-
ually pe mi ed o e- open hei b ick- and- mo a loca ions and o he ins i u ional ac i i ies we e allowed o e-
sume. Fo example, in mid- May pupils in he las yea o p ima y educa ion we e pe mi ed o e u n o school as
well as s uden s in he las yea o seconda y schools and conse a o ies. The slow e- opening o uni e si ies and
o he educa ional ins i u ions soon ollowed. Despi e he g adual easing o es ic ions, many measu es emained
in place un il he end o July, when go e nmen o icials decla ed ha he Czech Republic had o e come he i s
wa e o COVID- 19 (Czech Go e nmen , 2021).
The aim o his s udy was o con ibu e o an assessmen o he di ec impac o he COVID- 19 pandemic on pa -
icipa ion pa e ns in non o mal adul educa ion in a mo e de ailed way. This a icle p esen s ou analysis o indings
om a na ionally ep esen a i e ques ionnai e su ey among adul s in he Czech Republic (N = 1013). I is impo an
o no e ha he su ey was ca ied ou om June 2019 o June 2020. This was be o e he su ge o he second wa e
o he COVID- 19 pandemic in Augus 2020. The wel e- mon h pe iod leading up o he su ey was in he s udy
used as a e e ence pe iod o pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion. Based on he da a om his su ey along
wi h da a om AES 2011 and 2016, he a icle desc ibes and analyses he e ec s o go e nmen al heal h measu es
and es ic ions du ing he i s wa e o he pandemic in e ms o h ee key in e ela ed phenomena:
1. le el o pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion
2. pa e n o pa icipa ion in e ms o hose who pa icipa ed and who did no (inequali y in pa icipa ion based on
c ucial mic o- social a iables)
3. pa e n o pe cei ed ba ie s o in ol emen among nonpa icipan s
We p opose ha by a ge ing hese h ee in e ela ed opics, ou indings will con ibu e o unde s anding
how he COVID- 19 pandemic has eshaped pa icipa ion pa e ns as well as obs acles connec ed wi h in ol e-
men in non o mal adul educa ion. The da a om he analysis can help ins i u ions o mula e e ec i e educa ion
policy and p ac ices o dealing wi h he ad e se ou comes o he pandemic. In he con ex o in e na ional com-
pa a i e esea ch (e.g., Cabus e al., 2020; Cincinna o e al., 2016; Dämm ich e al., 2014; Lee & Desja dins, 2019),
ou esul s show he impac o he i s wa e o pandemic on he adul educa ion sys em in one o he mos
nega i ely a ec ed Eu opean coun ies in e ms o he pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion as well as how
esponses o he pandemic ein o ced he inequali y al eady exis ing in he sys em.
Used he e as in he AES and PIAAC su ey, he e m pa icipa ion denomina es in ol emen , du ing 12 mon hs
leading up o he su ey, in any non o mal adul educa ion ac i i ies as de ined abo e. This ope a ionalisa ion en-
abled us o co e a b oade pe iod han he LFS. This allowed us o compa e he le el o inequali y and pe cei ed
ba ie s based on da a om AES 2016 as well as da a om be o e he ou b eak o he COVID- 19 pandemic.
2 | REVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF THE COVID- 19 PANDEMIC ON
PARTICIPATION AND BARRIERS TO NONFORMAL ADULT EDUCATION
The lockdown es ic ions o physical in e ac ions, and o he social dis ancing es ic ions, in combina ion wi h
he apid p oli e a ion o digi al lea ning esul ed in mo e nega i e ou comes o non o mal adul educa ion
han was he case o he o mal (highe ) educa ion sys em. The eason o his seems o be ha uni e si ies
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we e able o adap o he new digi al lea ning ci cums ances mo e quickly, e ec i ely and e icien ly (Aguile a-
He mida, 2020; Bache - Hicks e al., 2021). The change o online lea ning has in ensi ied he ongoing decline in
non o mal adul educa ion pa icipa ion since 2019. Rema kably, acco ding o some au ho s (Milana e al., 2021),
i has also inc eased inequali y be ween p ospec i e pa icipan s in o mal educa ion and hose who could ake
pa in non o mal adul educa ion. Those in he second ca ego y may ace mo e cons ain s as well in e ms o a
educed supply o educa ional oppo uni ies (Pacio ek e al., 2021). D awing on hese ci cums ances, we o mu-
la e a i s hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o a g ea e de-
c ease in pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion han in o mal adul educa ion.
The COVID- 19 pandemic a ec ed nega i ely he pa icipa ion a es in non o mal adul educa ion. Bu i also
a ec ed he pa e n o pa icipa ion, i.e., how g oups o adul s pa icipa e, o do no pa icipa e. Acco ding o
nume ous s udies (e.g., Bonal & González, 2020; Milana e al., 2021; S anis ee e al., 2021; Walle e al., 2020),
he pandemic si ua ion has p o oundly inc eased social inequali y in non o mal adul educa ion as well as in o he
adul educa ional a eas.
Fi s , o e all inequali y has expanded. Those al eady disad an aged be o e he onse o he pandemic ha e
been hi he ha des . These a e low- educa ed adul s, low- skilled wo ke s, olde adul s, immig an s, people
om u al o pe iphe al a eas, and women (Boe en e al., 2020; Käpplinge & Lich e, 2020; Walle e al., 2020).
Mos o hese adul s we e al eady in a di icul posi ion wi hin he labou ma ke ; o he s we e comple ely
ou side he ma ke , wi h e en ewe oppo uni ies o lea ning and de elopmen . The 2021 OECD epo (Pa-
cio ek e al., 2021, p. 3– 4) de ails how much in o mal and non- o mal lea ning wo ke s ha e missed. The epo
es ima es ha low- educa ed employees (wi h schooling up o ISCED le el 3c) ha e expe ienced a educ ion
in non o mal adul educa ion lea ning oppo uni ies a a a e o o e wice as much as is he case o e ia y-
educa ed adul s (ISCED 5– 8).
Second, he p e ious end was made e en wo se by he p oli e a ion o digi al inequali y (S anis ee
e al., 2021). In p ac ice, al eady disad an aged social g oups we e o en no su icien ly equipped wi h adequa e
digi al echnology o access o he in e ne , o hey lacked he skills o use hese ools. As a esul , hose wi h
a lowe pa icipa ion a e also ended o ha e lowe skills wi h ega d o using digi al ools o ind, e alua e and
compose in o ma ion on digi al pla o ms (see Milana e al., 2021, p. 112).
In ligh o he p e ious examples, we conclude ha he pandemic ep esen s a chain o compound e ec s
inc easing an exis ing pa e n o inequali y. A pa e n ha d aws on occupa ion s a us, educa ion le el, and age o
he adul s. Based on his summa y, we p opose h ee addi ional hypo heses.
Hypo hesis 2. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o an inc eased
inequali y in non o mal adul educa ion pa icipa ion by labou s a us.
Hypo hesis 3. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o an inc eased
inequali y in non o mal adul educa ion pa icipa ion by highes a ained educa ion.
Hypo hesis 4. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o an inc eased
inequali y in non o mal adul educa ion pa icipa ion by he age o he adul s.
Following he Chain- o - Response model c ea ed by C oss (1981) adul educa ion esea ch has adi ionally
dis inguished h ee ypes o pe cei ed ba ie s ha hinde pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion (e.g. Ho -
dhaugen & Opheim, 2018; Rubenson & Desja dins, 2009; Van Nieuwenho e & De We e , 2021): (1) disposi ional,
(2) ins i u ional and (3) si ua ional ba ie s. The i s ype o ba ie is associa ed wi h he nega i e a i udes o
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adul s o educa ion and low le els o sel - e icacy ega ding o ganised lea ning (C oss, 1981). In con as , ins i-
u ional ba ie s a e obs acles associa ed wi h he supply o adul educa ion (e.g., C oss, 1981; Ho dhaugen &
Opheim, 2018). These usually include lack o educa ional oppo uni ies wi hin o ou side he wo kplace, lack o
in o ma ion abou lea ning oppo uni ies, and pe cep ions ega ding he quali y o he educa ion and aining
quali y o e ed. Acco ding o C oss (1981), si ua ional ba ie s a e di ec ly connec ed wi h obs acles ound in he
e e yday li es o adul s, o example a pe son's heal h s a us, amily esponsibili ies (e.g., ca e o child en), a ail-
able economic esou ces, and he amoun o ime he adul has o lea ning.
I is e iden ha he COVID- 19 pandemic has impac ed bo h he o e all s uc u e o he ba ie s and he
s eng h o se e al o hem. In many coun ies, including he Czech Republic, he ini ial implemen a ion o go e n-
men al es ic ions di ec ly in luenced ins i u ional ba ie s— mainly adul lea ning oppo uni ies in he wo kplace
and communi y se ings. When he supply o such oppo uni ies becomes mo e limi ed, pe cep ions o ins i u-
ional ba ie s inc ease.
In addi ion, a numbe o p e iously desc ibed ad e se ou comes o COVID- 19 o adul s wi h compa a i ely
ewe yea s o schooling may nega i ely impac he pe cep ion o ins i u ional ba ie s in segmen s o his pop-
ula ion. Gene ally, because o he na u e o hei wo k, lack o digi al skills, and ypically less in es men in hei
aining om employe s (B unello e al., 2007; Pacio ek e al., 2021; UNESCO, 2020), we can expec ha ins i-
u ional ba ie s o pa icipa ion would show mo e signi ican ly inc eases in his g oup. We hus o mula e he
ollowing hypo heses:
Hypo hesis 5. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o an inc eased
pe cep ion o ins i u ional ba ie s o non o mal adul educa ion among adul s, especially among
hose wi h compa a i ely ewe yea s o educa ion.
Fu he mo e, go e nmen al es ic ions ha e changed he day- o- day li es o adul s, a ac o insepa ably
linked o si ua ional cons ain s. Fo example, many pa en s we e o ced o ake mo e esponsibili y o hei
child en's educa ion du ing he lockdown, ans o ming he amily esponsibili ies o pa en s. Addi ionally, he
pandemic inc eased he impo ance o si ua ional ba ie s ela ed o heal h. Human con ac was es ic ed.
The e was ea o in ec ion, and ising dis us in ins i u ions— possibly one o he mos signi ican se s o si -
ua ional ba ie s (Adolph e al., 2021; Kubinec e al., 2020). The e o e, a ma ked inc ease in he pe cep ion o
si ua ional ba ie s— especially ba ie s ela ed o heal h as well as o amily esponsibili ies and conce ns— was
expec ed.
To make ma e s wo se, hese ba ie s end o be mo e obus in wo g oups who a e al eady disad an aged—
olde adul s and adul s who ha e amily esponsibili ies, usually women. In his con ex , Lewis and Duch (2021)
epo ed ha acco ding o hei ma e- analysis, men consis en ly exp ess a lowe pe cei ed isk o con ac ing
COVID- 19 and less conce n abou he po en ial heal h consequences compa ed o women. Consequen ly, we
would expec a highe pe cep ion o heal h- ela ed ba ie s among women.
Recen s udies (Ande sen e al., 2022; Del Boca e al., 2020) ha e also ound ha women we e o ced o
pe sonally ake on mo e du ies o childca e and housewo k in hei own household han hey had be o e he
COVID- 19 pandemic. Due o school lockdowns and he dis ibu ion o many women in sec o s o he economy
ha enable emo e wo k, women we e pu in o a si ua ion in which hey had o ul il wo demanding oles a he
same ime. On he one hand, women had o help hei child en cope wi h lea ning in he home, while on he o he ,
hey we e s ill esponsible o comple ing hei employmen asks and du ies. Such a si ua ion made he in ol e-
men o women in non o mal adul educa ion mo e di icul .
Based on his discussion, we ha e o mula ed he ollowing, and inal, h ee esea ch hypo heses.
Hypo hesis 6. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o an inc ease in he
pe cep ion o si ua ional ba ie s o non o mal adul educa ion ac oss all sociodemog aphic g oups.
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688
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Hypo hesis 7. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o an inc ease in he
pe cep ion o si ua ional ba ie s o non o mal adul educa ion ela ed o heal h, especially among
olde lea ne s.
Hypo hesis 8. Go e nmen al measu es ela ed o he COVID- 19 pandemic led o an inc ease in
he pe cep ion o si ua ional ba ie s o non o mal adul educa ion ela ed o amily esponsibili ies,
mos signi ican ly among women.
3 | METHOD
The analysis d aws on a s a i ied andom sample (n = 1013) ha ep esen s he age ange 18– 69 yea s, as well
as he gende and educa ion a ios o he Czech popula ion. Da a collec ion was inanced by The Czech Science
Founda ion (GACR), wi h esea ch o his s udy inanced by an in e nal uni e si y und. Da a collec ion was con-
duc ed in he Czech Republic du ing June 2020, be ween he i s and second wa e o he COVID- 19 pandemic.
Da a was collec ed by a p o essional agency using he Compu e Assis ed Pe sonal In e iewing (CAPI) me hod.
The ques ionnai e included basic socio- demog aphic cha ac e is ics (gende , age, highes educa ion le el, and
egional a ilia ion based on le el 2 in he Nomencla u e o Uni s o Te i o ial S a is ics, e c.). Ques ions on
in o ma ion abou pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion and o he ypes o educa ion we e included. A ba -
e y o 29 scale i ems co e ing di e en ba ie s o pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion was also included
(Koč a o á e al., 2022); and o he i ems no used in he p esen s udy. In all phases o he su ey p ocess, em-
phasis was placed on he e hical p inciples o esea ch, especially anonymi y espec ing he ICC/ESOMAR In e -
na ional Code (ESOMAR, 2016).
Fo compa ison, we also wo ked wi h Czech da a om AES 2011 and 2016, which we o mally ob ained o
esea ch pu poses om he Czech S a is ical O ice. We included in he analysis only esponden s who showed
no missing alues wi hin he moni o ed a iables (n = 10,168 o 2011; n = 12,245 o 2016).
In 2020, he pe cep ion o ba ie s owa ds pa icipa ion in u he adul educa ion was measu ed only among
nonpa icipan s in non o mal adul educa ion. To acqui e simila esul s o his pa o ou in es iga ion, we
u ilised da a om AES 2011 and 2016 only o nonpa icipan s wi h no missing alues wi hin he moni o ed a i-
ables. As a esul , we included he ollowing numbe o esponden s o he es ing o hypo heses i e and eigh
(n = 7009 o 2011; n = 2017 o 2016; n = 761 o 2020).
The socio- demog aphic dis ibu ion o he h ee samples (each o 1 yea o in es iga ion) can be ound in
Table 2.
Fo he pu poses o he analysis, i was i s necessa y o b ing oge he he h ee da ase s o compa e he e-
sul s. Fo his, we ca ied ou a ha monisa ion o he da a, o uni ica ion, in h ee s eps: (1) se ing uni pa ame e s
ac oss da ase s (age 18– 69, no missing alues o in es iga ed a iables); (2) choice o ques ionnai e i ems wi h
he same ocus (gende , age, highes le el o educa ion, pa icipa ion in educa ion, i ems ep esen ing ba ie s o
pa icipa ion); (3) uni ica ion o al e na i e answe s o ques ions ela ed o i ems measu ing ba ie s o pa ici-
pa ion. The answe s yes o no we e used o esponses in AES 2011 and 2016 ques ionnai es. Meanwhile, in ou
su ey om 2020 answe s on a 6- poin scale o h ee posi i e and h ee nega i e op ions we e used— hese we e
ecoded in o yes o no answe s. Ne e heless, e en a e uni ica ion o he da a iles, i was no possible o me ge
iles. The iles we e o his eason analysed sepa a ely.
To assess he i s hypo hesis, on pa icipa ion in educa ion, we compa ed desc ip i e s a is ics ( equencies,
pe cen ages) o e ime. The second and ou h hypo heses, bo h ela ed o inequali y in pa icipa ion in non o -
mal adul educa ion, we e assessed using h ee models o bina y logis ic eg ession (each o one da ase ). We
used pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion as a dependen a iable. Employmen s a us, highes educa ional
a ainmen , and age we e used as independen a iables. The models we e e alua ed using s a is ical pa ame e s
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KALENDA e al.
ela ed o hei quali y, by ollowing hei ac ual esul s, and a compa ison o he pa ame e s o e ime. The i h
and eigh hypo heses, which ela e o ba ie s o non- pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion, we e e alua ed
using desc ip i e s a is ics and a compa ison o esul s o e ime.
4 | RESULTS
4.1 | O e all pa icipa ion
The esul s a e p esen ed by h ee hemes ha co espond wi h he h ee main aims o he s udy. We s a by p e-
sen ing, in Table 3, esul s o he i s hypo hesis ela ing o pa icipa ion a es. In he con ex o de elopmen s o
da e, a apid decline in pa icipa ion in non o mal adul educa ion in 2020 is e ealed. In con as , pa icipa ion in
o mal educa ion appea s o be highe han in p e ious yea s. Based on his, we can con i m ou i s hypo hesis
TABLE 2 Socio- demog aphic dis ibu ion o he h ee samples.
Yea o in es iga ion
2011 2016 2020
n%n%n%
Gende
Male 4861 47.8 5845 47.7 480 47.4
Female 5307 52.2 6400 52.3 533 52.6
Age
18– 29 1945 19.1 1887 15.4 184 18.2
30– 50 4118 40.5 4863 39.7 439 43.3
51– 69 4105 40.4 5495 44.9 390 38.5
Highes educa ion le el
ISCED 3c o lowe 4851 47.7 5769 47.1 494 48.8
ISCED 3ab 3640 35.8 4369 35.7 358 35.3
ISCED 5– 8 1677 16.5 2107 17.2 161 15.9
Reduced samplesa
Gende
Male 3348 47.8 773 38.3 359 47.2
Female 3661 52.2 1244 61.7 402 52.8
Age
18– 29 1276 18.2 475 23.5 126 16.6
30– 50 2428 34.6 830 41.2 318 41.8
51– 69 3305 47.2 712 35.3 317 41.7
Highes educa ion le el
ISCED 3c o lowe 3961 56.5 975 48.3 416 54.7
ISCED 3ab 2287 32.6 720 35.7 251 33.0
ISCED 5– 8 761 10.9 322 16.0 94 12.4
aSamples used o es ing pe cep ion o ba ie s o non o mal adul educa ion.
Sou ce: Au ho s.
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Ano he limi a ion is he ac ha he analysis ocusing on he pa icipa ion pa e n is based on h ee di e en
da ase s. Al hough i was possible o me ge he da a om AES (2011 and 2016), we do no conside his connec-
ion o be apposi e wi h he da ase om 2020. Me ging he da a om all h ee su eys would ha e had a nega i e
impac on he esul s o s a is ical in e ence. The e o e, all compa a i e esul s a e only indica i e and canno be
unambiguously gene alised. The same can be said o he measu emen o pe cei ed ba ie s, o which esponse
i ems had o be ecoded.
Despi e hese s udy limi a ions, we belie e ha ou empi ical esul s p esen subs an ial new e idence o
how much and how deeply he i s phase (2019– 2020) o he COVID- 19 pandemic has a ec ed he pa icipa ion
pa e n in non o mal adul educa ion in he Czech Republic. Based on ou me hodology and hese esul s, we
an icipa e e isi ing he eco e y o his ype o li elong lea ning in o ou nex esea ch p ojec .
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable om he co esponding au ho upon easonable
eques .
ENDNOTES
1 The i em O e was de ined as “no sui able educa ion o aining ac i i y a ailable”; he i em P e equisi es was de ined as:
“ esponden no quali ied o pa icipa ion due o p e equisi es”.
2 The i em Heal h was a icula ed as “heal h easons”; he i em Family was a icula ed as “ amily esponsibili ies”.
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