In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
SÁNCHEZ e al. Polysomnog aphic pa ame e s in ib omyalgia pa ien s 55
Labeling da ing abuse: Unde ec ed abuse among
Spanish adolescen s and young adul s1
Luis Rod íguez-F anco (Uni e sidad de Se illa, Spain), Ja ie López-Cepe o Bo ego
(Uni e sidad de Se illa, Spain), F ancisco J. Rod íguez-Díaz2 (Uni e sidad de
O iedo, Spain), Ca olina B ingas Molleda (Uni e sidad de O iedo, Spain),
C is ina Es ada Pineda (Uni e sidad de Guadalaja a, México), M. Ángeles
An uña Belle ín (Uni e sidad de Se illa, Spain), and Raúl Que edo-Blasco
(Uni e sidad de G anada, Spain)
ABSTRACT. The Ins i u o de la Muje in Spain highligh s he exis ence o adul women
being abused bo h wi h and wi hou sel -labeling as ic ims (si ua ions o pe cei ed
abuse and echnically abuse, espec i ely). The aims o his ex pos ac o s udy a e
assessing he exis ence o bo h ypes o abuse, and de eloping an al e na i e e alua ion
ins umen o young couples, mixing beha io al i ems and a ques ion on abuse pe cep ion
(a omic and molecula e alua ions). Using ques ions included in he Cues iona io de
Violencia de No ios (CUVINO) we ca ied ou wo s udies wi h di e en samples o
adolescen and young women in school. The i s one (N = 709; M = 18.5 yea s) eplied
he s udy conduc ed by he Ins i u o de la Muje , inding 6.2% o women sel -labeled
as abused and 71% being echnically abused. The second s udy (N = 1,327; M = 18.5)
e alua ed he ela ionship among di e en gene al pe cep ions ( eeling abused, a aid
and apped in da ing ela ionships), inding 5.8% o sel -labeled abused women, 11.9%
o a aid women, and 26.8% o women apped in hei ela ionships. Implica ions ha
hese inconsis encies may ha e on p e en ion e o s a e discussed.
KEYWORDS. Labeling. Abuse. Da ing iolence. Spanish adolescen and young couples.
Ex pos ac o s udy.
1This esea ch was suppo ed by g an s om a esea ch p ojec inanced by he Uni e si y o
O iedo (Re e ence UNOV-07-MB-2005).
2 Co espondence: Facul ad de Psicología. Uni e sidad de O iedo. Plaza Feijoo s/n. 33003 O iedo
(Spain). E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
© In e na ional Jou nal o Clinical and Heal h Psychology ISSN 1697-2600 p in
ISSN 2174-0852 online
2012, Vol. 12, Nº 1, pp. 55-67
© In e na ional Jou nal o Clinical and Heal h Psychology
In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
56 RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s
RESUMEN. El Ins i u o de la Muje en España ma iza la exis encia de muje es adul as
au ope cibidas como mal a adas y écnicamen e mal a adas (la íc ima sopo a algún
ipo de iolencia sin a ibui le la e ique a de mal a o). El obje i o del p esen e es udio
ex pos ac o es e i ica ambos ipos de mal a o y desa olla al e na i as de e alua-
ción en pa ejas jó enes. Pa a ello, se u ilizó una combinación de 13 í ems conduc uales
y de una p egun a sob e pe cepción de mal a o (e aluaciones a ómica y molecula ,
espec i amen e). A a és de las p egun as con enidas en el Cues iona io de Violencia
de No ios (CUVINO), se ealiza on dos es udios di e enciados con mues a de muje es
adolescen es y jó enes escola izadas. El p ime o de ellos (N = 709; M = 18,5 años)
eplicó la e aluación de mal a o écnico lle ada a cabo po el Ins i u o de la Muje ,
encon ando un 6,2% de mal a o pe cibido y un 71% de mal a o écnico. En un
segundo es udio (N = 1.327; M = 18,5), se e aluó la conco dancia en e pe cepciones
gene ales (sen i se mal a ada, sen i miedo y sen i se a apada en la elación), encon-
ando un 5,8% de muje es mal a adas, un 11,9% de a emo izadas y un 26,8%
a apadas en sus elaciones. Se discu en las implicaciones que las inconsis encias
encon adas en ambos es udios pueden ene sob e los es ue zos p e en i os.
PALABRAS CLAVE. Violencia de no ios. Mal a o pe cibido. Mal a o écnico. Pa ejas
de adolescen es y jó enes. Es udio ex pos ac o.
In e pe sonal pa ne iolence has e ol ed in a sho ime om being conside ed
a domes ic p oblem, o p i a e na u e, o ge ing a p ominen posi ion a communi y
policies (Fa iña, A ce, and Buela-Casal, 2009; Ulla e al., 2009). As a esul o hese
changes, many coun ies ha e in oduced speci ic p og ams co e ing di e en a eas
(men al heal h, legal, communi y policies, mass media, e c.) in o de o deal wi h hese
abuses (e.g., Echebu úa and Fe nández-Mon al o, 2009; Echebu úa, Sa asua, Zubiza e a,
Amo , and de Co al, 2010; Echebu úa, Sa asua, Zubiza e a, and de Co al, 2009). A he
same ime, he amoun o esea ch de o ed o his subjec has inc eased du ing he pas
decade (Fe nández Fue es, Fue es, and Pulido, 2006; Rod íguez-F anco, López-Cepe o,
and Rod íguez-Díaz, 2009; Zych and Que edo-Blasco, 2011).
Among hese s udies, he iolen ac s ca ied ou in da ing ela ionships be ween
eenage s o you hs emain ela i ely unexplo ed. Thus, domes ic iolence con inues o
be he subjec o mos publica ions, o which only .68% use samples o exclusi ely
young people (Rod íguez-F anco e al., 2009). Ne e heless, in ecen yea s, e ms like
da ing iolence ha e become hemes o s udies ocused on hese age anges (O ega,
O ega Ri e a, and Sánchez, 2008; O ega, Sánchez, O ega Ri e a, Nocen ini, and
Menesini 2010), and s udies a he Spanish le el ha e also appea ed (e.g., Ruiz, Expó-
si o, and Bonache, 2010).
Thanks o speci ic s udies he e is da a a ailable showing he p esence and high
equency o ic imiza ion a hese ages, in bo h males and emales (Buelga, Musi u, and
Mu gui, 2009; Es é ez and Emle , 2011). The a ailable esul s a y widely, bu oge he
hey signal a widesp ead p esence o hese phenomena. Ci ing s udies in which hese
agg essions we e e alua ed on modi ied e sions o he S au s´ Con lic Tac ics Scale
(1979), esul s poin o app oxima e igu e o 30% o mild o mode a e physical agg essions
(US sample - Ka z, Ku el, and Coblen z, 2002; Sea s, Bye s, and P ice, 2007; Spanish
In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s 57
sample - Muñoz-Ri as, G aña, O´Lea y, and González, 2007) and mo e han 50% o
psychological and emo ional agg essions (US sample - Sea s e al., 2007; UK sample
- Hi d, 2000; Spanish sample - Muñoz-Ri as e al., 2007).
Ca ego ies used o desc ibe and analyze abusi e beha io cons i u e one o classic
hemes o esea ch on pa ne iolence, and play a cen al ole in p e en ion (Amo ,
Echebu úa, and Loinaz, 2009; Loinaz, O iz-Tallo, Sánchez, and Fe agu , 2011), since i
is ha d o p e en agains some hing we canno label and ecognize (Rod íguez F anco,
An uña, and Rod íguez Díaz, 2001). Se e al p oposals o ca ego izing pa ne iolence
a e a ailable: he b oades classi ica ion as ega ds beha io o ms ( opog aphy) is o
dis inguish be ween physical, psychological (o emo ional) and sexual iolence (Lab a-
do , Rincón, de Luis, and Fe nández-Velasco, 2004; Muñoz-Ri as, 2006). Casca di, A e y-
Lea , O´Lea y, and Smi h-Slep (1999) subdi ide physical iolence in o wo deg ees (mild-
mode a e and se e e), based on ac o ing CTS esul s, o c ea e a ou h ca ego y.
Eu opean Council p oposed a six- ac o classi ica ion: physical, sexual, psychological,
economic, s uc u al and spi i ual iolence (Ins i u o de la Muje , 2006). Finally, a
classi ica ion is a ailable based on eigh ac o s, ob ained h ough he CUVINO (Cues-
iona io de Violencia de No ios/Da ing Violence Ques ionnai e), which makes dis inc ions
among iolence which is coe ci e, sexual, gende -based, ins umen al, physical, by
de achmen , by humilia ion, and by emo ional punishmen (Rod íguez-F anco, An uña,
Rod íguez-Díaz, He e o, and Nie es, 2007).
Howe e , besides sub ypes o iolence conside ed in any p e en ion p og am, we
mus be awa e ha sp eading messages h ough he mass media (p ess, adio, ele ision,…),
does no necessa ily lead o imp o e ou sensibili y o pa ne abuse (Goodman, Du on,
Wein u , and Cook, 2003). I is empi ically di icul o p o e he e ec i eness o hese
p og ams (Weke le and Wol e, 1999; Wol e e al., 2003), since he deg ee o exposu e
and he impac on he a ge popula ion a e qui e ha d o assess.
The Ins i u o de la Muje (2006) published a esea ch epo based on he III Mac o-
Su ey on Domes ic Violence, ca ied ou on adul emale popula ion, which p oposed
an al e na i e classi ica ion. In addi ion o ic imiza ion beha io s su e ed, a ques ion
on mal ea men pe cep ion (labeling) was included. Th ough his combined e alua ion,
he epo p o ides an es ima ion o bo h numbe o woman who a e awa e o abuses
(pe cei ed mal ea men : 3.6% o he sample) and hose who do no (non pe cei ed
abuse: 9.6% o he sample). Thus, numbe o women su e ing agg essi e beha io s
wi hou labeling hem like abuse was a highe han hese awa e o hei si ua ion.
The concep o unlabeled abuse, is o g ea in e es when i comes o planning
in e en ion wi h he ic im, since he ic im’s mo i a ion and ecep i eness migh a y
in unc ion o he pe cep ion o he p oblem (Tjaden and Thoennes, 2000; O’Kee e and
T eis e , 1998). Mo eo e , he concep highligh s he disconnec ion be ween he label
mal ea men and he unde lying con en , ep esen ing an p oo o ine iciency in p e en ion
p og ams - i is possible ha he po en ial ic ims decla e hemsel es in ole an wi h
mal ea men as a e m, while hei abili y o de ec such abusi e beha io s may be
de ec i e (Adelman and Hea Kil, 2007). This becomes e en mo e ele an i we conside
ha mos o he a ailable esou ces a e di ec ed owa ds abuse ic ims (such as, e.g.,
he 016 helpline in Spain).
In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
58 RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s
In ligh o he abo e, we conside he s udy o echnical mal ea men in adolescen
and young popula ion o be o maximum in e es . The e o e, his ex pos ac o s udy
(Mon e o and León, 2007), has a double objec i e: i s , o eplica e he s udy o he
Ins i u o de la Muje h ough a selec ion o i ems om he Cues iona io de Violencia
de No ios (CUVINO) in o de o es ima e le els o pe cei ed and echnical mal ea men
among Spanish young emale school-goe s; second, o de e mine he deg ee o cohe ence
shown by young Spanish emales be ween di e en pe cep ions (labels) o mal ea men .
Me hod (STUDY 1)
Sample
709 school-going emales om bo h p i a e and public schools om se e al places
a ound Spain (p o inces o A Co uña, As u ias, Huel a, Ou ense and Se illa) we e
included. Ages we e comp ended om 16 o 21 yea s old (M = 18.53 yea s; SD = 1.55
yea s.) Only people who had been in a da ing ela ionship abo e one mon h long we e
conside ed o pa icipa e in his s udy. All pa icipan s we e olun ee s.
Ins umen s
13 i ems om he 62 o iginal CUVINO se (Rod íguez-F anco e al., 2007) we e
selec ed. These ques ions had simila wo ding o Ins i u o de la Muje ins umen (2006)
(equi alences a e shown in Table 1). In addi ion, he ques ion Do you eel o ha e
you e e el abused? was included, in o de o assess subjec s gene al pe cep ion o
abuse.
The CUVINO ga he s answe s on a i e le el Like ype scale, simila o he one
used in he eplica ed s udy. Following he p oposal o he Ins i u o de la Muje , only
hose i ems wi h a esponse o equen ly o highe equency we e conside ed as
posi i e esponses. The ques ion «Do you eel o ha e you e e el a aid?» had only
wo possible answe s in he CUVINO (yes/no), so a i ma i e answe s we e ema ked
as posi i e.
P ocedu e
Schools we e con ac ed by mail o ask o hei coope a ion. They we e selec ed
andomly om he census o high schools o each pa icipa ing p o ince. Once hey
we e selec ed, one class oom om each o ou le els - 3 d and 4 h yea s o Basic
Seconda y Educa ion (Educación Secunda ia Obliga o ia) and 1s and 2nd yea s o
Uppe Le el Seconda y Educa ion (Bachille a o) - was chosen. Da a was collec ed by
one o he membe s o he esea ch eam du ing class hou s wi h a eache p esen in
he class oom. SPSS 15 so wa e was selec ed o p ocess da a.
Th ee esea che s ma ched equi alen ques ions om CUVINO and Ins i u o de la
Muje su ey independen ly. P oposals we e compa ed, and disag eemen s discussed
and o ed, in o de o decide he inal 13 ques ions se .
P io o e alua ion, pa icipan s we e old in o ma ion ga he ed in he s udy would
be analyzed as a whole o keep con idenciali y. A eques was made no o add pe sonal
in o ma ion o he shee in o de o p ese e he anonymi y o he pa icipan s
In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s 59
TABLE 1. Equi alence be ween i ems o he Ins i u o de la Muje
su ey and CUVINO ques ionnai e.
Ins i u o de la Muje
Su ey O iginal CUVINO i em (ex ac )
He p e en s you om seeing you amily o ha ing
ela ions wi h iends and neighbo s
He isola es you om you iends and amily
He akes away he money you ha e ea ned o doesn´
gi e you enough money o li e by you own
He con ols you money
He insul s o h ea ens you He c i icizes, insul s o shou s a you
He decides wha you can o canno do He imposes ules a his con enience
He insis s on ha ing sex e en when he knows you
don’ eel like i
He doesn’ ake in o accoun you
eelings abou sex
He doesn’ ake in o accoun you needs ( he wo s
ood is o you, he wo s space in he home, e c) He doesn’ ake in o accoun you eelings
You a e some imes sca ed by him Do you eel o ha e you el sca ed?
He can hi o push you when he’s ang y He has slapped, pushed o shaken you
He ells you ha you a e no able o do hings on you
own (you would be no hing wi hou him)
He insul s o idicules you o you ideas
He ells you ha you do no hing p ope ly, ha you a e
clumsy
He c i icizes, unde mines o humilia es you
He idicules you ideas ( eligious o poli ical belie s,
o ganiza ions o which you belong…)
He idicules you own belie s, social class o
eligion
He doesn’ alue you wo k
He doesn’ app o e o o encou age you
quali ies
He unde mines you in on o you child en
He insul s you in he p esence o amily and
iends
No e. CUVINO = Cues iona io de Violencia de No ios.
Resul s
F om a holis ic poin o iew, 6.2% o he sample (N = 44) esponded a i ma i ely
o he ques ion Do you eel o ha e you e e el abused? Analyzing he beha io al
indica o s, i was ound ha 22.8% o he sample (N = 162) epo ed no ha ing
expe ienced any o hese si ua ions du ing hei ela ionships, while he emaining 77.2%
epo ed ha ing expe ienced one o mo e o hese si ua ions. 56.8% (N = 403) expe ienced
a leas wo o hem and 40.8% (N = 429) expe ienced h ee o mo e. All he woman who
epo ed had el abused, excep o wo, sco ed in a leas one o he i ems. The
dis ibu ion by posi i e i ems is de ailed in Figu e 1, and he pe cen ages o echnical
mal ea men , by cu -o poin , in Table 2.

In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
60 RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s
FIGURE 1. Numbe o women and numbe o beha io s su e ed (N = 709).
144
114 100
50 53
28 23 11 88602
162
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
012345678910111213
TABLE 2. Pe cen age o echnical mal ea men by cu -o poin
(1, 2 o 3 beha io s).
F equency % % Technical
Mal ea men
1 o mo e beha io 547 (77.2%) 71 %
2 o mo e beha io s 403 (56.8%) 50.6%
3 o mo e beha io s 289 (40.8%) 34.6%
Pe cei ed mal ea men = 6.2% (N = 44)
Addi ionally, i was calcula ed he pe cen age o women who el abused acco ding
o he numbe o beha io s su e ed. Less han 10% o he young women who su e ed
6 o less abusi e beha io s labeled hemsel es as abused, while unde 20% o hose
who su e ed 7 o 8 abusi e beha io s did. O he 24 women who indica ed hey su e ed
9 o mo e beha io s, he pe cen age o pe cei ed mal ea men was 54.17% (N = 13). The
esul s a e illus a ed in Figu e 2.
A disagg ega ed analysis by i ems showed ha he mos equen beha io among
he 13 selec ed was He does no ake in o accoun you eelings, wi h posi i e esponses
coun ing o 43.86%, ollowing by He imposes ules a his con enience, wi h 29.2 %
o esponses being posi i e, and He isola es you om you iends and amily, wi h
28.77%. The comple e dis ibu ion is p esen ed in Table 3.
In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s 61
FIGURE 2. Pe cen age o women indica ing whe he hey ha e el mal ea ed
o no by numbe o beha io s su e ed.
% No
98.77
96.50 97.37
92.86
98 90.57 92.86 82.61 81.82 37.5 62.5 33.33
50
93.77
%Ye
s
1.23
3.5 2.63
7.14
2 9.43 7.14 17.39 18.18 62.5 37.5 66.67
50
6.23
0123456789
10 11
13
?
TABLE 3. F equency and pe cen age o posi i e esponses
o he 13 CUVINO i ems.
Conclusions
Da a shown abo e exceed Ins i u o de la Muje es ima es o adul popula ion.
Compa ed o he 3.6% o adul women who el abused, he pe cei ed mal ea men in
he sample o his s udy was 6.2%. Whe eas 9.6% o he adul sample su e ed some
kind o ic imiza ion equen ly, up o 71% o adolescen and young women did (i is,
hey we e echnically abused). The pe cen age o women who pe cei ed hemsel es o
be abused was low e en when he numbe o abusi e beha io s su e ed was high (less
han 20% o pe cei e mal ea men o women who su e ed up o 8 abusi e beha io s.
Posi i es % To al
He doesn’ ake in o accoun you eelings 311 43.86%
He imposes ules a his con enience 207 29.20%
He isola es you om you iends and amily 204 28.77%
He c i icizes, insul s o shou s a you 198 27.93%
He doesn’ app o e o o encou age you quali ies 149 21.02%
He insul s o idicules you o you ideas 144 20.31%
He c i icizes, unde mines o humilia es you 126 17.77%
He doesn’ ake in o accoun you eelings abou sex 118 16.64%
Do you eel o ha e you e e el a aid? 84 11.85%
He has slapped, pushed o shaken you 77 10.86%
He idicules you own belie s, social class o eligion 76 10.72%
He con ols you money 52 7.33%
He insul s you in he p esence o amily and iends 52 7.33%
In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
62 RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s
Me hod (STUDY 2)
Sample
1,327 school-aged women om p i a e and public schools om he p o inces o
A Co uña, As u ias, Huel a, Ou ense, and Se illa we e selec ed. Ages we e be ween 16
and 21 yea s (M = 18.56; SD = 1.52). All subjec s ook pa in he s udy olun a ily.
Ins umen s
Th ee ques ions we e used om he CUVINO´s second e sion (Rod íguez-F anco
e al., 2007; Rod íguez-F anco e al., 2010). This ins umen has 42 beha io al i ems,
selec ed h ough a ac o analysis ca ied ou on o he o iginal e sion and he
inclusion o some new i ems, o which wo pieces o in o ma ion a e eques ed: equency
o ic imiza ion, and bo he ing associa ed wi h each. The ins umen also ga he s
in o ma ion abou gene al pe cep ion ( ela ionship labeling): Do you eel o ha e you
e e el abused in you ela ionship?, Do you eel o ha e you e e el ea ?, and
Do you eel o ha e you e e el apped in you ela ionship? These h ee ques ions
we e used o mee he objec i es o he second s udy.
P ocedu e
Schools we e ec ui ed in he same way desc ibed o i s s udy. All he women
pa icipa ing in he s udy epo ed ha ing had a leas one da ing ela ionship las ing
mo e han one mon h and all ag eed o pa icipa e olun a ily. SPSS, .15 was used o
s a is ical analysis.
Resul s
The equencies and pe cen ages o posi i e answe s ob ained o each ques ion
a e shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4. F equency and pe cen age o posi i es o holis ic pe cep ion ques ions.
Posi i es ( eq.) % To al
Abused? 77 5.8%
A aid? 159 11.9%
T apped? 358 26.8%
An analysis o he dis ibu ion o hese esponses using a able o 2x2x2 = 8
combina ions was ca ied ou . The mos equen was he combina ion no pe cep ion
o abuse-no ea -no apped, wi h 920 appea ances (69.33% o cases), while he
combina ion pe cep ion o abuse- ea - apped appea ed on 50 occasions (3.77% o he
o al). Remaining cases (N = 357; 26.9% o he o al) we e combina ions o posi i es and
nega i es. Full esul s a e epo ed in Table 5.
In J Clin Heal h Psychol, Vol. 12. Nº 1
RODRÍGUEZ-FRANCO e al. Unde ec ed abuse among Spanish adolescen s and young adul s 63
TABLE 5. Combined esul s o he h ee holis ic ques ions (N = 1,327).
Abused? Yes No
77
(5.8%)
1,250
(94.2%)
A aid? Yes No Yes No
56
(4.22%)
21
(1.58%)
103
(7.76%)
1147
(86.44%)
T apped? Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
50
(3.77%)
6
( .45%)
17
(1.28%)
4
( .3%)
64
(4.82%)
39
(2.94%)
227
(17.11%)
920
(69.33%)
Conclusions
In his second s udy we ound di e ences be ween he pe cen ages o women who
pe cei e hemsel es as abused, el a aid o a e apped in hei ela ionships. Compa ed
o he 5.8% o young emales who el abused, nea ly wice ha numbe (11.9%) claimed
o ha e el a aid, while pe cen age o women who had conside ed hemsel es apped
in hei ela ionship was ou imes highe (26.8%). Con ingency analysis o he h ee
condi ions shows ha mo e han a qua e o he sample (26.9% o he cases) indica e
mixed si ua ions; o hese, jus o e 17% a e women who solely el apped, while he
second mos equen g oup (4.8% o he o al) co esponds o eeling a aid and being
apped bu no eeling mal ea ed.
Discussion o bo h s udies
Bo h s udies p o ide in o ma ion o g ea signi icance o esea ch on iolence in
young couples: one se o conclusions is d awn om he compa ison be ween ou s udy
and he one conduc ed by Ins i u o de la Muje in 2006, and he o he is di ec ly d awn
om he esul s o ou wo s udies.
Rega ding he eplica ion o Ins i u o de la Muje s udy, pe cen age o emales sel
labeled as abused was highe o adolescen and young samples (6.2% and 5.8%,
depending on he s udy) han es ima ed in adul popula ion (3.6%). Compa ing he
le els o echnical mal ea men , we also ound highe pe cen ages among young people,
wi h mo e han 70% when he cu -o poin was a single posi i e indica o , and jus o e
34% i we coun only cases in which a leas h ee beha io s we e equen ly su e ed
(compa ed wi h 9.6% in he ini ial s udy). In addi ion, pe cen age o pe cei ed abuse
was low e en among women who showed 9 o mo e indica o s (ba ely 54%, sligh ly
mo e han hal ). O cou se, hese conclusions mus be aken in o accoun cau iously:
using a non- alida ed ins umen o assess abuse cons i u es a clea weakness o he
i s s udy, and selec ed cu -o poin (which could be named as ze o ole ance) may
lead o a high pe cen age o alse posi i es. Bu , on he o he hand, hese e idences
s ongly sugges ha he capaci y o young emales o de ec and label abuse is a om
he desi able le el.