7O animals and men: con as ing app oaches o he s udy o animal beha io diso de s in Ame ica (1930-1950).
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
O animals and men: con as ing app oaches
o he s udy o animal beha io diso de s in
Ame ica (1930-1950)
Gab iel Ruiz y Na i idad Sánchez*
Uni e sidad de Se illa
e is a de his o ia de la psicología © 2012: Publicacions de la Uni e si a de València
2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio) 7-22 Valencia (España). ISSN: 0211-0040
Abs ac
S a ing om he s udies o H. S. Liddell, he expe imen s on beha io diso de s in animals
encou aged a g ea deal o in e es du ing he 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s in he Uni ed S a es.
E en hough hese s udies we e mainly ca ied ou wi h non-human animals, he awa ding
o p es igious scien i ic p izes o some o hese in es iga ions pa ed he way o he con ic ion
ha he labo a o y e olu ion would each o Psychopa hology. In his pape , we will explo e
he con as ing app oaches o he s udy o abno mal beha io in animals ca ied ou by H. S.
Liddell, W. H. Gan , No man R. Maie , and Jules Masse man. In o de o unde s and he
signi icance o hese esea ch p og ams, we will ocus ou analysis no only in he di e gen
me hodologies and heo e ical cons uc s p oposed o explain hese phenomena, bu also in
some o he con e gen a gumen s used o jus i y he ele ance o hese animal s udies o he
unde s anding o human psychopa hology –i.e. he obse ed simila i y be ween he symp oms
o he expe imen al animals and he human pa ien s, wi h special e e ence o he symp oms
obse ed in he psychia ic casual ies du ing he Wo ld Wa II.
Keywo ds: Abno mal beha io , expe imen al neu osis, animals, psychology, psychia y, USA.
Resumen
A pa i de los es udios de H.S. Liddell, los expe imen os sob e los as o nos de conduc a en
animales susci a on un g an in e és en Es ados Unidos du an e el pe iodo comp endido en e 1930
y 1950. Aunque es os es udios se ealiza on p incipalmen e con especies no humanas, la concesión
de p es igiosos p emios cien í icos a algunas de es as in es igaciones ab ió camino a la con icción
* An ea lie e sion o his pape was p esen ed a he 40 h Annual Mee ing o Chei on, The In e na ional So-
cie y o he His o y o Beha io al and Social Sciences, Rye son Uni e si y, To on o, June 26-29, 2008. The
au ho s a e deeply g a e ul o D . Wade Pick en o sha ing his a chi al ma e ial wi h us. Co espondence
conce ning his pape should be add essed o Gab iel Ruiz, Depa amen o de Psicología Expe imen al.
Uni e sidad de Se illa. C/ Camilo José Cela S/N. 41018 Se illa (Spain). E-mail: <g [email protected]>.
8Gab iel Ruiz y Na i idad Sánchez
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
de que la e olución del labo a o io acaba ía llegando a la psicopa ología. En es e abajo amos a
explo a los di e en es en oques en el es udio del compo amien o animal ano mal que lle a on
a cabo H. S. Liddell, W. H. Gan , N. R. Maie , y J. H. Masse man. Con el in de comp ende
el signi icado de es os p og amas de in es igación, cen a emos nues o análisis no sólo en las
me odologías y cons uc os eó icos di e gen es p opues os pa a explica es os enómenos, sino
que ambién analiza emos algunos de los a gumen os con e gen es que se u iliza on pa a jus i-
ica la pe inencia de es os es udios animales pa a la comp ensión de la psicopa ología humana,
como po ejemplo la simili ud obse ada en e los sín omas de los animales expe imen ales y los
sín omas obse ados en las bajas psiquiá icas du an e la Segunda Gue a Mundial.
Palab as cla e: Conduc a ano mal, neu osis expe imen al, animales, psicología, psiquia ía, EEUU.
This pape o ms pa o a gene al p ojec explo ing he his o ical signi icance o
s udies in o animal beha io diso de s conduc ed in he USA be ween 1930 and 1950.
In ou p e ious wo ks, we ocused ou in e es on some speci ic aspec s o hese s ud-
ies. Thus, o example, we looked back a he s o y o Nick, he neu o ic dog s udied
by W. H. G an o 12 yea s a he Hen y Phipps Psychia ic Clinic (Ruiz y Sánchez,
2004); we analyzed he condi ioned e lex es ha Gan used in he s udy o psychi-
a ic pa ien s a he Phipps Clinic (Ruiz y Sánchez, 2010); inally, we explo ed he ole
ha his ype o esea ch played in he o igin o he psychosoma ic app oaches ha
cha ac e ized No h-Ame ican medicine du ing hose yea s (Ruiz y Sánchez, 2007).
This s udy has a di e en aim. We wan o p o ide an o e iew o hese s udies,
con as ing he di e en app oaches made owa ds his phenomenon by U.S. psycholo-
gis s and psychia is s be ween 1930 and 1950. To do so, we will ocus ou analysis
on he wo k conduc ed by ou No h-Ame ican scien is s: Howa d S. Liddell (1895-
1962), who g adua ed in Psychology a Michigan (1917) and ead his Ph.D. a Co nell
(1923), which was he uni e si y whe e he led his en i e scien i ic ca ee ; William H.
Gan (1892-1980), psychia is , ounde and di ec o o he Pa lo ian Labo a o y o
he Hen y Phipps Psychia ic Clinic o Johns Hopkins Uni e si y, who was he only
U.S. pupil o wo k a I. P. Pa lo ’s labo a o y o a long pe iod (1925-1929); No man
R. Maie (1900-1977) expe imen al psychologis om he Uni e si y o Michigan;
and Jules H. Masse man (1905-1994), psychia is and psychoanalys who conduc ed
his esea ch a Chicago Uni e si y and a he No hwes e n Uni e si y.
Ou pape a gues ha he p oblema ic and unce ain na u e o he phenomenon
o expe imen al neu oses equi ed a s a egy o me hodological and also heo e ical
di e gence which anscended he bounda ies o Pa lo ian physiology, and ha his
di e gen s a egy was accompanied, a he same ime, by he con e gence o he o ical
a gumen s suppo ing he idea ha hese s udies made a signi ican con ibu ion o
he knowledge o human psychopa hology.
9O animals and men: con as ing app oaches o he s udy o animal beha io diso de s in Ame ica (1930-1950).
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
DEFINING THE BOUNDARIES
Al hough i has some imes been claimed ha Jean-Ma c Gaspa I a d (1775-
1838), he F ench doc o who educa ed he wild sa age o A ey on, was he i s o
p oduce an expe imen al neu osis in ‘ he li le sa age’ (Pe hes, 2007), he cu en idea
o his diso de has i s o igins in he wo k o I. P. Pa lo (1849-1936), and mo e spe-
ci ically in he expe imen s conduc ed in 1912 by Ma ia N. E o ée a, and in 1914 by
Na aliia R. Shenge -K es o niko a. In bo h expe imen s, he animals s a ed o show
abno mal eac ions, symp oms simila o a se e e neu osis. Acco ding o Pa lo , he
dogs s udied by Shenge -K es o niko a exhibi ed he ollowing symp oms:
The hi he o quie dog began o squeal in i s s and, kep w iggling abou , o e
o wi h his ee h he appa a us o mechanical s imula ion o he skin, and bi
h ough he ubes connec ing he animal’s oom wi h he obse e , a beha io
ne e happened be o e. On been aken in o he expe imen al oom he dog now
ba ked iolen ly, which was also con a y o i s usual cus om; in sho i p esen-
ed all he symp oms o a condi ion o acu e neu osis (Pa lo , 1960, p. 291).
Pa lo in e p e ed hese symp oms in e ms o a hypo he ical physiology o he
b ain hemisphe es. Fo Pa lo , when exci a o y and inhibi o y b ain wa es collide
se e ely, he sys em o posi i e and nega i e condi ional e lexes esponsible o main-
aining he balance be ween he en i onmen and he o ganism is dis up ed, and he
esul may be a cons ella ion o neu o ic symp oms. The egula and balanced eac ions
obse ed in he condi ional e lexes o a no mal dog gi e way o he imbalance, chaos
and a iabili y o a neu o ic dog. In Pa lo ’s wo ds:
(…) we a e o ced o p esuppose some s uggle be ween wo opposing p o-
cesses, ending no mally in a ce ain equilib ium be ween hem, in a ce ain
balance. This con lic and his balancing a e no oo easy o he ne ous
sys em… The animal o en exp esses his di icul y by mo o disquie ude, by
whining and dyspnea. Bu in he majo i y o he cases he equilib ium is a
las es ablished… Only unde special condi ions does his con lic o he wo
p ocesses lead o des uc ion o he no mal ne ous ac i i y and hen he e
o igina es a pa hological s a e which may las o days, weeks, mon hs, and
pe haps e en yea s (Pa lo , 1963a, p. 341).
In o de o adequa ely cha ac e ize he Pa lo ian esea ch p og am in o expe i-
men al neu oses h ee aspec s o his in es iga i e pa hway should be highligh ed: 1)
he hypo he ical na u e o he physiological explana ion in oked by Pa lo ; 2) he exis -
ence o a ela ion, no necessa ily o iden i y, be ween beha io diso de s obse ed in
10 Gab iel Ruiz y Na i idad Sánchez
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
labo a o y animals and he human clinical synd ome o which Pa lo e e s –neu osis1;
3) and he c i e ion o abno mali y used: he aboli ion o condi ioned esponses. This
las aspec is made clea in his de ini ion o neu osis:
As Neu osis we unde s and a ch onic de ia ion o he highe ne ous ac i i y,
las ing weeks, mon hs, and e en yea s. Fo us he highe ne ous ac i i y is
mani es ed chie ly in he sys em o condi ioned posi i e and nega i e e lexes
o any s imulus and pa ially, bu o a lesse deg ee, in he gene al beha io o
ou animals (dogs) (Pa lo , 1963b, p. 73).
We could s a e, he e o e, ha he Pa lo ian esea ch p og am on pa hological
dis u bances o he co ex esul ing o unc ional in e e ence was ai ly clea ly de ined
wi hin he limi s o b ain physiology and wi h a echnology, he condi ioned e lex,
which made i possible o s udy he dynamics o hese pa hologies.
TRANSCENDING THE BOUNDARIES
Di e gen app oaches
In Ame ica, he ou pu o wo k in o beha io diso de s in animals, expe imen al
neu osis included, eached i s peak in he ea ly 1940s. This p oduc i i y, which s a ed
in 1926 wi h Liddell’s pionee wo k on condi ioning in sheep (Liddell, 1926), and wi h
he es ablishmen in 1929 o he Pa lo ian Labo a o y a Phipps Psychia ic Clinic
unde Gan 2, has no been equaled since.
Bo h, Liddell and Gan used Pa lo ian echniques albei wi h some me h-
odological a ia ions compa ed o he echniques used by he Russian physiologis .
Gan , like Pa lo , used he sali a ion e lex and his labo a o y animal was he dog.
Howe e , Liddell used he mo o condi ioned e lex and s udied a a ie y o animal
species (sheep, goa , pig, dog, pony, e c). Bo h Liddell and Gan eco ded complex
esponse pa e ns, o example, hea a e, gene al ac i i y, b ea hing, head mo emen ,
e c., unlike Pa lo who eco ded mainly he sali a o y condi ioned esponse (Gan ,
1944; Liddell, 1942).
1. «To make analogies be ween he neu o ic s a e o ou dogs and he a ious neu oses o man is o me,
a physiologis no ho oughly acquain ed wi h human neu opa hology, a p oblem ha dly a ainable»
(Pa lo , 1963b, p. 74).
2. See, Hen y Phipps Psychia ic Clinic. Fi ie h Anni e sa y Celeb a ion. Johns Hopkins Hospi al, Box
124, Folde 1 P in ed: Phipps Clinic Fi ie h Anni e sa y Celeb a ion B ochu e, Gan Pape s, The
Alan Mason Chesney Medical A chi es, The Johns Hopkins School o Medicine (he ea e AMC).
11O animals and men: con as ing app oaches o he s udy o animal beha io diso de s in Ame ica (1930-1950).
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
Maie and Masse man, on he o he hand, used ins umen al lea ning echniques.
Maie used he «jumping appa a us» ha Lashley (1930) had designed. He ained
animals o jump o e s imulus boa ds. I he animal chose he co ec boa d i mo ed
back allowing he animal o land on a pla o m whe e i ob ained a ood ewa d. In
con as , he inco ec s imulus boa d was closed wi h a la ch and i he animal jumped
o e i , i did no open and he a ell in o a ne (Maie , 1939).
Masse man used a ask whe e an animal (ca ), in he p esence o a ligh and
audible signal, had o li he lid o a ood ay o ob ain a piece o ood. La e , when
he ca ied o open he ay, his esponse was punished wi h an a e si e s imulus (an
ai blas a he animal’s head o an elec ic shock) (see Masse man, 1943).
Ob iously, he p ocedu al di e ences men ioned abo e helped o disco e new
condi ions p oducing abno mal animal beha io . To he adi ional, di icul disc imina-
ions and he use o pain ul s imuli desc ibed by Pa lo , o he new e iological ac o s
we e added by Ame ican esea che s, as he es ic ion o olun a y mo emen s (Lid-
dell), na u al emo ional shocks and changes in condi ioning ou ines (Gan ), o cing
he animal’s esponse o insoluble disc imina ions (Maie ) and he punishmen o
consumma o y esponses (Masse man).
This me hodological di e si y also p oduced a wide ange o heo e ical p oposals
ha wen beyond he bounda ies o Pa lo ian b ain physiology and p oposed new
in e p e i e amewo ks. Thus, o example, Liddell and Gan o mula ed psychobio-
logical concep ions ha con empla ed he animal as a whole and s udied he e ec s
ha hese pa hologies had in di e en physiological sys ems and in hei in e ac ions.
The case o Liddell is in e es ing because he s a ed ha Pa lo ian echnique is
essen ially a me hod o p oducing expe imen al neu osis:
Since all ypes o Pa lo ian Condi ioning de elop in he animal inc easingly
igid con ol o i s emo ional eac ions o dange all condi ioning is di icul
condi ioning and will, i long con inued, lead o emo ional disas e . (Liddell,
1956, p. 81, i alics in he o iginal).
This emo ional igidi y, Liddell assumed, concealed a ense expec ancy. Fo his,
he used Hen y Head’s e m ‘ igilance’. Liddell hough ha when he capaci y o
main aining in ense and un emi ing igilance is exceeded, he pen -up ne ous en-
sion he eby eleased will dis up he ope a ion o he condi ioning machine y and
lead o ch onic s a es o neu osis (Liddell, 1950).
In his explana ion o beha io al diso de s, Gan p oposed wo new p inciples
o ne ous b eakdown: 1) schizokinesis, ha implies a clea age in esponse be ween
he emo ional and isce al sys ems and he skele al muscula u e, and has i s o igins
in obse a ions, especially in ca diac unc ion, sugges ing ha ca diac condi ioned

12 Gab iel Ruiz y Na i idad Sánchez
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
esponses a e o med mo e quickly han mo o ones, a e o compa a i ely weake
in ensi y, and a e mo e esis an o ex inc ion, and 2) au okinesis, which means
he in e nal de elopmen o esponses on he basis o old exci a ion, as seen in he
spon aneous es o a ion o ex inguished condi ioned esponses and he appea ance o
signs o expe imen al neu osis long a e he causal con lic has been emo ed. Gan
was o he opinion ha hese wo he p inciples depend much upon cons i u ional
p edisposi ions (Gan , 1953).
Masse man’s posi ion was exp essed in ou «psychobiological p inciples o be-
ha io » which o med he basis o his biodynamic sys em. In his wo ds:
(…) all beha io is undamen ally mo i a ed by he physiological equi emen s
o he o ganism –p inciple o mo i a ion–, (…) he in e ac ions be ween o -
ganism and en i onmen a e in con inual s a e o lux and mu ual adjus men
–p inciple o adap i e na u e o beha io –, (…) beha io is no necessa ily a
di ec ul illmen o elemen al biological needs bu … may ake he o m o
symbolic exp ession and subs i u i e sa is ac ions –p inciple o subs i u i e o
symbolic beha io – (…) and inally when he meanings o he pe cep i e ields
become con used o he mo i a ions con lic ul, he beha io o he o ganism
becomes hesi an , acilla ing, ine icien , inapp op ia e, o excessi ely symbolic
and subs i u i e. In he ield o human psychopa hology hese cha ac e is ics
will be eadily ecognized as co esponding o so-called ‘neu o ic’ mani es a ions
(…) simila abe a ions o beha io should de elop in lowe animals subjec ed
o con usions o ield meanings and con lic s o mo i a ion (…) –p inciple o
he icissi udes o beha io – (Masse man, 1943, p. 19-21).
Finally, al hough by he end o he 1950s many psychologis s had come o he
conclusion ha he con ulsi e phenomena obse ed in Maie ’s expe imen s we e no
neu o ic bu p ima ily a esponse o loud noise o high equency, Maie ’s s udies
called he a en ion o he media a e ecei ing he 1000$ Awa d o The Ame ican
Associa ion o he Ad ancemen o Science (Dewsbu y, 1993). Le us look a his wo k.
Maie (1939, 1949) p oduced some o he mos s iking examples o abe an
beha io using he Lashley jumping appa a us. When he disc imina ion p oblem
was made insoluble by p esen ing he ood ewa d in a andom manne , mos subjec s
de eloped abno mal ixa ions aking he o m o posi ion o symbol s e eo ypes. These
ixa ions we e s ikingly igid and pe sis en . F om his kind o expe imen , Maie
p oposed a heo y o « us a ion-ins iga ed beha io » which s a ed ha his kind o
beha io canno be explained by he usual concep s o goal-o ien ed lea ning:
I is ound ha animals ha acqui e hei esponses unde us a ion canno
subs i u e hem o o he esponses. In o he wo ds, hey canno lea n new
13O animals and men: con as ing app oaches o he s udy o animal beha io diso de s in Ame ica (1930-1950).
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
esponses e en when he si ua ion ceases being insoluble. No only a e hey
unable o adop new esponses, bu hey a e unable o d op hei inadequa e
posi ion esponses. This is ue e en i hey a e punished each ime hey exp ess
hei old esponses (…) This igid beha io is in con as o ha o animals ha
ha e acqui ed hei posi ion esponses unde condi ions o mo i a ion. These
animals eadily lea n new esponses when aining condi ions ‘a e changed,
and hey a e cons uc i ely in luenced when being punished o e o s (Maie ,
1948, p. 213-214).
The me hodological and heo e ical di e gence we ha e jus desc ibed was also
e lec ed in he di e gence o he apeu ic p oposals ha we e made. Thus, al hough
in some cases Pa lo ’s indica ions o ea ing hese diso de s pha macologically
we e ollowed, and subs ances such as b omides, amy al, nembu al, co in, alcohol,
o me azol we e used o alle ia e he obse ed symp oms, in o he s cases mo e
psycho he apeu ic echniques we e a emp ed. Thus, Masse man p oposed a se o
he apeu ic p ocedu es ha had a common cha ac e is ic in ha hey all ended o
elimina e he speci ic mo i a ional con lic s ha had been induced in he neu o ic
animals and he eby amelio a ed he esul an anxie y and i s abe an beha io al
exp essions. One on hese p ocedu es, called eassu ance and pe suasion h ough
ans e ence ela ionships, had a clea psychoanaly ical as e, and was desc ibed by
Masse man in he ollowing e ms:
(…) o pe mi he de elopmen o a dependen con idence in he expe imen-
e , who cus oma ily ca ed and ed o hem, and o u ilize his ela ionship
o diminish he insecu i ies and anxie ies he animals la e de eloped in he
mo i a ionally con lic si ua ion (Masse man, 1943, p. 73).
Maie ound one single e ec i e p ocedu e o al e ing he «abno mal ixa ions»
desc ibed in his esea ch, a o m ‘di ec i e he apy’ in which he expe imen e guides
he animal in making he co ec esponses. In Maie ’s wo ds:
The guidance p ocedu e consis ed o p e en ing he animal om p ac icing
he ixa ed esponse, and a he same ime, guiding he animal by he hand so
as o o ce i o jump o he co ec window (Maie and Ellen, 1952, p. 109).
Fo hei pa , Gan and Liddell also de ended psycho he apeu ic measu es:
es ing and he iendly con ac wi h he expe imen e ha e g ea e bene icial e ec s
han d ugs. So, o ins ance, one newspape published an a icle abou Gan s udies
wi h neu o ic dogs which p oclaimed:
14 Gab iel Ruiz y Na i idad Sánchez
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
The p esence o a human being in he oom wi h he dog eassu es him so ha
he does no show he anxie y symp oms as long as he pe son is wi h him…
P olonged es on he a m has had a bene icial e ec 3.
Con e gen a gumen s
Despi e he di e gence o app oaches p e iously desc ibed, all he au ho s s udied
in his pape used a con e gen he o ic when jus i ying he impo ance o hei s udies.
Ob iously, he main con e gen a gumen was he impo ance o he labo a o y o he
s udies o abno mal beha io , a ield o knowledge ha was in need o expe imen al
app oaches. This idea had al eady been de ended by Pa lo when he w o e:
(…) he decision, o he condi ions a o able o a decision, o many impo an
ques ions o e iology, he na u al sys ema iza ion, he mechanism and inally
he ea men o neu oses in he human being lies in he hands o he animal
expe imen e (Pa lo , 1963b, p. 74)
Indeed his g oup o Ame ican psychologis s and psychia is s had aken his cha ge
so se iously ha a e e iewing he wo ks o Liddell, Gan , Maie and Masse man,
an in luen ial compa a i e psychologis a ha ime concluded in he ollowing e ms:
Jus as animal esea ch has p o en use ul in expe imen al su ge y, pha macology,
and physiology, so can compa a i e s udies in beha io con ibu e o he solu ion
o p oblems con on ing he psychia is (Beach, 1953, p. 387).
Besides o his gene al jus i ica ion, om ou poin o iew, wo he o ical a -
gumen s we e also used, bo h wi h a hea y con ex ual ‘load’, which should no go
unmen ioned: 1) he epea ed e e ence o he symp oma ic simila i y obse ed in
neu o ic animals and he psychia ic cases s udied du ing he Second Wo ld Wa , and
2) he subs i u ion o he old Pa lo ian physiological language wi h a new language,
ha o s ess, ha eme ged om he wo ks o Hans Selye (1907-1982). Allow us o
gi e some examples o wha we a e p oposing.
As o he equen e e ences o he symp oma ic simila i y be ween he diso de s
obse ed in labo a o y animals and wa neu oses, we mus no o ge ha he pe iod
we a e analyzing was ma ked by he Second Wo ld Wa . In his con ex , i is no wonde
ha e e ences o he e ec o wa , iolence and chaos pe mea e all his li e a u e. The
3. In he Realm o Science: A Dog Can Wo y; ha ’s Why i Nes les Close» by John J. O’Neill. He ald
T ibune, Ap il 24, 1938. Box 5, Folde 13 Clippings 1929-1945, Gan Pape s, AMC.
15O animals and men: con as ing app oaches o he s udy o animal beha io diso de s in Ame ica (1930-1950).
Re is a de His o ia de la Psicología, 2012, ol. 33, núm. 2 (junio)
simila i y be ween neu o ic symp oms in dogs and ne ous uphea als in soldie s was
sugges ed o Gan by D . Vic o Rosen, a mili a y psychia is 4. In a le e sen o
Gan , Rosen explici ly men ioned he ela ionship be ween animal’s symp oms and
he symp oms obse ed in some soldie s a e a ba le: «I ha e a ew boys on my wa d
om Guadalcanal who emind me o [you dogs] wi h his achyca dia, pan ing and
pollakiu ia». This esemblance, Rosen w o e, was no simply a me e equi alence o
symp oms, he li es o hese soldie s we e, like hose o hese animals, ull o «un e-
sol ed con lic s and di icul di e en ia ions» and he symp oms we e no no iceable
«un il he e was an o e whelming h ea o hei pe sonal in eg i y» 5.
Many psychia ic epo s ea u ed beha io s simila o hose desc ibed by Maie .
One o hem e e ed o si ua ions o being o ced o choose be ween undesi able
al e na i es du ing comba , as occu ed in he psychologis ’s expe imen s:
This is he si ua ion o he pa io ic soldie who mus choose be ween ad ance in
he ea o a g a e pe sonal dange o e ea o he social idicule o cowa dice.
He is o ced o choose one o wo undesi able al e na i es (Russell, 1950, p. 101).
Maie himsel made analogies be ween he p oblems o his a s and con empo a y
wo ld di icul ies a his ime. This is how he psychologis om Michigan inished
one o his a icles:
To wha ex en a e we eading mo i es in o he us a ed beha io o na ions
wi h which we come in con lic ? (…) To wha ex en a e ou beha io s us a ed
eac ions a he han p oblem-sol ing eac ions? Can a us a ed wo ld sol e
i s p oblems? (…) I he apy is needed, who o whe e can one inds a disin e -
es ed pa y ha can make he diagnosis? The us a ed pe son a ionalizes and
jus i ies his eelings and ac ions, and o his eason, he pa ien canno easily
ea himsel . Is his also ue o he beha io o na ions? (Maie , 1948, p. 216).
Masse man, o his pa , also ecognized a di ec ela ionship be ween he esul
o his expe imen s wi h neu o ic ca s and he wa psychia ic casual ies. So o ins ance,
he hough ha one o he he apeu ic p ocedu es he used in his animal expe imen s,
he one called o ced solu ions6, could also be used in hose cases o soldie s su e ing
o wa neu oses. In Masse man wo ds:
4. Vic o Rosen was included in he i s gene a ion o o me Gan collabo a o s o in he Pa lo ian
Labo a o y a Phipps Clinic.
5. Rosen o Gan , Feb ua y 16, 1943, Box 53, Folde 11, Gan Pape s, AMC.
6. «(…) in his me hod, he animal’s eeding inhibi ion we e o e come by o cing i mechanically in o
he icini y o a ac i e ood a he heigh o i s hunge ; once eeding occu ed, he animal’s anxie y