Academic Edi o : Ali
Bahado i-Jah omi
Recei ed: 13 Janua y 2025
Re ised: 7 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 12 Feb ua y 2025
Published: 18 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Fe nández Rod íguez, J.F.;
Pica do, A.; Aguila -Plane , T.;
Ma ín-Ma iscal, A.; Pe al a, E. Da a
T ans e Reliabili y om Building
In o ma ion Modeling (BIM) o Li e
Cycle Assessmen (LCA)—A
Compa a i e Case S udy o an
Indus ial Wa ehouse. Sus ainabili y
2025,17, 1685. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/su17041685
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
Da a T ans e Reliabili y om Building In o ma ion Modeling
(BIM) o Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA)—A Compa a i e Case
S udy o an Indus ial Wa ehouse
Juan F ancisco Fe nández Rod íguez * , Albe o Pica do , Te esa Aguila -Plane , Amanda Ma ín-Ma iscal
and Es ela Pe al a
Depa amen o de Ingenie ía del Diseño, Escuela Poli écnica Supe io , Uni e sidad de Se illa, 41011 Se ille, Spain;
[email p o ec ed] (A.P.); [email p o ec ed] (T.A.-P.); [email p o ec ed] (A.M.-M.); [email p o ec ed] (E.P.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The au oma ion o en i onmen al assessmen p ocesses aimed a educing he
ecological oo p in o indus ial acili ies, buildings, and in as uc u e is one o he main
challenges cu en ly aced by he cons uc ion sec o . In his con ex , Building In o ma-
ion Modeling (BIM) is a comp ehensi e me hodology ha enables he c ea ion o digi al
models, acili a ing he analysis o en i onmen al pe o mance h oughou he li e cy-
cle o buil asse s. In addi ion o he capabili ies o e ed by BIM, specialized ools o
en i onmen al impac analysis implemen he s anda dized li e cycle assessmen (LCA)
me hodology. Howe e , one o he cu en limi a ions is he in eg a ion o BIM models
and LCA ools. Few so wa e solu ions enable au oma ed da a ans e , complica ing he
en i onmen al assessmen p ocess. The objec i e o his s udy is o e alua e he eliabili y
o da a ans e om BIM models o LCA ools, using an indus ial wa ehouse as a case
s udy. The esea ch compa es wo LCA ools: A hena Impac Es ima o , specialized in he
cons uc ion sec o , and SimaP o, a p o essional ool wi h ad anced capabili ies. This s udy
is s uc u ed in wo phases: (i) he de elopmen o a BIM model in Re i , including he
de ini ion o s uc u al and unc ional componen s and he expo o da a o LCA ools, and
(ii) he execu ion o he li e cycle assessmen in compliance wi h ISO 14040 and EN 15804
s anda ds. The esul s show me hodological and in e ope abili y di e ences be ween he
wo ools, highligh ing hei s eng hs and limi a ions in e ms o he p ecision o he esul s,
esou ce consump ion, aining and expe ise equi emen s, scope o en i onmen al impac
calcula ions, and adap abili y o he cons uc ion sec o in he in eg a ion o an LCA wi h a
BIM model.
Keywo ds: building in o ma ion modeling (BIM); li e cycle assessmen (LCA); digi aliza ion;
in e ope abili y; en i onmen al impac
1. In oduc ion
The cu en challenges posed by clima e change and he global ene gy c isis equi e he
de elopmen o measu es o ensu e sus ainabili y and minimize he en i onmen al impac
o human ac i i ies [
1
]. The cons uc ion indus y is one o he sec o s mos signi ican ly
a ec ed by hese issues. As a esul , a ious coun ies ha e implemen ed sus ainable egu-
la ions o add ess hese challenges [
2
]. The en i onmen al impac o buildings encompasses
mul iple ac o s, wi h ene gy e iciency being he p ima y ocus o egula o y e o s. To ad-
d ess his, a ious me ics ha e been es ablished o quan i y ene gy imp o emen s ha aim
o educe ene gy consump ion, dependence on oil-based sou ces, and CO
2
emissions [
3
].
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su17041685
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 2 o 19
Th ee key elemen s a e impo an o his analysis: he en elope o he building and i s
ene gy pe o mance [
4
], he ene gy consump ion o he acili ies, and he use o enewable
ene gy sou ces. The in eg a ion o hese h ee elemen s p o ides a alue ep esen ing he
ene gy demand equi ed o main ain com o able condi ions in he building, along wi h
he associa ed CO
2
emissions. Howe e , addi ional indica o s a e needed ha accoun o
he en i onmen al impac h oughou he li e cycle o he building. The e o e, all s ages o
he cons uc ion p ocess mus be conside ed, including ma e ial p oduc ion, anspo a ion,
cons uc ion, ope a ion, demoli ion, and was e managemen . Addi ionally, ac o s such as
ma e ial du abili y, designing adap able buildings ha can accommoda e u u e changes,
implemen ing main enance s a egies o minimize en i onmen al impac o e ime, and
p omo ing ma e ial ecycling should also be add essed. To in eg a e hese aspec s in o
he building design p ocess, specialized so wa e is equi ed o assess he en i onmen al
impac h oughou he li e cycle o he building [
5
]. Speci ically, he da a necessa y o
cons uc accu a e calcula ion models using li e cycle assessmen (LCA) ools include he
ypes o ma e ials used in cons uc ion, he quan i ies o each ma e ial in he design, he
manu ac u ing p ocesses associa ed wi h he selec ed ma e ials, and he consump ion o
addi ional esou ces such as ene gy and wa e . These da a should be conside ed du ing
a ious s ages: he cons uc ion phase, he use and main enance phase, and he end-o -li e
phase o he building (demoli ion o euse). On he o he hand, he eliabili y o esul s
p o ided by LCA so wa e is closely linked o he quali y o he da abase i uses. These
da abases compile a wide ange o ma e ials and associa e hem wi h hei en i onmen al
and ene gy p ope ies, inco po a ing pa ame e s in o calcula ions ha simula e beha io
du ing he cons uc ion p ocess and h oughou he use ul li e o he ma e ial wi hin he
building. The e o e, when using li e cycle assessmen so wa e, i is necessa y o ensu e
ha he da abases a e su icien ly ex ensi e and alida ed o gua an ee eliable esul s [6].
In addi ion o he capabili ies o each da abase and he LCA me hodology, one o he
undamen al challenges cu en ly lies in ans e ing he BIM model and he pa ame e s
equi ed o impac analysis o he a ailable LCA so wa e. Addi ionally, LCA so wa e
is complex o use, making i di icul o include all he necessa y in o ma ion du ing he
design p ocess. The e o e, ha ing a digi al ool capable o managing in o ma ion ela ed o
hese pa ame e s would acili a e da a ans e o specialized so wa e.
The use o echnology-based so wa e has become inc easingly common in he con-
s uc ion indus y. Building In o ma ion Modeling (BIM) so wa e is a powe ul ool o
h ee-dimensional isualiza ion, acili a ing he managemen o in o ma ion ela ed o
a ious cons uc ion componen s. I enables he c ea ion o i ual models ha simula e
he p og ession o a building p ojec , suppo ing he coo dina ion and e alua ion o key
disciplines such as a chi ec u e, s uc u al enginee ing, and building sys ems, including
mechanical, elec ical, and plumbing (MEP) sys ems [
7
]. BIM models can in eg a e all he
pa ame e s equi ed o pe o m an LCA in o a h ee-dimensional da abase. Each geome ic
componen o he digi al model includes de ined dimensions, ma e ial ypes, he quan-
i y o aw ma e ials used, he uni a y p ocesses equi ed o ans o ma ion, and o he
esou ce consump ion ela ed o he ope a ion o mechanical, elec ical, o wa e supply
and consump ion sys ems [
8
]. This comp ehensi e se o in o ma ion can be expo ed
om he BIM model in XLS, CSV, o gbXML o ma s, depending on he exchange o ma s
suppo ed by he a ge LCA so wa e. As iden i ied in p e ious esea ch, se e al LCA
ools a e capable o au oma ically impo ing da a om BIM models, such as A hena Impac
Es ima o and One Click LCA; hese ools allow da a impo in XLS and CSV o ma s,
as well as gbXML, a specialized BIM exchange o ma de i ed om he ene gy model
gene a ed in he BIM p ocess. Howe e , al hough o he so wa e ools adi ionally used
in p o essional LCA con ex s, such as SimaP o, GaBi, and UMBERTO, suppo XLS and
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 3 o 19
CSV exchange o ma s, hey ha e no demons a ed success ul da a ans e di ec ly om
BIM models in hese o ma s. Tes s conduc ed on he analyzed BIM model e ealed ha
in e media e da a con e sion mechanisms a e equi ed o enable e ec i e da a ans e
be ween he wo so wa e pla o ms. Despi e his limi a ion, he esul s ob ained om
hese ools a e conside ed highly eliable, as hey a e based on he ex ensi e and alida ed
Ecoin en da abase. In gene al, and pa icula ly in indus ial and cons uc ion p ojec s,
li e cycle analysis in ol es managing a subs an ial amoun o in o ma ion. Fo his eason,
wo king wi hin a BIM en i onmen simpli ies he in eg a ion o his in o ma ion in o a
digi al da abase. Facili a ing he seamless ans e o hese da a would s eamline he
de elopmen o LCA and p omo e i s in eg a ion in o he building design p ocess, allow-
ing en i onmen al pa ame e s o be conside ed in decision-making. Consequen ly, he
a ailabili y o au oma ed p ocesses o ans e ing in o ma ion be ween BIM and LCA
so wa e ha ensu e eliable esul s is o signi ican in e es o he cons uc ion sec o .
In his con ex , he aim o his s udy is o e alua e he eliabili y o da a ans e
be ween BIM models and LCA ools by compa ing he esul s o an en i onmen al impac
calcula ion pe o med using A hena Impac Es ima o , a ool specialized in he cons uc ion
sec o wi h an au oma ed da a ans e p ocedu e be ween Re i and A hena, and SimaP o,
a p o essional LCA so wa e o e ing ad anced calcula ion capabili ies de i ed om i s
ex ensi e access o me hodologies and da abases. By using an indus ial wa ehouse as a
case s udy, his esea ch seeks o alida e he esul s o au oma ed da a ans e me hods and
assess hei po en ial o acili a e he in eg a ion o li e cycle assessmen s in o he building
design phase. The compa ison aims o highligh he s eng hs and limi a ions o bo h ools,
p o iding insigh s in o hei me hodological di e ences, accu acy, and applicabili y o he
cons uc ion sec o .
To his end, his wo k is s uc u ed as ollows: Sec ion 2desc ibes he me hodology
used in he esea ch. Sec ion 3pe o ms an LCA o he selec ed case s udy, which is
analyzed in Sec ion 4 o e alua e he eliabili y o da a ans e om BIM models o LCA
ools. Finally, Sec ion 5discusses he esul s ob ained, and he main conclusions a e
p esen ed in Sec ion 6.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
The de elopmen o his s udy was ca ied ou in h ee main s ages. In he i s phase,
a i ual BIM model was c ea ed using Re i 2024 so wa e (Au odesk, San F ancisco, CA,
USA), which is widely u ilized in he cons uc ion sec o globally due o i s ad anced
capabili ies in modeling buildings and managing echnical in o ma ion. Re i was chosen
o i s abili y o expo da a in compa ible o ma s such as XLS, CSV, and gbXML. The
selec ed case s udy in ol ed a BIM model o an indus ial wa ehouse, inco po a ing he
geome y, echnical speci ica ions, and pa ame e s necessa y o pe o m an LCA, such as
he name p ope y gi en o he ma e ials wi hin Re i [9].
The second phase in ol ed conduc ing an impac assessmen using wo LCA ools:
A hena Impac Es ima o o Buildings (selec ed o i s speci ic ocus on he cons uc ion
sec o and i s abili y o calcula e en i onmen al impac s based on he li e cycle s ages
de ined in he EN 15804 s anda d) [
10
] and SimaP o 8 (chosen o i s eliabili y, b oad
me hodological scope, and access o bo h gene alis and specialized da abases). The
da a expo o ma o he Re i BIM model is di ec ly compa ible wi h A hena, enabling
au oma ed in o ma ion ans e wi hou equi ing addi ional adjus men s. In con as ,
SimaP o equi es a se ies o p epa a o y s eps du ing he li e cycle in en o y (LCI) phase
due o he lack o di ec compa ibili y wi h he Re i expo o ma . These s eps include
aligning he componen s and elemen s o he BIM model wi h he da a ypes a ailable
in SimaP o da abases, manually sea ching o and iden i ying equi alen ma e ials and
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 4 o 19
p ocesses, con e ing uni s and selec ing speci ic pa ame e s ela ed o uni p ocesses, he
me hodological app oach, he alloca ion me hod, o he geog aphical scope.
In he hi d phase, a compa a i e analysis was pe o med be ween he esul s ob ained
using A hena and SimaP o. This analysis e alua ed he eliabili y o da a ans e om
he BIM model based on he ollowing: (1) he accu acy o he esul s, conside ing he
quan i a i e alues o he impac ca ego ies calcula ed in bo h ools; (2) he capabili ies
o each so wa e o model he analyzed sys em, including he me hodological scope e-
ga ding a ailable impac ca ego ies, li e cycle s ages de ined in EN 15804, and calcula ion
me hodologies; and (3) he implica ions o wo k low in cons uc ion p ojec s, including
he equi ed ime, po en ial sou ces o human e o du ing da a p epa a ion, and ease o
in eg a ion in o BIM wo k lows.
3. Li e a u e Re iew
Building In o ma ion Modeling (BIM) so wa e enables he modeling o h ee-
dimensional geome ies linked o associa ed da a. In his way, hese geome ies a e ans-
o med in o i ual cons uc ion elemen s. The BIM so wa e assigns hickness and ma e ial
p ope ies o hese elemen s, con e ing he geome y in o a cons uc ion componen and
e ec i ely ansi ioning om adi ional d awings o i ual building models [
11
]. The BIM
me hodology ocuses on c ea ing i ual models ha ep esen he physical cha ac e is ics
o a building, such as dimensions and ma e ials, while also inco po a ing pa ame e s such
as wo k plans, ma e ial quali y, commissioning, human esou ces, and en i onmen al con-
di ions. These models enable simula ions o e alua e he building and suppo necessa y
modi ica ions du ing he design phase [
12
], p o iding a digi al amewo k o managing a
building p ojec h oughou he cons uc ion and pos -cons uc ion phases.
Fo conduc ing en i onmen al and li e cycle assessmen s based on a BIM p ojec ,
a ious so wa e ools a e designed o in eg a e wi h he da a en e ed in o he i ual
model. Many o hese ools a e de eloped by he same companies as BIM so wa e,
enabling seamless da a in eg a ion. Examples include EcoDesigne (G aphiso ), Au odesk
G een Building S udio, and Au odesk Eco ec (Au odesk). Howe e , hese ools ypically
ely on p op ie a y da abases o li e cycle calcula ions, which may limi he scope and
accu acy o hei analyses. Consequen ly, i becomes necessa y o use specialized li e cycle
assessmen so wa e ha employs ex ensi e and alida ed da abases o ensu e he eliabili y
o he esul s. Imp o ing he in e ope abili y o da a wi hin a BIM model is undamen al
o acili a e e ec i e exchanges wi h o he ools. In his con ex , Li e al. emphasized
he impo ance o de eloping algo i hmic mappings ha a e compa ible wi h a ious
exis ing da abases o imp o e he e iciency o da a exchange and analysis p ocesses [
13
].
S udies ocusing on he use o BIM echnology as a ool o li e cycle assessmen s du ing
he building design phase [
14
] iden i y se e al app oaches. Some esea ch highligh s he
po en ial o BIM o in eg a e da a o en i onmen al assessmen s in he design s age [
15
].
Howe e , challenges a ise when exchanging hese da a wi h o he simula ion ools, as
au oma ion in hese p ocesses emains limi ed [
16
]. This o en equi es manual o semi-
au oma ic con e sion me hods o connec he BIM model wi h li e cycle assessmen ools,
as discussed by Ca alho e al. [17].
Despi e hese challenges, nume ous s udies highligh he ad an ages o using BIM
in building design and e alua ion, pa icula ly i s po en ial o acili a e decons uc ion
planning wi hin a digi al en i onmen . Resea che s, such as A gha an e al., emphasize he
con ibu ion o echnology o was e managemen , he inco po a ion o ecyclable ma e ials,
and he o ganiza ion o aw ma e ial in o ma ion [
18
]. Howe e , in e ope abili y issues
con inue o p esen signi ican ba ie s o he g ea e adop ion o his echnology in hese
applica ions [
19
]. To add ess he challenge o au oma ing da a ans e , some s udies,
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 5 o 19
such as ha o Lla as e al., p opose a sys ema ic app oach o implemen au oma ion in
li e cycle assessmen s h ough a uni ied da a s uc u e ha imp o es BIM objec s [
20
].
Fu he mo e, in eg a ing addi ional ea u es in o he Indus y Founda ion Classes (IFC)
exchange o ma could enable he eal- ime isualiza ion o e alua ion esul s, acili a ing
he iden i ica ion o op imal solu ions. Howe e , as Liu e al. poin ou , he design
phase o en in ol es nume ous pa ame e s ha emain unde ined. This phase equi es a
balance be ween gene al in o ma ion, cons uc ion knowledge, and b oade en i onmen al,
social, and economic conside a ions, which can be suppo ed by BIM [
21
]. Once his
model is es ablished, design op imiza ion h ough simula ions becomes possible be o e
inalizing he p ojec . Sous e al. emphasize he challenges posed by he lack o da a
du ing he ea ly design phase, p oposing a de ailed da a s uc u e o p o ide indica o s
o pa ame e s ha ha e ye o be de ined [
22
]. This app oach allows designe s o use
es ima ed da a o suppo decisions in p og ess and assess he po en ial impac o changes
in hese pa ame e s. Fu he mo e, elemen s such as ligh ing can be in eg a ed ea ly in
he p ocess [
23
], as highligh ed by Mon iel-San iago e al. [
24
]. This enables he building
en elope o be designed wi h conside a ions o na u al ligh ing and en ila ion e iciency.
Howe e , in complex case s udies, he ans e o such da a o en esul s in inaccu acies,
posing challenges o ensu ing eliable esul s [
25
]. O he esea che s, such as Samad
e al., p opose in eg a ing Building In o ma ion Modeling (BIM) echnology wi h he
In e ne o Things (IoT) [
26
] o imp o e sus ainabili y assessmen s in cons uc ion. In
his app oach, he BIM i ual model de eloped du ing he design phase ex ends i s
unc ionali y o he cons uc ion and main enance phases by inco po a ing senso s ha
moni o he pe o mance o he building o e ime [27].
The signi icance o in eg a ing Building In o ma ion Modeling (BIM) in o building li e
cycle analyses is unde sco ed by he s udies e iewed. Howe e , as no ed by Olan ewaju
e al., conside able challenges hinde he widesp ead adop ion o BIM in cons uc ion
p ojec s [
28
]. These challenges include he high cos s associa ed wi h he implemen a ion
o he echnology, he ime equi ed o de elop an accu a e i ual model, he lack o s an-
da dized guidelines o i s applica ion, and he limi ed a ailabili y o skilled p o essionals
capable o e ec i ely using his ool [
19
]. Rega ding he lack o s anda ds, Macías e al.
ad oca e o he inco po a ion o sus ainabili y indica o s in o building design [
29
], aiming
o educe en i onmen al impac s h oughou he li e cycle o buildings [30,31].
4. Resul s
This sec ion p esen s he esul s o a case s udy in which a li e cycle assessmen (LCA)
was conduc ed using wo so wa e ools, SimaP o [
32
] and A hena [
33
], based on a BIM
model o an indus ial wa ehouse. The objec i e o his s udy is o e alua e he eliabili y
o da a ans e be ween BIM models and selec ed specialized LCA ools. The esul s a e
s uc u ed in wo phases: (i) modeling he acili y in Re i o gene a e he BIM model,
including i s s uc u al and unc ional componen s, as well as expo ing elemen s o
ans e o he LCA ools; and (ii) pe o ming he LCA in acco dance wi h he s anda dized
ISO 14040 [34] p ocedu e.
4.1. Case S udy De ini ion
The selec ed case s udy is a i ual BIM model de eloped using Re i so wa e (V.2024).
I ep esen s an indus ial wa ehouse wi h dimensions o 20
×
10 m (200 m
2
), composed
o he elemen s illus a ed in Figu e 1. This case was selec ed o i s ep esen a i e se o
ea u es, allowing he e alua ion o in e ope abili y and in o ma ion ans e be ween Re i
and wo li e cycle assessmen so wa e ools: SimaP o (V.9) and A hena (Ve sion 1).
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 6 o 19
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 20
Figu e 1. Indus ial wa ehouse analyzed.
The indus ial wa ehouse consis s o he ollowing subsys ems: (1) he building en-
elope, comp ising a conc e e block acade wi h a hickness o 30 cm and a sandwich panel
oo (HI-ANSA b and), cons uc ed wi h me al shee ing and he mal insula ion wi h a
hickness o 5 cm; (2) he ounda ion, consis ing o a ein o ced conc e e slab wi h a hick-
ness o 40 cm, p o iding s uc u al suppo o he building; (3) he domes ic ho wa e
(DHW) sys em, which includes 16 sola panels ins alled on he oo a a 30° inclina ion, a
300 L ho wa e s o age ank, and a 2500 W elec ic wa e hea e se ing as a backup o
he sola panels; and (4) a PVC pipe ne wo k wi h a diame e o 25 mm, a hickness o 1.7
mm, and a o al leng h o 50 m, designed o dis ibu e domes ic ho wa e .
The BIM model de eloped in eg a es he desc ibed subsys ems, de ailing hei ge-
ome y, echnical speci ica ions, ma e ial ypes, and quan i ies. These da a acili a e expo
o conduc ing an en i onmen al impac assessmen using he selec ed LCA ools. Fo
da a ans e o A hena, he BIM model da abase employs a compa ible o ma ha allows
di ec in eg a ion, elimina ing he need o addi ional p ocessing du ing da a impo . In
con as , he expo o ma om Re i is no di ec ly compa ible wi h SimaP o. This si u-
a ion equi es a se ies o adjus men s du ing he li e cycle in en o y (LCI) phase, includ-
ing he ollowing: (1) aligning componen s and elemen s om he Re i da abase wi h he
da a ypes a ailable in he SimaP o da abases (e.g., p ima y ma e ials and uni p ocesses)
o ensu e he accu a e mapping o BIM model da a o he en ies in LCA so wa e; (2)
manually iden i ying equi alen ma e ials and p ocesses wi hin he SimaP o da abases
(such as he Ecoin en LCI da abase, Indus y Da a Lib a y, US Li e Cycle In en o y Da-
abase, o Ca bon Minds da abase); (3) e i ying and con e ing uni s and en y ypes o
co espond wi h he selec ed unc ional uni ; and (4) e i ying he p ope ies and speci i-
ca ions o he da a om Re i , ollowed by iden i ying and selec ing equi alen en ies in
he SimaP o da abase, based on pa ame e s such as he ollowing: (i) p ocess ype, dis in-
guishing be ween uni p ocesses (which de ail indi idual inpu s and ou pu s) and sys em
p ocesses (which co e he en i e li e cycle); (ii) me hodological app oach, choosing be-
ween a ibu ional analysis (a s a ic ep esen a ion o he sys em) and consequen ial
Figu e 1. Indus ial wa ehouse analyzed.
The indus ial wa ehouse consis s o he ollowing subsys ems: (1) he building
en elope, comp ising a conc e e block acade wi h a hickness o 30 cm and a sandwich
panel oo (HI-ANSA b and), cons uc ed wi h me al shee ing and he mal insula ion wi h
a hickness o 5 cm; (2) he ounda ion, consis ing o a ein o ced conc e e slab wi h a
hickness o 40 cm, p o iding s uc u al suppo o he building; (3) he domes ic ho wa e
(DHW) sys em, which includes 16 sola panels ins alled on he oo a a 30
◦
inclina ion, a
300 L ho wa e s o age ank, and a 2500 W elec ic wa e hea e se ing as a backup o he
sola panels; and (4) a PVC pipe ne wo k wi h a diame e o 25 mm, a hickness o 1.7 mm,
and a o al leng h o 50 m, designed o dis ibu e domes ic ho wa e .
The BIM model de eloped in eg a es he desc ibed subsys ems, de ailing hei geome-
y, echnical speci ica ions, ma e ial ypes, and quan i ies. These da a acili a e expo o
conduc ing an en i onmen al impac assessmen using he selec ed LCA ools. Fo da a
ans e o A hena, he BIM model da abase employs a compa ible o ma ha allows di ec
in eg a ion, elimina ing he need o addi ional p ocessing du ing da a impo . In con as ,
he expo o ma om Re i is no di ec ly compa ible wi h SimaP o. This si ua ion e-
qui es a se ies o adjus men s du ing he li e cycle in en o y (LCI) phase, including he
ollowing: (1) aligning componen s and elemen s om he Re i da abase wi h he da a
ypes a ailable in he SimaP o da abases (e.g., p ima y ma e ials and uni p ocesses) o
ensu e he accu a e mapping o BIM model da a o he en ies in LCA so wa e; (2) manu-
ally iden i ying equi alen ma e ials and p ocesses wi hin he SimaP o da abases (such as
he Ecoin en LCI da abase, Indus y Da a Lib a y, US Li e Cycle In en o y Da abase, o
Ca bon Minds da abase); (3) e i ying and con e ing uni s and en y ypes o co espond
wi h he selec ed unc ional uni ; and (4) e i ying he p ope ies and speci ica ions o he
da a om Re i , ollowed by iden i ying and selec ing equi alen en ies in he SimaP o
da abase, based on pa ame e s such as he ollowing: (i) p ocess ype, dis inguishing
be ween uni p ocesses (which de ail indi idual inpu s and ou pu s) and sys em p ocesses
(which co e he en i e li e cycle); (ii) me hodological app oach, choosing be ween a ibu-
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 7 o 19
ional analysis (a s a ic ep esen a ion o he sys em) and consequen ial analysis (a dynamic
e alua ion o changes wi hin he sys em); (iii) alloca ion me hod (e.g., mass alloca ion,
economic alloca ion, o ene gy alloca ion); (i ) geog aphical scope based on he o igin o
he da a (e.g., Global GLO, Eu ope RER, and No h Ame ica RNA, among o he s); and
( ) empo al alidi y o he da a. These p epa a o y s eps o adap he da a om Re i o
building he LCA model in SimaP o p o ide ad an ages compa ed o A hena. Aligning
he da a wi h he ad anced capabili ies o e ed by SimaP o ensu es highe p ecision in en-
i onmen al impac calcula ions and imp o es he eliabili y o he inal esul s. Howe e ,
his p ocess equi es conside ably mo e ime and e o compa ed o ools ha au oma e
he p ocedu e.
4.2. S ep 1: Goals and Scope De ini ion
The objec i e o his assessmen is o iden i y he global en i onmen al impac o he
cons uc ion o an indus ial wa ehouse.
The use ul li e o his building based on i s cha ac e is ics is ypically de ined be ween
30 and 50 yea s, depending on ac o s such as building ma e ials, main enance schedules,
and ope a ional equi emen s. In his case, he unc ional uni was es ablished as a 200 m
2
indus ial wa ehouse wi h he ollowing subsys em: 1-FS ( acade and s uc u al en elope)
composed o a conc e e block acade; 2-RS ( oo s uc u e and he mal insula ion) composed
o a sandwich panel oo and a ein o ced conc e e slab; 3-WS (ho wa e sys em) powe ed
by sola panels and an elec ic wa e hea e ; and 4-F ( ounda ion).
The li e cycle o an indus ial wa ehouse can be di ided in o se e al s ages. The
sys em bounda ies ollow a c adle- o-g a e app oach and include he p ocesses o aw
ma e ial ex ac ion, he manu ac u ing o elemen s (e.g., building ma e ials, sola panels,
pipes), anspo a ion, cons uc ion, and use, wi h a se ice li e o 50 yea s conside ed o
e alua ion. The de ini ion o li e cycle s ages is in acco dance wi h he Eu opean s anda d
EN 15804 [
35
]. Figu e 2 ep esen s he simpli ied p ocess low and sys em bounda ies o
he s udy case (A1–A3, A4–A5, B1, B6, B7). The aw ma e ial ex ac ion and cons uc ion
phase encompasses all uni p ocesses ela ed o he ex ac ion and anspo a ion o aw
ma e ials, he euse o ecycling o ma e ials, and he ac i i ies in ol ed in hei handling
and ins alla ion a he cons uc ion si e. This includes he p oduc ion and ins alla ion o he
building en elope (conc e e block acade, sandwich panel oo , and ein o ced conc e e slab)
and he domes ic ho wa e sys em (sola panels, wa e ank, PVC pipes, and elec ic wa e
hea e ). The ope a ion phase co e s he use o he wa ehouse. Fo his s udy, a se ice
li e o 50 yea s is assumed. Ene gy consump ion du ing he ope a ion phase includes
he use o he domes ic ho wa e sys em. The loca ion o sou he n Spain is conside ed
wi hin he sys em bounda ies, whe e he ene gy demand o hea ing may be lowe , and
cooling o en ila ion sys ems a e no included, as hey a e beyond he scope o his s udy.
Disman ling, ecycling, and disposal a e no included.
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 8 o 19
Sus ainabili y 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 20
Figu e 2. De ini ion o sys em bounda y.
Calcula ion Me hodology
The esul s o he impac assessmen o he indus ial wa ehouse we e calcula ed
using wo so wa e ools: A hena Impac Es ima o o Buildings and SimaP o 8
.
Bo h
ools we e used o analyze he same indus ial wa ehouse model, expo ed om he BIM
en i onmen , o assess i s en i onmen al impac s acco ding o he Eu opean s anda d EN
15804 [10]. The analysis ocused on he building en elope, he s uc u al sys em, and he
domes ic ho wa e (DHW) sys em. In SimaP o, he impac ca ego ies we e calcula ed us-
ing he ReCiPe me hodology [35], which included 18 midpoin indica o s and 3 endpoin
indica o s. Addi ionally, since A hena p o ides da a on impac s ela ed o ene gy con-
sump ion, he cumula i e ene gy demand me hodology was used o b eak down he im-
pac in e ms o ene gy usage by sou ce, classi ying i in o enewable and non- enewable.
This app oach allows o a comp ehensi e e alua ion o he en i onmen al pe o mance
o he wa ehouse, conside ing he con ibu ion o each elemen and sys em o he o e all
en i onmen al oo p in . The impac ca ego ies conside ed in A hena a e mo e educed,
including global wa ming, acidi ica ion, HH pa icula e, eu ophica ion, ozone deple ion,
smog, and ene gy consump ion wi h diffe en indica o s. The use o wo diffe en so -
wa e solu ions enables an examina ion o he in e ope abili y be ween he BIM model and
he LCA ools. This dual app oach p o ides a de ailed unde s anding o he con ibu ion
o each elemen and sys em o he o e all en i onmen al oo p in .
4.3. S ep 2: Li e Cycle In en o y
This s udy was o ganized wi h wo le els o analysis based on he use o wo so -
wa e ools: (I) A hena Impac Es ima o o Buildings and (II) SimaP o 8, bo h used o
analyze he ull li e cycle o he indus ial wa ehouse, including he building en elope,
he s uc u al sys em, and he domes ic ho wa e (DHW) sys em. In o de o assemble he
in en o y o inpu s and ou pu s h oughou he indus ial wa ehouse’s li e cycle, in o -
ma ion was ga he ed om he BIM model (Re i ), he cons uc ion p ojec echnical doc-
umen s, he scien i ic li e a u e, and he analysis o cu en p oduc s and ma e ials on he
ma ke .
The LCI esul s a e p esen ed in Tables 1 and 2, dis inguishing he LCI based on sys-
em bounda ies and he elemen s o he Re i , SimaP o, and A hena da abases equi ed
o in eg a e he LCI in o he so wa e ools. In SimaP o, he Ecoin en 3 da abase was used
Figu e 2. De ini ion o sys em bounda y.
Calcula ion Me hodology
The esul s o he impac assessmen o he indus ial wa ehouse we e calcula ed
using wo so wa e ools: A hena Impac Es ima o o Buildings and SimaP o 8. Bo h
ools we e used o analyze he same indus ial wa ehouse model, expo ed om he BIM
en i onmen , o assess i s en i onmen al impac s acco ding o he Eu opean s anda d
EN 15804 [
10
]. The analysis ocused on he building en elope, he s uc u al sys em,
and he domes ic ho wa e (DHW) sys em. In SimaP o, he impac ca ego ies we e
calcula ed using he ReCiPe me hodology [
35
], which included 18 midpoin indica o s
and 3 endpoin indica o s. Addi ionally, since A hena p o ides da a on impac s ela ed
o ene gy consump ion, he cumula i e ene gy demand me hodology was used o b eak
down he impac in e ms o ene gy usage by sou ce, classi ying i in o enewable and
non- enewable. This app oach allows o a comp ehensi e e alua ion o he en i onmen al
pe o mance o he wa ehouse, conside ing he con ibu ion o each elemen and sys em
o he o e all en i onmen al oo p in . The impac ca ego ies conside ed in A hena a e
mo e educed, including global wa ming, acidi ica ion, HH pa icula e, eu ophica ion,
ozone deple ion, smog, and ene gy consump ion wi h di e en indica o s. The use o wo
di e en so wa e solu ions enables an examina ion o he in e ope abili y be ween he
BIM model and he LCA ools. This dual app oach p o ides a de ailed unde s anding o
he con ibu ion o each elemen and sys em o he o e all en i onmen al oo p in .
4.3. S ep 2: Li e Cycle In en o y
This s udy was o ganized wi h wo le els o analysis based on he use o wo so wa e
ools: (I) A hena Impac Es ima o o Buildings and (II) SimaP o 8, bo h used o analyze he
ull li e cycle o he indus ial wa ehouse, including he building en elope, he s uc u al
sys em, and he domes ic ho wa e (DHW) sys em. In o de o assemble he in en o y
o inpu s and ou pu s h oughou he indus ial wa ehouse’s li e cycle, in o ma ion was
ga he ed om he BIM model (Re i ), he cons uc ion p ojec echnical documen s, he
scien i ic li e a u e, and he analysis o cu en p oduc s and ma e ials on he ma ke .
The LCI esul s a e p esen ed in Tables 1and 2, dis inguishing he LCI based on
sys em bounda ies and he elemen s o he Re i , SimaP o, and A hena da abases equi ed
o in eg a e he LCI in o he so wa e ools. In SimaP o, he Ecoin en 3 da abase was
used o suppo he de elopmen o he LCI, p io i izing he en y o wes Eu opean
da a. Fo p ocesses no a ailable in Ecoin en , al e na i e en ies o adap ed eco ds
we e selec ed o ensu e consis ency and compa ibili y wi h bo h so wa e ools; A hena
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 9 o 19
main ains p op ie a y da abases speci ically designed o building ma e ials and p ocesses,
wi h a s ong ocus on No h Ame ica, conside ing egional a ia ions in manu ac u ing
echnologies, anspo a ion, and elec ici y g ids.
Table 1. Li e cycle in en o y.
Subsys em Componen Ma e ial/Speci ica ion Quan i y Func ion
En elope and
S uc u al Sys em
Conc e e block acade Conc e e blocks, 30 cm hick 300 m2S uc u al en elope
Sandwich panel oo Sandwich panel (me al +
insula ion), 5 cm hick 200 m2
The mal insula ion and
oo s uc u e
Rein o ced conc e e slab Rein o ced conc e e,
40 cm hick 200 m2Founda ion suppo
Domes ic Ho
Wa e Sys em
Sola panels 16 panels, 30◦inclina ion 16 uni s Ho wa e p oduc ion
( he mal ene gy)
Ho wa e ank 300 L capaci y 1 uni S o age o ho wa e
PVC pipes PVC, 25 mm diame e , 1.7
mm hickness, 50 m leng h 50 m Wa e dis ibu ion
Elec ic wa e hea e 2500 W elec ic hea e 1 uni Backup wa e hea ing
Table 2. Li e cycle in en o y inpu ela ionship (BIM–ATHENA–SIMAPRO).
Subsys em Componen s BIM Model (Re i )
ATHENA Speci ica ion
SIMAPRO Speci ica ion
En elope and
s uc u al sys em
Conc e e block acade
Conc e e B ick,
Ex . Wall—B ick Ca i y
(m3, m2)
Conc e e B ick Conc e e block glo
ma ke (kg)
Sandwich panel oo
MBS Me al Roo
Cladding—
Comme cial (26 Ga.),
Me al Pe o med on
Roo (m3, m2)
MBS Me al Roo
Cladding—
Comme cial (26 Ga.)
Polyu e hane, igid oam
{GLO} (kg)
Rein o ced
conc e e slab
S uc u al Slab on
G ade, Po land
Cemen (m3, m2)
Po land Cemen Cemen , Po land
{CH}| (kg)
Domes ic Ho
Wa e Sys em
Sola panels
SPR-P3-500-UPP,
Aluminum 6061, Sola
Cell (m2, uni s)
Sola Cell Fla pla e sola collec o ,
Cu abso be {GLO} (uni s)
Ho wa e ank S o age Wa e Hea e Ho Wa e Tank Ho wa e ank, 600 l
{GLO} (uni s)
PVC pipes PVC PVC PVC pipe E (m)
Elec ic wa e hea e Ho Wa e Supply
Sys em (uni s, m3, m2)
Ho Wa e Supply
Sys em
Auxilia y hea ing uni ,
elec ic, 5 kW (uni s)
4.4. S ep 3: Li e Cycle Impac Assessmen
The LCIA phase was based on he calcula ion s eps de ined in he ISO 14040 se ies [
34
],
using he selec ed impac indica o s and me hodologies. Bo h he A hena Impac Es ima o
o Buildings and SimaP o 9 we e used o analyze he li e cycle impac s o indus ial wa e-
houses, conside ing he building en elope, he s uc u al sys em, and he domes ic ho
wa e (DHW) sys em. The LCIA esul s we e calcula ed o bo h so wa e ools o e alua e
hei consis ency and in e ope abili y wi h he BIM-based model. Speci ically, and as an
objec i e o his s udy, he li e cycle impac s o he wa ehouse we e comp ehensi ely ana-
lyzed, wi h esul s s uc u ed o compa e he ou pu s o bo h A hena and SimaP o. Table 3
summa izes he o e all esul s gene a ed in SimaP o, including midpoin and endpoin
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 16 o 19
p o ides esul s ailo ed o a ious ma ke s. SimaP o also o e s ad anced calcula ion con-
igu a ions based on hie a chical (H), indi idualis (I), and p ecau iona y (P) pe spec i es,
p o iding he lexibili y o app oach he analysis om di e en sus ainabili y assump ions
and amewo ks.
Table 7. Analysis o in e ope abili y aspec s be ween Re i (BIM model) and LCA so wa e.
Aspec SimaP o A hena
In eg a ion wi h BIM No di ec BIM in eg a ion; equi es manual o
semi-au oma ed da a impo /expo .
Seamless in eg a ion wi h BIM models (e.g.,
Re i ) o di ec da a impo .
Ease o in eg a ion Requi es manual expo s om Re i and adjus men s
in Excel o o he o ma s.
Di ec and au oma ed in eg a ion wi h Re i ,
elimina ing in e media e s eps.
Da a o ma Manual con e sions o common cons uc ion uni s. S anda d uni s in cons uc ion p ojec s.
P ocess au oma ion Manual p ocess; use mus o ganize in en o y da a. Au oma ed p ocess ha di ec ly ecognizes
elemen s om BIM model.
Ma e ial assignmen Requi es manual assignmen o ma e ials o
da abase ca ego ies.
Au oma ic assignmen o many common
cons uc ion ma e ials.
Li e cycle phase b eakdown Manual and less in ui i e b eakdown o ollow EN
15804 s anda d.
Au oma ic b eakdown aligned wi h li e cycle
phases de ined in EN 15804 s anda d.
Adap abili y o cus om p ojec s Highly lexible o use in sec o s beyond cons uc ion. Limi ed o cons uc ion- ela ed p ojec s; less
adap able o o he sec o s.
Time equi ed Mo e ime equi ed due o manual s eps o da a
ans e and p epa a ion.
Less ime equi ed due o au oma ion and
di ec BIM in eg a ion.
Table 8. Semi-quan i a i e syn hesis o LCA-BIM in e ope abili y analysis *.
Dimensions Analyzed SimaP o A hena
Calcula ion possibili ies +++ ++
Da abases +++ ++
Flexibili y o he esul s +++ +
Ease o use + +++
Da a in en o y inpu ++ +++
Li e cycle phase b eakdown + +++
Ad an ages o LCA +++ ++
Time equi ed o analysis + +++
In eg a ion o esul s ++ +++
Rep oducibili y o analyses +++ ++
Ease o in eg a ion + +++
Da a o ma + +++
P ocess au oma ion + +++
Assignmen o ma e ial + +++
Li e cycle phase b eakdown - +++
Adap abili y o cus om p ojec s +++ +
Time equi ed + +++
* The a ing sys em is semi-quan i a i e: +++ (high pe o mance), ++ (mode a e pe o mance), + (limi ed pe o -
mance), - (no a ailable o e y low pe o mance).
A hena is speci ically designed o pe o m LCA in he cons uc ion sec o . I calcula es
he en i onmen al impac s o cons uc ion sys ems using specialized da abases ocused
on cons uc ion ma e ials in No h Ame ica. In en o y and impac calcula ion p ocesses
au oma ically b eak down he esul s by cons uc ion li e cycle s ages, as de ined by he EN
15804 s anda d (see Figu e 2). This unc ionali y, unlike in SimaP o, is au oma ed, g ea ly
simpli ying he in e p e a ion p ocess. Howe e , A hena has some limi a ions, including a
smalle a ie y o me hodologies o impac calcula ions (e.g., i lacks mixed me hodologies
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 17 o 19
ha combine midpoin and endpoin assessmen s). Table 6compa es he impac calcula ion
capabili ies o SimaP o and A hena. I is impo an o no e ha only he ca ego ies sha ed
by bo h ools a e included, as SimaP o p o ides mo e ex ensi e calcula ion possibili ies
han hose lis ed in he able. Al hough A hena’s in e ace is mo e use - iendly han
SimaP o’s, i is less ocused on cus omizing g aphs and epo s; i s esul s a e limi ed and
less applicable ou side o he cons uc ion sec o . Despi e hese limi a ions, he ool s ands
ou o i s ease o use, apid in eg a ion o en i onmen al impac da a in o BIM models,
and abili y o e alua e he speci ic en i onmen al impac s o he cons uc ion indus y.
The in e ope abili y be ween he BIM models de eloped in Re i and he selec ed
LCA ools e eals signi ican di e ences, as shown in Table 7. A hena excels wi h i s di ec
in eg a ion in o Re i , enabling au oma ed da a ans e om he BIM model wi hou
equi ing in e media e s eps. On he con a y, SimaP o equi es he manual de ini ion o
he unc ional uni , sys em bounda ies, uni con e sions, and da abase sea ches. A hena’s
au oma ion and compa ibili y wi h s anda d cons uc ion uni s (mainly olume and su ace)
s eamline he li e cycle in en o y phase, signi ican ly educing he ime needed o p epa e
he analysis. Mo eo e , A hena au oma ically disagg ega es esul s by li e cycle s ages
ollowing EN 15804, simpli ying he in e p e a ion o esul s in cons uc ion p ojec s.
Howe e , SimaP o equi es he p io de ini ion o uni p ocesses o he li e cycle and hei
subsequen g ouping in o he s ages ou lined by EN 15804 a he assembly le el, inc easing
bo h he ime and complexi y o he analysis.
These di e ences posi ion SimaP o as he mos sui able ool o pe o ming LCA om a
echnical pe spec i e, due o i s abili y o deli e mo e de ailed, cus omizable, and e sa ile
esul s ac oss a wide ange o sec o s, including cons uc ion ( he ocus o analysis 1). On he
con a y, A hena s ands ou as he mos e icien ool in e ms o in e ope abili y ( he ocus
o analysis 2), being speci ically designed o cons uc ion p ojec s. I s di ec in eg a ion
wi h BIM-LCA wo k lows o e s a mo e p ac ical and s eamlined solu ion, al hough wi h
mo e limi ed en i onmen al impac esul s. Table 8shows a semi-quan i a i e syn hesis o
he in e ope abili y analysis.
The indings o his s udy highligh he impo ance o achie ing e icien da a ans e
be ween BIM models and LCA ools. In he cons uc ion sec o , compa ibili y be ween
hese models equi es he ca e ul conside a ion o aspec s ela ed o he sys em li e cycle
(as de ined by he phases and speci ica ions in he EN 15804 s anda d) and he echnical
esou ces needed o da a ans e , including so wa e, da abases, and impac assessmen
me hodologies. E icien compa ibili y enables he as e execu ion o en i onmen al assess-
men s, signi ican ly educing he ime equi ed o comple e he in en o y phase (s age 2 o
LCA), imp o ing da a accu acy in he impac analysis phase (s age 3 o LCA), and educing
he eliance on expe s wi h ad anced knowledge in en i onmen al impac analysis. This
makes he p ocess mo e accessible o p o essionals wi hou specialized aining in LCA. In
addi ion, au oma ing da a ans e be ween BIM models and LCA ools educes he isk
o human e o by minimizing manual in e en ions, such as e i ying and con e ing
uni s and en y ypes based on he unc ional uni , selec ing he me hodological app oach,
de ining he alloca ion me hod, o speci ying he geog aphical scope o he da a.
6. Conclusions
This s udy add esses one o he main challenges in he in eg a ion be ween Building
In o ma ion Modeling (BIM) models and li e cycle assessmen (LCA) ools, ocusing on
he e alua ion o da a ans e eliabili y be ween he a ailable digi al ools and esou ces.
Using a case s udy o an indus ial wa ehouse, a compa ison was made be ween wo
LCA ools wi h di e en scopes: A hena Impac Es ima o , speci ically designed o he
cons uc ion sec o , and SimaP o, ecognized o i s me hodological comp ehensi eness
Sus ainabili y 2025,17, 1685 18 o 19
and eliabili y. The indings indica e ha while SimaP o is a highly eliable LCA ool
capable o p o iding de ailed and accu a e esul s, i has limi a ions in e ms o di ec in e-
g a ion wi h BIM models de eloped in Re i . This lack o compa ibili y equi es manual
adjus men s du ing he li e cycle in en o y phase, inc easing he ime and e o needed o
pe o m he analysis. On he con a y, he A hena Impac Es ima o o Buildings enables
di ec in eg a ion wi h BIM models h ough he gbXML exchange o ma , acili a ing as e
en i onmen al assessmen s. Howe e , he esul s gene a ed by A hena a e less de ailed
and comp ehensi e, limi ing hei use in conduc ing mo e ealis ic LCA e alua ions o e
he li e cycle o buildings. Despi e hese di e ences, bo h ools iden i ied he acade and
he s uc u al en elope sys em as he p ima y con ibu o s o en i onmen al impac s in
nea ly all ca ego ies e alua ed, emphasizing he impo ance o p io i izing hese elemen s
o imp o e he en i onmen al pe o mance o buildings. In conclusion, he esul s indica e
ha A hena is well sui ed o ini ial o pa ial e alua ions du ing he design phase, as i en-
ables he apid iden i ica ion o a eas equi ing imp o emen . In con as , SimaP o is be e
sui ed o conduc ing comp ehensi e and p ecise en i onmen al pe o mance assessmen s.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, J.F.F.R., A.M.-M., A.P. and E.P.; Me hodology, T.A.-P.,
J.F.F.R., A.P. and E.P.; So wa e, A.P., J.F.F.R. and E.P.; Valida ion, A.M.-M. and E.P.; Fo mal Analysis,
T.A.-P.; In es iga ion, J.F.F.R. and A.P.; Resou ces, E.P.; Da a Cu a ion, A.M.-M.; W i ing—O iginal
D a P epa a ion, J.F.F.R., A.P. and E.P.; W i ing—Re iew and Edi ing, A.M.-M. and T.A.-P.; Visual-
iza ion, T.A.-P.; Supe ision, A.M.-M. and E.P.; Funding Acquisi ion, E.P. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a is con ained wi hin he a icle.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
