Validation of regional positioning service user connections as support in update cartography

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T ansac ions in GIS, 2025; 29:e13293
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/ gis.13293
T ansac ions in GIS
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
Valida ion o Regional Posi ioning Se ice Use Connec ions
as Suppo in Upda e Ca og aphy
C is inaTo ecillas1 | F anciscoJ.Ramos- Sánchez1 | Ca menMa ín- Buzón1 | Ampa oVe dú- Vázquez2
1Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se ille, Spain | 2Uni e sidad Poli écnica de Mad id, Mad id, Spain
Co espondence: F ancisco J. Ramos- Sánchez ( j [email protected])
Recei ed: 12 Ma ch 2024 | Re ised: 29 Oc obe 2024 | Accep ed: 4 Decembe 2024
Keywo ds: ca og aphic upda e| GBAS| public wo ks| RAP| e i o ial changes| u ban de elopmen
ABSTRACT
The signi ican demand o highly upda ed geospa ial o ca og aphic in o ma ion su passes he capaci y o he o icial agencies
esponsible o i s gene a ion. The p ocedu e o upda ing o icial ca og aphy, in some Spanish egions, can ake mo e han
h ee o 4 yea s. This long p ocess depends o a la ge ex en on he na ional planning o ae ial ligh s, bu also on ac ions linked
o he upda es o changes in hei geoda abases. The e a e al e na i e non- ca og aphic sou ces o geoin o ma ion ha can loca e
hese a ia ions mo e quickly han wai ing o iannual o hopho o gene a ion and educe hese imes. This a icle ocusses on a
po en ial op ion de i ed om he loca ion o use s connec ions o a egional di e en ial posi ion co ec ions ansmission sys em
in Andalusia (Spain) used by su eyo s. Th ee da a selec ion s udies a e p esen ed o e alua e his sou ce o he de ec ion o new
o al e ed cons uc ion, co e ing he pe iod 2008–2016. The esul s show a 95% success a e o new de elopmen s, 87% o new
linea public wo ks, and 72% o new u ban se ices o acili ies, alida ing i s po en ial use ulness o upda ing ca og aphy. The
main ad an ages o his sou ce lie in he speed o de ec ion o an a ea unde cons uc ion and in he de ini ion o a p elimina y
bounda y. The analysis o empo al s a is ics om his sou ce, il e ed by cons uc ion ac i i ies, can also be use ul in a ge -
ing and p io i izing he mapping planning o public agencies and imp o ing he e ec i eness o alse posi i e image- o- image
change de ec ion, educing he ime o upda e he o icial ca og aphy.
1 | In oduc ion
O icial ca og aphy is p oduced by public ins i u ions on
a ious e i o ial scales, including municipal, egional, and
na ional le els. I s applica ion in geospa ial s udies, ci il engi-
nee ing, u ban and e i o ial planning, cons uc ion p ojec s,
web mapping, o loca ion- based se ices equi es he use o he
upda e p oduc s o p o ide co ec in o ma ion and solu ions
ha closely e lec eali y and o a oid e o s s emming om
ou da ed in o ma ion (Chuang, Chang, and Lee 2018; Soa es
Nascimen o e al.2023).
Nowadays he ca og aphic upda e p ocesses could be classi-
ied based on a ious ac o s such as he ype o da a sou ce,
he le el o au oma ion, and he speci ic echniques used o
de ec ing and upda ing changes, see Figu e1. In he elabo a ion
o e i o ial o icial ca og aphy, he main sou ces a e: (i) o ho-
pho os by ae ial pho og amme y using ligh ai c a (Holland
e al.2008; Mikhail, Be hel, and McGlone2001) o Remo ely
Pilo ed Ai c a Sys ems (RPAS) in small o medium- sized
a eas (Al es Júnio e al.2018; Ba y and Coakley2013; Ca o i,
Piemon e, and Nespoli 2017; Colomina and Molina2014), (ii)
e y high spa ial esolu ion (VHR) sa elli e images (Aguila , del
Saldaña, and Aguila 2013; Ås and e al.2012); as well as (iii)
Ligh De ec ion and Ranging (LiDAR) ligh s o cap u e p ecise
3D model (Aijazi, Checchin, and T assoudaine2013; Hodgson
e  al. 2003). G ound su eys based on Global Na iga ion
Sa elli e Sys ems (GNSS), To al S a ion, Mobile o S a ic Lase
Scan a e no sui able echniques o la ge a eas because he
le el o scale equi ed is usually no g ea e han 1:5 k and hese
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is
p ope ly ci ed.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). T ansac ions in GIS published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
2 o 16 T ansac ions in GIS, 2025
echniques o e highe scale de ail (O dóñez, Cabo, and Sanz-
Ablanedo 2017). C owdsou ced da a, ob ained h ough social
ca og aphy pla o ms like OpenS ee Map (h ps:// www.
opens ee map. o g/ accessed 5 Feb ua y 2024) o Volun ee ed
Geog aphic In o ma ion (VGI) (Hachmann, Joka A sanjani,
and Vaz2018; Ha ey2013), can play a i al ole in mapping
a eas lacking he necessa y inancial esou ces. Howe e , hey
lack he o icial suppo equi ed o use in u ban o e i o ial
planning, o in he cons uc ion o public in as uc u e.
In e ms o au oma ion, while manual upda es a e s ill pe o med
by ca og aphe s h ough digi izing new ea u es o modi ying
exis ing ones, semi- au oma ed and ully au oma ed p ocesses
ha e been de eloped o assis wi h hese asks. Mos p op ie a y
so wa e (e.g., Ben ley Con ex Cap u e, T imble Inpho, Pix4D,
o ERDAS Imagine) o e s sophis ica ed algo i hms and au o-
ma ion capabili ies ha le e age ad anced pho og amme y
echniques (Casella e al.2020), such as image ma ching, bun-
dle adjus men (Jiang, Jiang, and Wang2022; Ma hew Da id
F ank Tucsok2023), accu a ely ec i y and s i ch oge he im-
ages cap u ed om di e en pe spec i es (Clapuy , Vanacke ,
and Van Oos  2016; Pikelj e  al. 2015) and ue o hopho o
gene a ion (Gha ibi and Habib 2018). These ools enable p e-
cise delinea ion—manual, semi- au oma ed, o au oma ed—o
ea u es such as oads, buildings, o i e s, p ima ily u ilizing
edge de ec ion echniques and inc easingly inco po a ing deep
neu al ne wo ks (Bakh ia i, Abdollahi, and Rezaeian 2017;
Nunes, Medei os, and de Dos San os2018; Ye and Yilmaz2017).
Addi ionally, some so wa e includes upda e unc ion based on
change de ec ion om images cap u ed a di e en imes, al-
lowing o he iden i ica ion o cons uc ion changes, g ound
ele a ion modi ica ions, o a ia ions in land use. These asks
ely on di e ences be ween supe ised o unsupe ised classi-
ica ion (Knudsen and Olsen2003; Mas1999; Pande e al.2018)
o Machine Lea ning (ML) app oaches (Aijazi, Checchin,
and T assoudaine 2013; Ce esola e  al. 2005; Jung 2004;
Kalan a e al.2020; Knudsen and Olsen2003; Niede ös 2001;
Sa p e  al. 2014) p e e ably wi hin a GIS en i onmen (Weis
e al.2005). Such me hods a e also highly e ec i e o assess-
ing a eas a ec ed by na u al disas e s like ea hquakes, i es, o
loods (Calan opio e al.2021; Kalan a e al.2020). Howe e ,
all hese me hods depend on image y and ace challenges wi h
alse posi i es, pa icula ly in cases whe e obscu ed elemen s—
such as oo ops co e ed by ees, a ia ions in oo ma e ials, o
oad ehabili a ion ins ead o new cons uc ion—complica e he
de ec ion p ocess (Jamali, Kuma , and Rahman2019; Ji oudi
e al.2022; Ka sli e al.2024).
Beyond hese image y- ela ed issues, he o icial ca og aphic
upda es equi e high- esolu ion images, which a e o en no
compa ible wi h ee sa elli e image y, leading o addi ional
cos o ae ial ligh s o pu chasing sa elli e image y om p i-
a e companies. In his way, ob aining p ecise annual images is
a luxu y ha many coun ies ind di icul o a o d. In Spain,
o example, his p ocess ypically akes a ound h ee o 4 yea s,
as dic a ed by he Na ional Ae ial Pho og aphy Plan (PNOA, in
Spanish Plan Nacional de O o o og a ía Aé ea) and he annual
ligh a ea alloca ion (Ma ínez e al.2015). Du ing his wai ing
pe iod o new ae ial images, addi ional ime mus be ac o ed
in o o hopho o gene a ion and he subsequen mapping p o-
cesses o upda e ca og aphic da abases, asks ha a e a om
simple. Al hough he elimina ion o pape - based ca og aphic
shee p oduc ion, alongside he in oduc ion o digi al o ma s
such as GeoPDF o GIS/CAD ec o iles, and he adop ion o
e sioned, con inuous, and hema ically o ganized laye s ha e
educed upda e imes (Pee bocus, Jomie , and Bada d2002), he
o e all du a ion is s ill con ingen on public ca og aphic agen-
cies and can ake se e al yea s due o e i o ial ex ension and
e ision asks.
The o icial ca og aphic upda es p ima ily in ol e he iden-
i ica ion o a i icial al e a ions, mos commonly obse ed in
me opoli an a eas and a ibu able o human ac i i ies. These
modi ica ions include he cons uc ion o new buildings, esi-
den ial homes, shopping cen e s, and public in as uc u e such
as oads, ailways, o sola powe plan s. While such cons uc-
ions a e c i ical, he con en ional me hod o de ec ing hem
o en elies on wai ing o he nex pho og amme ic ligh .
Eme ging app oaches o e he po en ial o as e de ec ion
by non- con en ional ca og aphic sou ces ha can help iden-
i y a eas whe e changes a e likely o occu , hus aiding in he
p io i iza ion o image sea ches o upda es. Fo ins ance, in-
o ma ion accessible h ough ende announcemen s on he
web o ad e isemen s in he p ess, as sugges ed by ini ia i es
like CARTOBOT—used by he Spanish Na ional Ca og aphic
Ins i u e—(Asensio e al.2019). CARTOBOT has been pa ic-
ula ly e ec i e in oad de ec ion, hough i mainly p o ides
de ini ions o connec ing segmen s be ween locali ies o kilo-
me e poin s, which s ill equi e geoloca ion and digi iza ion.
Addi ionally, he Spanish Cadas al O ice o e s ela i ely up-
da ed pa cel and building in o ma ion, hanks o a egis a ion
equi emen ha manda es digi al con ou submission by p oj-
ec de elope s. Howe e , his sou ce is inhe en ly limi ed, o-
cusing only on speci ic geog aphic en i ies, excluding o he s like
oads, which a e no subjec o public axa ion.
FIGURE 1 | Classi ica ion o ca og aphic upda e me hodologies.
14679671, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ gis.13293 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [03/01/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
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This pape in oduces a no el ca og aphic upda e me hodology
based on a non- con en ional sou ce o in o ma ion o de ec
u ban o e i o ial a i icial changes caused by human ac i -
i y. The new inpu da a will be sou ced om a G ound- Based
Augmen a ion Sys em (GBAS), which is used o ob ain high-
p ecision posi ioning in eal ime wi h GNSS (Teunissen and
Mon enb uck2021). GBAS has a wo ldwide p esence, ypically
suppo ed by public o p i a e en i ies. An example o a p i a e
ne wo k wi h global co e age is he GBAS HxGN Sma Ne
NTRIP, ope a ed by Hexagon company (h ps:// hxgns ma n e .
com/ co e age- map, accessed 2 Oc obe 2024). These se ices
equi e use loca ion o p o ide be e posi ion co ec ion and
a e widely used by su eyo s a cons uc ion si es. A eas whe e
GBAS usage is in ense o e se e al days o mon hs a e o en in-
dica i e o po en ial cons uc ion ac i i ies, making his a use-
ul indica o o iden i ying egions whe e ca og aphic upda es
may be needed.
2 | Tes ing A ea
Andalusia is he sou he nmos au onomous communi y in
mainland Spain and he second la ges wi h 87,600 km2 (see
Figu e 2a). The Andalusian S a is ical and Ca og aphic
Ins i u e (IECA, in Spanish Ins i u o de Es adís ica y Ca og a ía
de Andalucía) is he o icial ins i u ion esponsible o p oducing
o icial ca og aphy on a scale o 1:10k scale, which cons i u es
i s main ou pu . The me ada a o he la es PDF digi al shee
num. 098422 a 1:10k (whe e 0984 is he 1:50k e e ence, see
Figu e2b, and 22 deno es he column and ow ollowing he g id
in Figu e2c), indica es a ligh yea o 2013, bu he es i u ion
p ocess was no comple ed un il 2018.
To illus a e how hese ime ames impac he inclusion o new
cons uc ions in Andalusia, conside he case o he Lagoh shop-
ping cen e in Se ille ci y (37.34162° N, 5.98696° W, IECA shee
num. 098422 in Figu es2c and 3 in de ail). This comme cial
a ea was inaugu a ed in Sep embe 2019, and while Google
Maps (GM) had al eady labeled he cen e mon hs be o e i s
opening, i s ec o da a is s ill absen as o Feb ua y 2024 (see
ca og aphy backg ound in Figu e3a). Un il he end o 2023, a
2019 Pleiades sa elli e image displayed he cons uc ion p ocess
in he sp ing season on GM (Figu e3b). The geome ic de ini-
ion o he bounda y emains absen in he online Geospa ial
Da a In as uc u e o he Se ille ci y council, a 1:500 scale, as
o Janua y 2024 (Figu e3c). Fu he mo e, he la es o hopho o
om PNOA in Andalusia, cap u ed in summe o 2022 (PNOA
ligh s a us: h ps:// pnoa. ign. es/ web/ po al/ pnoa- imagen/ es ad o-
de- los- uelos, accessed 5 Oc obe 2024), and depic ed in
Figu e3d, was added o he PNOA Web Map Se ice (PNOA
WMS: ign. es/ wms- inspi e/ pnoa- ma, accessed 5 Feb ua y 2024)
in Augus 2023, 14 mon hs a e he ligh , making one o he
bes u na ound imes cu en ly achie ed o he PNOA p ojec .
IECA is s ill wo king on he 1:10k ca og aphic upda e de i ed
om he p e ious 2019 PNOA ligh , meaning his a ea has no
been upda ed since 2018 (h ps:// ws089. jun a deand alucia. es/
ins i u od ees a dis i cayca og a ia/ blog/ ag/ desca ga/ accessed
5 Feb ua y 2024).
The delay in in eg a ing o upda ing new ca og aphic en i ies
in he digi al da abases accessible o use s, such as he absence
o a majo shopping cen e as a key ocal poin , could po en ially
a ec mobili y s udies, geospa ial s a is ics, and o he applica-
ions. This cons uc ion had used a GBAS sys em, making i
wo hwhile o explo e his non- adi ional sou ce o in o ma ion
and es whe he i could help in loca ing cons uc ion change.
3 | Inpu Da a
RAP (in Spanish, Red Andaluza de Posicionamien o) is he
Andalusian GBAS used o ob ain high- p ecision posi ioning o
GNSS ins umen s (Páez e al.2017). RAP consis s o a GNSS
ne wo k o 22 mul icons ella ion s a ions ha p o ide ee di -
e en ial posi ioning co ec ion se ices (Ga ido e  al. 2012).
This ne wo k is one o he se e al di e en ial co ec ion
FIGURE 2 | (a) Loca ion o Andalusia ( ed polygon) in Wo ld Me ca o p ojec ion (EPSG:3395) in ESRI G ay (ligh ) XYZ ile map se ice; (b) dis-
ibu ion o 1:50k ca og aphic shee s om DERA p oduc (IECA2016) highligh ing in ed he shee no.0984 o Se ille ci y on he Mean dep h Web
Map Se ice om EMODne elease 2020 (h p:// ows. emodn e - ba hy me y. eu/ ows, accessed 5 Feb ua y 2024) in UTM 30 p ojec ion (EPSG 25830)
using a geog aphical g id; and (c) De ail o he 1:10k numbe ing g id o ca og aphic shee num. 0984 (EPSG 25830).
14679671, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ gis.13293 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [03/01/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
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in as uc u e ha uni o mly co e he en i e Spanish e i o y,
as shown in Figu e4.
IECA has been he public ins i u ion esponsible o o e seeing
he RAP ne wo k since i s incep ion in mid- 2008. Among he
se ices o e ed by RAP a e a ious GNSS co ec ions o eal-
ime posi ioning, wi h he mos accu a e co ec ions equi ing
he use 's coo dina es upon i s con ac wi h he se ice. These
co ec ions enable cen ime e - le el p ecision, and hei use was
widesp ead, wi h mo e han 100,000 geoloca ed connec ions pe
yea in he ea ly yea s. Howe e , usage declined ollowing he
2008 economic c isis (Fe nández- Tabales and C uz2013), be o e
ebounding o 285,145 connec ions in 2019 and 407,898 connec-
ions in 2020, as shown in Table1.
A 2015 s udy e ealed ha nea ly 70% o RAP use s belonged
o he cons uc ion sec o , using he se ice o applica ions
such as new oad and ail cons uc ion o u ban de elopmen
p ojec s—including new u baniza ions, shopping cen e s, o
indus ial a eas—as well as some main enance wo ks (Páez
e  al. 2017). Using he land use laye de ined by he SIOSE
p ojec in 2011 (Za agozí e al.2020), as he a e age yea be-
ween 2008 and 2015, and coinciding wi h he closes ou - yea
e sion o he p oduc , we analyzed RAP use connec ions by
classi ying hem in o 10 ca ego ies, as shown in Figu e5. The
ca ego ies “Ag icul u al A eas”, “U ban A eas”, and “Roads
and Rail Ne wo ks” show he highes alues. Mos ca ego ies
exhibi a s able end du ing his pe iod, excep o he “Road
and Rail Ne wo k” ca ego y, which shows an unexplained
anomalous alue in 2010. The signi ican inc ease in he num-
be o connec ions in ecen yea s (2017–2020), as indica ed in
he “O iginal connec ions” ield in Table 1, appea s o coin-
cide wi h a b oade ange o RAP usage, as obse ed in Páez
e  al. (2017), e ealing connec ions in p ecision ag icul u e,
i e o coas al na iga ion, and smalle - scale cons uc ion
p ojec s such as houses o wa e ponds o i iga ion (Ga ido
e al.2019; Páez e al.2017).
Figu e 6 illus a es he RAP connec ion poin s o wo dis-
inc pe iods: 2008–2016 and 2017–2021. Figu e6a e eals he
p esence o linea pa e ns o e he e i o y and ocal poin s
p edominan ly loca ed in he majo ci ies o Andalusia, while
Figu e6b highligh s a signi ican inc ease in RAP connec ions
du ing he la e ou - yea pe iod (2017–2021) compa ed o he
p e ious span (2008–2016).
Focusing on u ban a eas a a de ailed scale, Figu e7 illus-
a es he RAP connec ions in wo di e en scena ios. The
i s ow is he Lagoh shopping cen e in Se ille, as com-
men ed in he “Tes ing a ea” sec ion, depic ed wi h di e en
PNOA o hopho os: Figu e7a p esen s he 2016 o hopho o,
cap u ed 1 yea be o e he s a o cons uc ion, and is ac-
companied by cadas al ec o in o ma ion upda ed o 2022;
Figu e7b showcases he colo ed annual connec ions in ha
FIGURE 3 | Lagoh comme cial a ea in Se ille ci y om di e en map se ices: (a) GM de aul iew on 5 Feb ua y 2024, (b) GM sa elli e iew on
12 No embe 2022, (c) Se ille Spa ial Da a In as uc u e websi e (h p:// sig. u ban ismos e illa. o g/ iso gis/ geoSe illa. asp, accessed on 5 Feb ua y
2024) and (d) 2022 PNOA om WMS se ice, included in GM in Janua y 2024 (WMS: h ps:// www. ign. es/ wms- inspi e/ pnoa- ma? SERVI CE= WMS&
, accessed 5 Feb ua y 2024).
FIGURE 4 | The Spanish GBAS ne wo k wi h Andalusian RAP s a-
ions in g een iangle wi h black poin inside (GNSS Viewe : h p://
n ip. ep- gnss. es/ , accessed 15 Oc obe 2024).
14679671, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ gis.13293 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [03/01/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
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a ea, s a ing om he ini ia ion o cons uc ion wo ks in 2017
(blue do s), inc easing he in ensi y wi hin he cons uc ion
zone in 2018 (g een), and ocusing on access oads in 2019
(yellow do s), coinciding wi h he yea o i s inaugu a ion.
Some connec ions we e no ed in 2020, ou lining he building
and possibly associa ed wi h comple ion wo ks (o ange do s).
The second ow, Figu e7c,d, depic he pos - 2016 demoli ion
o a de ached house on a plo ha was eplaced by he con-
s uc ion o e aced houses. This ans o ma ion is p ecisely
con ou ed wi h he RAP connec ions om 2019 o 2020, as
shown in he 2022 o hopho o.
These RAP use connec ions o e se e al ad an ages:
• Geoloca ion: Each connec ion is geolocalized, wi h he
RAP con ol cen e s o ing use s connec ion coo dina es,
which a e upda ed e e y 30 min o upon i s connec ion o
econnec ion.
• Tempo ali y: The sys em eco ds he day and ime o each
connec ion, which can indica e he po en ial s a o wo k
ac i i ies (e en be o e any ini ial ac ions) and he po-
en ial end o hese ac i i ies, as connec ions in he a ea
diminish.
• Zoning: The connec ions a e ailo ed o he changing en i-
onmen , se ing as an app oxima e pe ime e o he wo k
zone.
Ne e heless, he e a e d awbacks, including he cu en un-
a ailabili y o use loca ions connec ing o o he se ices (such as
he na ional se ice o e ed by he Spanish Na ional Geog aphic
Ins i u e o he HxGN Sma Ne ne wo k, among o he s) and a
pe cen age o use s (13% in 2017) who u ilize a di e en ype
o co ec ion ha does no ansmi hei loca ion o he RAP
se e . Table2 summa izes he a ibu es o he inpu da a used
and p o ided by IECA.
TABLE 1 | RAP use s' connec ions o pe iod 2008–2020, bo h
o iginal and il e ed (no e: o iginal connec ions om 2014 o 2016 a e
missing), wi h o ma and s o ed pe iod.
Yea
O iginal
connec ions
Fil e ed
connec ions File o ma Pe iod
2008 25,713 1842 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2009 106,496 76,003 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2010 88,092 61,367 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2011 74,239 54,406 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2012 49,795 33,826 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2013 52,796 37,031 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2014 —35,858 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2015 —36,167 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2016 —48,262 Log ile
(CSV)
Mon h
2017 106,551 GeopackageaYea
2018 150,955 Geopackage Yea
2019 285,145 Geopackage Yea
2020 407,898 Geopackage Yea
aThe inpu o ma has changed om he ini ial mon hly CSV log iles o he
la es annual iles in Geopackpage GIS o ma , as shown in his able.
FIGURE 5 | RAP use s' connec ions o 2009–2015 in con as o land use om he 2011 SIOSE p ojec (Za agozí e al.2020).
14679671, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ gis.13293 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [03/01/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License

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4 | Me hodology
To alida e he use o RAP connec ions in ca og aphic upda e,
h ee case s udies we e conduc ed ocusing on wo di e en
ypes o cons uc ion p ojec s, bo h linked o he geome y o
he cons uc ion: he i s cen e ed on linea cons uc ion, and
he o he wo on bo h u ban and non- u ban polygonal con-
s uc ion. Only da a om 2008 o 2016 was used o ensu e
he a ailabili y o inalized o icial ca og aphic p oduc s. The
ca og aphic e e ence o he ini ial si ua ion in 2008 was he
digi al p oduc called DEA100, a DVD- ROM con aining a di ec-
o y o ca og aphic laye s de i ed om he 1:10k ca og aphy
wi h a planime ic p ecision o 3 m (IECA2009). The inal ca o-
g aphic si ua ion was based on he DERA p oduc , he e olu ion
o DEA100, which is an accessible online esou ce p o iding he
mos up- o- da e e sion—wi hou his o ical e sioning—a copy
was downloaded in 2016 (IECA2016; Mo eno- Na a o, López-
Magán, and Auz- A amillo2021).
FIGURE 6 | O e lapping RAP use s' connec ions: (a) 2008–2016 wi h he 12 selec ed municipali ies in U ban Polygonal Wo ks s udy ( ed ou line
polygons and labels), and (b) wi h he eigh p o ince delimi a ions o Andalusia (black ou line polygons and labels) including Se ille (in ed) as he
es a ea in Non- u ban Polygonal Wo ks s udy. Maps in EPSG 25830 wi h geog aphical g id and ESRI G ay (ligh ) XYZ ile se ice as backg ound.
14679671, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ gis.13293 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [03/01/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
7 o 16
A GIS en i onmen was equi ed, u ilizing QGIS 3.16
(QGIS.o g2024) and A cGIS P o 9 (ESRI2024), along wi h o -
ma s compa ible wi h hese pla o ms (Shape ile, pe sonal ge-
oda abase, and Geopackage). All ec o da a was ep ojec ed
o Uni e sal T ans e se Me ca o Zone 30 in he Eu opean
Te es ial Re e ence Sys em 1989 (EPSG 25830), and any RAP
poin s loca ed ou side o Andalusia we e emo ed using a 1 km
polygon bu e o ensu e he elimina ion o any c oss- bo de o
ma i ime na iga ion ac ions. A e his p elimina y s ep, each
s udy began wi h he selec ion o alid poin s, which we e hen
ans o med using GIS p ocesses o gene a e line o polygon
laye s ep esen ing po en ial a i icial changes. These we e con-
as ed wi h IECA da a (DEA and DERA p oduc s) and mo e
ecen sou ces, such as PNOA o hopho os since 2008, Sen inel
2 images s a ing om he beginning o his cons ella ion in
2015, and oad scheme da a p o ided by he Depa men o
De elopmen , Regional Coo dina ion, and Housing o he
Regional Go e nmen o Andalusia o 2008–2016 (Road in en-
o y), as shown in Figu e8. A model builde was used o apply
he me hodology annually o each s udy.
4.1 | Iden i ica ion o Linea Public Wo ks
In Figu e6a, RAP connec ions om 2008 o 2013 e eal clea
linea sequences o poin connec ions, which could ep esen
la ge public wo ks such as oads, mo o ways, ailways, o pipe-
line (wa e , powe , oil, o gas). The challenge o his s udy is o
ans o m a selec ion o RAP poin s in o lines. A me hodology
was de eloped o his pu pose, s a ing wi h se e al sc een-
ing p ocesses, as ou lined in Figu e 9, speci ically ollowing
hese s eps:
• Dele e 2008 u ban poin s: Since la ge linea public wo ks
a e ypically no loca ed in consolida ed u ban a eas, poin s
wi hin a 500 m bu e , using a u ban laye de ined in 2008
in he DEA100 p oduc , we e emo ed.
• Dele e isola ed poin s: Poin isola ed by less han 200 m
we e excluded. This h eshold a oids emo ing poin s
associa ed wi h linea public wo ks, such as powe line
o e hauls, whe e pylons may be up o 100 m apa . In ad-
di ion o his, public wo k implies long- e m opog aphic
wo k, so ha he elimina ion o hese poin s a oids one- o
da a collec ion jobs, which usually las one day (e.g., plo
measu emen ).
• Dele e poin s o e exis ing en i ies: Poin s in e sec ing wi h
p e- exis ing linea wo ks in DEA100 (e.g., cycle pa hs,
powe lines, mo o ways) we e emo ed using bu e s o
5–50 m depending on he ype. This excluded imp o emen s
like oad esu acing bu p ese ed changes in ol ing new
accesses o oundabou cons uc ion.
FIGURE 7 | Abo e, cons uc ion o he Lagoh shopping cen e in Se ille: (a) he p e ious si ua ion, 2016 PNOA wi h cadas al in o ma ion o
2022 ( ed ou line polygons) and (b) he 2024 si ua ion, wi h 2022 PNOA and yea ly RAP connec ions 2017–2020 o e lapped. Below, modi ica ion o
a plo : (c) a de ached house in 2016 PNOA and (d) he new cons uc ion o e aced houses in 2022 PNOA wi h RAP connec ions om 2019 o 2020.
TABLE 2 | In o ma ion on RAP use connec ions.
Field name Desc ip ion
Id Iden i ie , p ima y key
Use /Use NameaRAP use name (ac onym)
S a Da e S a da e o connec ion
S a Time S a ime o connec ion
EndDa e S a da e o connec ion
EndTime S a ime o connec ion
Du a ion Connec ion du a ion
P oduc /P oduc NameaType o co ec ion
La Geog aphic la i ude in ETRS89
Long Geog aphic longi ude in ETRS89
Heigh O home ic heigh
aSome ields changed names be ween yea s, so hey ha e wo names.
14679671, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ gis.13293 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [03/01/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
8 o 16 T ansac ions in GIS, 2025
• T ans o m poin s in o alid lines: This s ep in ol ed se en
GIS p ocesses o c ea e lines ep esen ing he connec ion
en elope's skele on. While mul iple me hods we e es ed,
as e izing he da a using he “ID” ield ( om Table2) and
a 100 m cell size yielded be e geome ic esul s. A e as-
e con e sion, a “Majo i y il e ” (8 pixels) and “Thins”
geop ocessing we e applied o simpli y he da a. Polylines
we e hen gene a ed ia “Ras e o polyline”, ex ending line
segmen s o he i s in e sec ing ea u e wi hin 1500 m
by using an “Ex end line” and a “Snap” p ocesses. Lines
sho e han 1000 m we e dele ed, lea ing signi ican new
linea wo ks ( op igh image, Figu e9).
• In e sec ion wi h new 2008–2016 en i ies: These public wo ks
we e e i ied agains new elemen s om DEA100 and DERA
laye s (2008–2016). Gi en ha he DERA ea u es da a om
2014 in he case o oads, as indica ed by i s me ada a, his
was supplemen ed wi h eco ds om he Depa men o
De elopmen , Regional Coo dina ion and Housing o he
Regional Go e nmen o Andalusia (Road in en o y). Bu e s
o 200 m we e c ea ed o in e sec wi h each laye o new lin-
ea wo ks iden i ied by he me hodology.
• Ex e nal e i ica ion: The inal s ep in ol ed isual con i -
ma ion by compa ing old and ecen PNOA ligh s.
4.2 | Iden i ica ion o Polygonal Wo ks
The second and hi d case s udies ocused on polygonal wo ks,
wi h an emphasis on la ge cons uc ion p ojec s. These p ojec s
a e ypically ound in expanding ci ies se ing pu poses such as
new housing de elopmen , shopping cen e s, o indus ial es a es.
Howe e , he e is also ci il wo k ou side o ci ies, such as he con-
s uc ion o wa e pond o sola a ms. Due o he di e ing na u e
o hese p ojec s, s udies we e conduc ed bo h in u ban a eas (12
municipali ies) and non- u ban a eas (p o ince o Se ille).
The u ban s udy selec ed municipali ies o a ying sizes
(Figu e6a), cha ac e ized by popula ion g ow h ha could d i e
u ban expansion, pa icula ly h ough housing cons uc ion.
The me hodology o his s udy is ou lined in Figu e10 (da k
blue boxes). Speci ically:
• Selec 2016 u ban poin s: Poin connec ions om de ined
u ban a eas we e ex ac ed using he u ban laye om he
2016 DERA p oduc .
• Selec municipali ies: Twel e municipali ies o a ying
sizes, om small illages o majo ci ies, we e selec ed
based on popula ion g ow h (Table3), which could indica e
po en ial new housing cons uc ion.
• Land use iden i ica ion: The 2011 SIOSE p ojec laye was
used o iden i y land use in hese municipali ies a he ime.
• Dele e linea wo ks: Poin s iden i ied as oads o ailways
(linea public wo ks) we e disca ded.
• Selec 2008–2016 u ban g ow h: U ban a ea expansion was
iden i ied as he di e ence be ween he u ban bounda ies o
he DEA100 and DERA laye s, na owing he ocus o he
s udy.
FIGURE 8 | Gene al me hodology wi h he h ee de ailed s udies, highligh ing hei main di e ences in inpu da a and p ocesses: The linea
Public Wo ks s udy (o ange boxes), Non- u ban Polygonal Wo ks s udy (ligh blue) and U ban Polygonal Wo ks s udy (da k blue).
FIGURE 9 | De ail me hodology o he iden i ica ion o linea ci il wo ks in 2008–2016 om RAP use s' connec ions.
14679671, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ gis.13293 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [03/01/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
9 o 16
• Ex e nal e i ica ion: The emaining unclassi ied poin s,
a e emo ing linea wo ks, we e analyzed by compa ing
PNOA o hopho os om 2007 and om 2010 (no comple ed
ligh ) wi h he comple e ligh om 2016. All poin s we e e-
iewed, wi h pa icula a en ion o u ban expansion a eas.
Poin s we e classi ied in o ou ca ego ies: Plo s, U ban
Blocks, Se ices/Facili ies, U baniza ions, and O he s.
Examples o hese ca ego ies can be seen in Figu e11. These
a e mainly linked o housing, which is expec ed o be he p i-
ma y cons uc ion ac i i y in hese g owing municipali ies.
The non- u ban polygon wo ks s udy ocused on he p o ince o
Se ille (Figu e6b) and ollowed he me hodology ou lined in
Figu e10 (ligh blue boxes):
• Dele e 2008 u ban poin s: The i s s ep was o elimina e
poin connec ions wi hin u ban a eas as de ined in 2008.
• Remo e exis ing linea in as uc u e: Poin connec ions
in e sec ing wi h exis ing linea in as uc u e, such as
oads, ailways, o pipelines om 2008, we e emo ed.
• Mul ipoin g ouping: To iden i y poin connec ions ela ed
o he same cons uc ion wo k, hey we e g ouped by un-
ca ed geog aphic coo dina es and he use “ID” ield, p o-
ducing a mul ipoin laye .
• Polygon gene a ion: A con ex hull was de ined o each
wo k si e, enabling he p e- mapping o he ele an a ea o
change (see op le o Figu e10).
• New ields: Addi ional in o ma ion, such as he a ea o he
con ex hull and he numbe o connec ions wi hin each
polygon, was added as new ields.
• Selec Se ille p o ince: Gi en he di e se ypes o wo ks
and he la ge numbe o polygons o check, only polygon
wi hin he p o ince o Se ille we e selec ed and e iewed
indi idually o iden i y he ype o cons uc ion (see op
igh o Figu e10).
• Ex e nal e i ica ion: To de e mine he po en ial s a and
end da es o cons uc ion based on he p esence o RAP
poin s, all PNOA ligh s we e e iewed. Fo wo ks ini i-
a ed a e 2015, Sen inel 2 images om he Eu opean Space
Agency's Cope nicus p og am we e also analyzed. The
2019 PNOA da a was no a ailable a he ime o his s udy.
5 | Resul s and Discussion
5.1 | Linea Public Wo ks
Table4 p esen s he esul s ob ained by compa ing he new lin-
ea mappings, de ined by he di e ences be ween DEA100 (2008)
and DERA (2016), wi h he a eas iden i ied using he desc ibed
me hodology. I is impo an o no e ha hese wo ks a e sig-
ni ican in as uc u e p ojec s spanning ens o kilome e s, so
while he numbe s in Table4 may appea small, hey ep esen
subs an ial a eas. Addi ionally, some loca ions include se e al
con e ging cons uc ions a he same junc ion (e.g., in e sec -
ing new powe lines and new oads). This issue was esol ed by
using he inpu laye o each ype be o e as e con e sion and
iden i ying he poin s o each cons uc ion using 250- m bu e s.
Typically, such cons uc ions ha e mo e han 30 RAP poin con-
nec ions, so wo o h ee poin s ha may ha e c ossed and co -
esponded o a di e en en i y om he selec ed ones we e no a
signi ican issue.
FIGURE 10 | De ailed me hodology o he iden i ica ion o non- u ban and u ban polygonal wo ks om RAP poin connec ions be ween 2008
and 2016.
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