Chap e 13
Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s
a he Building Componen and Sys em
Le el
Aidana Tleuken , Fe ha Ka aca , Rand Aska , Ge ald Leindecke ,
Ilke Kah aman , Ch is ina Gia ma, Genesis Camila Ce an es Puma ,
Rocío Pineda-Ma os , Iskande Bola khano , Michele Pale mo ,
Lidiana A è , Ali Akba Shah Syed, Inam Ul Ahad ,
Liljana Dime ska So onie ska , Me i C e ko ska , Vanessa Ta a es ,
and Luís B agança
Abs ac The implemen a ion o ci cula economy p inciples in building ac i i-
ies holds he po en ial o subs an ial en i onmen al, economic, and social bene i s.
Al hough ex ensi e esea ch has examined he impac o ci cula i y s a egies on
a ious aspec s o buildings, he e is asigni ican gap in he li e a u e ocusing speci -
ically on building componen s and sys ems (BC&S). Mos exis ing s udies de elop
A. Tleuken ·F. Ka aca (B
)·I. Bola khano
Depa men o Ci il and En i onmen al Enginee ing, School o Enginee ing and Digi al Sciences,
Naza baye Uni e si y, As ana, Kazakhs an
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
R. Aska ·G. C. Ce an es Puma ·L. B agança
ISISE, ARISE, Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Minho, 4804-533 Guima ães,
Po ugal
G. Leindecke
IAPL-Ins i u ü Analy ische S uk u en wicklungsplanung, Uni e si y Applied Science o Uppe
Aus ia, Wels, Aus ia
I. Kah aman
Izmi Ekonomi Uni e si y, İzmi , Tü kiye
C. Gia ma
Labo a o y o Building Cons uc ion and Building Physics, Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing,
A is o le Uni e si y o Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, G eece
R. Pineda-Ma os
Depa amen o de Ingenie ía Ae oespacial y Mecánica de Fluidos, Escuela Técnica Supe io de
Ingenie ía Ag onómica, Uni e sidad de Se illa, C a. de U e a, Km. 1, 41005, Se illa, Spain
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
M. Pale mo ·L. A è
Depa men o Ci il, Chemical, En i onmen al and Ma e ials Enginee ing (DICAM), Uni e si y
o Bologna, Bologna, I aly
© The Au ho (s) 2025
L. B agança e al. (eds.), Ci cula Economy Design and Managemen
in he Buil En i onmen , Sp inge T ac s in Ci il Enginee ing,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-73490-8_13
335
336 A. Tleuken e al.
indica o s applicable o buildings as a whole o solely a he ma e ials le el. This
s udy aims o add ess his gap by iden i ying and emphasising speci ic ci cula i y
c i e ia o BC&S, including s uc u e, in ill, and se ices. The p ima y objec i e is
o elucida e he con ibu ion o each sys em o he o e all ci cula i y o buildings,
he eby p io i ising he mos impac ul ci cula i y aspec s. A he componen le el,
i is essen ial o conside he speci ic a ibu es o componen assemblies ha cons i-
u e a sys em. To enhance he p ac ical applica ion o hese indings, he s udy is
supplemen ed wi h ele an case s udies demons a ing bes p ac ices o ci cula i y
in BC&S. These case s udies p o ide empi ical e idence and p ac ical examples o
how a ge ed ci cula i y s a egies can imp o e he sus ainabili y and e iciency o
building p ac ices, he eby ad ancing he goals o he ci cula economy.
Keywo ds Ci cula economy ·Building componen s and sys ems ·Ci cula i y
c i e ia ·Sus ainabili y ·E iciency ·Case s udies
13.1 In oduc ion
I is widely acknowledgeable ha buildings and hei ela ed ac i i ies ha e a signi -
ican impac on he en i onmen . The cons uc ion indus y, in pa icula , consumes
as amoun s o na u al esou ces and aw ma e ials, making i a leading esou ce-
in ensi e sec o [1]. The building sec o is accoun able o he u ilisa ion o 3 000
million onnes o na u al esou ces each yea [2]. Fu he mo e, a s udy conduc ed by
he Wo ld Resou ces Ins i u e indica ed ha 40% o he wo ldwide was e gene a ion
is a ibu ed o he cons uc ion indus y [3].
To add ess hese en i onmen al challenges and p omo esus ainabili y, he concep
o he ci cula economy (CE) has eme ged as a ans o ma i e app oach aimed a
e e sing he na a i e by c ea ing posi i e impac s on he en i onmen , economy
and socie y.
T adi ionally, he cons uc ion indus y ollows a linea supply chain o en cha ac-
e ised by a “ ake, make, and dispose o ” model, in ol ing ac i i ies such as mining
and ex ac ion, p ocessing and manu ac u ing, and was e managemen and disposal.
In con as , he CE seeks o es ablish a closed-loop sys em whe e esou ces a e
conse ed and b ough back in o he li ecycle a e use [4].
A. A. S. Syed ·I. U. Ahad
The SFI Resea ch Cen e o Ad anced Manu ac u ing, School o Mechanical and Manu ac u ing
Enginee ing, I-Fo m, Dublin Ci y Uni e si y, Dublin, I eland
L. D. So onie ska ·M. C e ko ska
Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y “Ss. Cy il and Me hodius”, Skopje, No h Macedonia
V. Ta a es
BUILT CoLAB Po o, Po o, Po ugal
CEAU-FAUP, Uni e si y o Po o, Po o, Po ugal
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 337
Buildings a e essen ial componen s o u ban landscapes, shaping hei a chi ec-
u al cha ac e . Howe e , hey a e also complex objec s comp ising in ica e sys ems
and nume ous componen s and ma e ials, all in e connec ed o ensu e sa e y and
unc ionali y o occupan s.
The p e ious chap e explo ed he gene al ci cula i y c i e ia o cons uc ion
ma e ials, highligh ing p ac ices o key ma e ials such as conc e e and s eel. This
chap e , howe e , ocusses on he ci cula i y c i e ia and indica o s a wo le els o
building assembly:
•Componen le el: Componen s a e he mos g anula elemen s o buildings
a e ma e ials. They can be made o single ma e ials shaped o connec wi h
su ounding componen s and building pa s, o hey can be assemblies o mul iple
ma e ials o ming di e en building componen s (e.g., windows, doo s, oo s,
walls, and ounda ions) [5].
•Sys em le el: Sys ems a e assemblies o componen s and ma e ials se ing a
speci ic unc ion [6].
Gi en he signi ican po en ial o implemen ing CE p inciples in he building
indus y, his chap e sheds ligh on he ci cula i y c i e ia and indica o s o build-
ings a bo h he sys em and componen le els. The chap e is s uc u ed as ollows:
Following he in oduc ion in Sec s. 13.1 p esen s a hema ic analysis on nine key
opics and s a egies ele an o ci cula i y in building componen s and sys ems
(BC&S). Sec ion 13.2 explo es he ele ance o wo p ominen ci cula i y models—
R-P inciples and ReSOLVE—and hei applicabili y o BC&S. Sec ion 13.3 o e s
an app oach o ca ego ising CE c i e ia o BC&S. Sec ion 13.4 p o ides examples o
bes p ac ices o enhancing he ci cula i y o BC&S. Las ly, Sec . 13.5 p esen s he
chap e conclusions, highligh ing po en ial di ec ions o u u e wo k and esea ch
in his a ea.
13.1.1 Thema ic Analysis o Building Componen s
and Sys ems (BC&S)
To e alua e he alignmen o building componen s and sys ems (BC&S) wi h CE
p inciples, i is essen ial o explo e he ci cula i y aspec s applicable o BC&S,
pa icula ly in e ms o esou ce e iciency, ene gy e iciency, and was e educ-
ion h oughou he a ious li ecycle s ages. These aspec s in luence CE p inciples
o closing, slowing, and na owing ma e ial loops h ough eusing, ecycling, and
ex ending he li espan o buildings and hei p oduc s and ma e ials.
Thissec iondel esin o a ious hemeso ci cula i yand i ss a egiesasadd essed
in he li e a u e on he cons uc ion sec o , p esen ing a comp ehensi e explo a ion
o key elemen s, wi h a ocus on BC&S. The hema ic analysis na iga es h ough
di e se opics, s a ing om he design s age, add essing design o adap abili y,
disassembly, and du abili y, h ough he cons uc ion s age, ocusing on modula i y
338 A. Tleuken e al.
and s anda disa ion, o he use s age, highligh ing he ad an ages o adap i e building
euse and main ainabili y o ene gy-e icien ope a ions. Finally, a he end-o -li e
(EoL) s age, i explo es he p inciples o educing, eusing, and ecycling BC&S
and he need o adop ing p oduc esponsibili y h oughou he li ecycle, along wi h
he oppo uni ies o ansi ioning o ci cula business models h ough sha ing and
exchanging app oaches.
By dissec ing hese hemes, eade s will gain a holis ic unde s anding o he
indica o s and c i e ia shaping he ci cula cons uc ion landscape o BC&S.
13.1.2 Design o Adap abili y (D A)
Adap abili y,as desc ibed in ISO 20887:2020(E), e e s o he capaci y o “accommo-
da e changes in use ype, demog aphics, use needs o due o he need o adap a ion
o ex e nal ac o s, such as clima e change, o esilience o u u ep oo ing. The
ini ial cos may be balanced agains he u u e cos o adap a ion” ([7], p. 11). In he
li e a u e, adap abili y is desc ibed as he capaci y o buildings o change in esponse
o a ying needs [8]. These needs a ise om a ious ci cums ances h oughou a
building’s li ecycle, including social and local ac o s, en i onmen al changes, eme -
gen echnical needs, unc ional imp o emen s, economic and legisla i e ac o s, and
di e ing s akeholde in e es s [8].
The e m“adap abili y” hasbeenin e p e edindi e en o msinli e a u es udies,
depending on he con ex [9]. I is widely ecognised ha Design o Adap abili y
(D A) s a egies and concep s pe ain o BC&S. This ele ance is e iden in he
a ious in e p e a ions and de ini ions p o ided by li e a u e s udies. Table 13.1
ou lines some o he mos common de ini ions and hei ele ance o speci ic BC&S.
Howe e , all he de ini ions e e o s a egies o add ess di e en dimensions
o change in buildings, which can include changes in size, use o unc ion, pe o -
mance, con igu a ion o space, loca ion, and changeable componen s. The concep
o adap abili y can be al e na i ely e e ed o by o he e minologies ha desc ibe
speci ic s a egies o dimensions o adap abili y o pa icula building sys ems. Fo
example, lexibili y o en e e s o he ea angemen o elemen s and sys ems wi hin
he in ill o building in e io s [15]. In his sense, lexibili y is conside ed a pa o
adap abili y, which encompass bo h in e nal and ex e nal changes.
O he e ms used o e e o size adap abili y include expandabili y, ex endibili y,
scalabili y, and elas ici y. Meanwhile, e ms such as ans o mabili y, changeabili y,
and con e ibili y e e o spa ial changes and econ igu a ion o he in e io o i
new use o unc ion equi emen s. Design complexi y a ec s he le el o adap abili y,
and key s a egies add essing his aspec a e e e ed o as gene ali y, simplici y,
commonali y, and open plan. All hese s a egies sha e he p ima y goal o suppo ing
change and ul ima ely ex ending he use ul li e o a building, he e o e, hey a e
conside ed dimensions o adap abili y [8].
The impo ance o designing buildings o adap abili y wi hin he con ex o he
CE lies in i s po en ial o slow ma e ial loops by ex ending he se ice li e o buildings
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 339
Table 13.1 Common de ini ions o adap abili y
De ini ion Re e ed sys ems/
componen s
Sou ce
“A building ha has been designed wi h hough o how
i migh be easily al e ed o p olong i s li e.”
All ypes o sys ems [10], p. 8
S uc u al adap abili y is “The capaci y o he building
s uc u e o be able o unde go changes o he s uc u e
i sel , wi h o wi hou only small consequences o he
emaining building s o eys.”
S uc u e [11], p. 2
The capaci y o a building o accommoda e e ec i ely
he e ol ing demands o i s con ex , hus maximising
alue h ough li e
• Space plan
• S uc u al acili y
sys ems
[12], p. 3
Adap able a chi ec u e is “an a chi ec u e om which
speci ic componen s can be changed in esponse o
ex e nal s imuli, o example, he use s o en i onmen .”
• Space plan
• S uc u e componen s
[13],
p. 167
“The ease wi h which buildings can be physically
modi ied, decons uc ed, e u bished, econ igu ed,
epu posed, and/o expanded”
• All ypes o sys ems
componen s
[14], p. 2
“The capaci y o a building o accommoda e change in
esponse o he eme ging needs o a ying con ex ual
condi ions, he e o e p olonging i s use ul li e while
p ese ing he alue o i s use s o e ime.”
• All ypes o sys ems [8], p. 11
despi e ine i able changes o e ime [8,16]. This app oach is essen ial o a oiding
p ema u e demoli ion, educing ma e ial was e, and cu ing cos s, all o which a e
aluable o a CE by conse ing esou ces and minimising emissions.
Adap abili y can be inco po a ed in o building sys ems o add ess bo h unknown
u u echangeso speci ican icipa edchangescena ios.ISO20887:2020(E)iden i ies
h ee main dimensions o adap abili y: e sa ili y, con e ibili y, and expandabili y
[7]. These p inciples ep esen di e en le els o change:
1. Ve sa ili y applies o spa ial sys ems, e e ing o hei abili y o accommoda e
a ious unc ions wi h mino sys em modi ica ions.
2. Con e ibili y in ol es making mo e signi ican modi ica ions o mee subs an-
ial changes in use needs, ye i is ela ed o e sa ili y as bo h p inciples in ol e
using single spaces o mul iple pu poses.
3. Expandabili y in ol es he addi ion o ex a space ho izon ally o e ically,
signi ican lyimpac ing hes uc u alsys em, acadesys ems,andse icesneeded
o he addi ional space.
D A in ol es inco po a ing speci ic design ea u es in building sys ems, enabling
hem o adap o eme ging needs h oughou hei li ecycle. This ype o adap abili y,
known as “p econ igu ed adap abili y” [17], en ails in eg a ing ce ain ea u es
du ing he design s age o os e a building’s capaci y o espond o changes du ing
subsequen li ecycle s ages.
340 A. Tleuken e al.
Howe e ,adap abili ycanalsobeapplied obuildings no o iginally designed wi h
adap abili y in mind. This can be achie ed h ough adap i e euse s a egies, which
in ol e he “ econ igu a ion” o sys ems du ing he ope a ional s age o p e en a
p ema u e EoL [17]. Adap i e euse, o econ igu ed adap abili y, is discussed in a
la e subsec ion in he hema ic analysis.
His o ically, he “open building” concep [18] is conside ed he ounda ion o he
concep o adap abili y in building design. The open building app oach dis inguishes
be ween wo ypes o building sys ems: suppo sys em, which is he s uc u al co e,
and in ill sys ems, which is he lexible in e io subjec o use changes. These wo
sys ems should be in eg a ed wi h minimal in e ace p oblems o suppo adap a ions
by allowing unc ional independence o each.
The “shea ing laye s” concep in oduced by B and [19] p o ides a di e en
ca ego isa iono sys emsandelemen sinbuildings.Theconcep iswidely ecognised
in he li e a u e as a key enable o adap abili y [8,20]. I iden i ies six laye s o
building sys ems and componen s, as illus a ed in Fig. 13.1: si e (las s o e e ),
s uc u e (30 o 300 yea s), skin (20 o 40 yea s), space plan (3 o 30 yea s), se ices (7
o 20 yea s), and s u (app oxima ely en yea s). These laye s ep esen ca ego ies o
building sys ems acco ding o hei imescales, wi h each laye including componen s
and unc ions o simila li espans. By ensu ing unc ional independence o each o
hese laye s and minimising hei in e ac ions, a building can adap and espond o
change.
A dis inc ca ego isa ion o building elemen s was in oduced by Du mise ic and
B ouwe [21], who desc ibed a h ee-dimensional ans o ma ion: s uc u al, spa ial,
and ma e ial. This ans o ma ion is enabled by a ce ain le el o in e dependency
and exchangeabili y among componen s. They emphasised he ole o demoun able
connec ions as a c i ical ac o in acili a ing change be ween ou unc ional le els in
buildings: building, sys em, componen , and ma e ials. Using a op-down app oach,
a building can be sepa a ed in o sys ems, which in u n can be spli in o componen s,
and u he b oken down in o ma e ials. The ole o demoun able connec ions is also
Fig. 13.1 B and’s shea ing
laye s o change (1994)
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 341
emphasised by Design o Disassembly (D D), which is seen as a suppo i e s a egy
o D A. D D will be discussed in a subsequen subsec ion o his chap e .
Mul iple amewo ks o assess adap abili y based on di e en c i e ia ha e been
p oposed by s udies. Table 13.2 add esses hese c i e ia and indica o s g ouped in o
B and’s laye s, excluding he si e ands u laye s. The si e is con ex - ela edandmo e
ele an o he building as a whole, while s u is usually he use ’s esponsibili y and
does no ac as pa o he building’s igid en i y.
Some c i e ia can pe ain o mo e han one laye and can in luence di e en
sys ems. The e o e, i is impo an o a oid double-coun ing hese c i e ia, especially
when e alua ing he adap abili y o laye s o sys ems sepa a ely.
The D A c i e ia a e ypically add essed du ing he concep design phase using a
checklis o ensu e p ope planning. In a mo e de ailed design s age, buildings can
be e alua ed using a semi-quan i a i e app oach by weigh ing he c i e ia based on
expe s’ opinions o p io i ise he mos impac ul adap abili y c i e ia. Al e na i ely,
p e-weigh ed c i e ia om exis ing amewo ks like FLEX 4.0 [24], he Adap STAR
model [22], o he Le el(s) amewo k Indica o 2.3 Design o Adap abili y and
Reno a ion [23] can be used.
A he componen le el, he mos impo an cha ac e is ics o enable D A a e s an-
da disa ion, du abili y, and e e sibili y [25]. S anda disa ion can occu a di e en
le els: ma e ial, componen , and in e aces and connec ions [8]. S anda dising ma e-
ials used in assemblies and componen s p o ides manageable condi ions o mo e
e icien and e ec i e ecycling p ocesses. S anda dising componen s o assem-
blies c ea es speci ic condi ions o connec ions and in e aces, allowing design
simplici y. S anda dising in e aces o connec ions is ega ded as mo e ad an a-
geous o ci cula i y and mo e e icien o achie e, as i allows in e changeabili y and
exemp s componen s hemsel es om being s anda dised while p o iding e iciency
o ma e ial disassembly [8].
Componen du abili y can be de ined by he leng h o p oduc use li e and he
in ensi y o use, add essing mul iple use cycles. Componen du abili y is also ela ed
o he condi ions o he sys em o which i belongs, making i impo an o add ess
accessibili y o epai and eplacemen . Mo e de ails a e explained in he ollowing
subsec ion on Design o Du abili y.
Las ly, componen e e sibili y, which allows o he sa e eco e y o compo-
nen s o hei composing ma e ials wi h minimal damage, is de ined by he ypes
o in e aces and connec ions, as well as accessibili y o eplacemen and eco e y.
Howe e , e e sibili y c i e ion signi ican ly o e laps wi h D D concep s and will be
u he add essed in D D subsec ion.
13.1.3 Design o Du abili y
Design o du abili y in ol es conside a ions o expec ed li espan, in ensi e use,
main enance equi emen s, and esis ance o wea and ea . These pa ame e s a e
c ucial in indus ial cons uc ion me hodologies o ensu e slowe ma e ial loops by
342 A. Tleuken e al.
Table 13.2 Classi ica ion o exis ing adap abili y c i e ia and indica o s o building sys ems (non-
exhaus i e lis )
Sys em C i e ia F amewo k and
sou ce
S uc u e S uc u al In eg i y-s uc u al design o he building o ca e o
u u e uses and loads
Adap STAR [22]
Le el(s) [23]
Posi ioning o columns/design complexi y Adap STAR [22]
FLEX 4.0 [24]
Le el(s) [23]
G ea e ceiling heigh s o su ace ou es FLEX 4.0 [24]
Le el(s) [23]
S uc u al du abili y Adap STAR [22]
Su plus o building space/ loo space FLEX 4.0 [24]
Skin Façade windows o be opened FLEX 4.0 [24]
Day ligh acili ies
Non-load bea ing acades Le el(s) [23]
Façade pa e n
Space plan Flexibili y/mul i unc ional building Adap STAR [22]
FLEX 4.0 [24]
Access o building: ho izon al ou ing, co ido s, galle y
Disassembly/disconnec ing, emo able, eloca able uni s in
building
Disassembly/disconnec ing, emo able, eloca able in e io
walls
Disassembly/disconnec ing/de ailed connec ion in e io walls
Column g id spans/s uc u al g id Adap STAR [22]
Le el(s) [23]
Compa men alisa ion/in e nal wall sys em
Compa men alisa ion/ he po en ial o seg ega ed home
wo king spaces
Compa men alisa ion/ he po en ial o g ound loo con e sion
o a con ained uni
Possibili y o suspended ceilings FLEX 4.0 [24]
Possibili y o aised loo s
Dis inc ion be ween suppo and in ill
Uni size and access Le el(s) [23]
Se ices Ease o access o se ice duc s and building se ices Adap STAR [22]
Le el(s) [23]
Ease o access o plan ooms Le el(s) [23]
Longi udinal duc s o se ice ou s
Highe ceilings o se ice ou es
Se ices o sub-di isions
Ease o adap a ion o he dis ibu ion ne wo ks and connec o s
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 343
allowing in ensi e and p olonged use o BC&S, hus pos poning hei EoL phase.
Du abili y should be p io i ised o s uc u al sys ems, which mus be obus enough
o handle a ious load scena ios, acili a ing u u e adap a ions [20]. In his sense,
du abili y is essen ial o adap abili y, which equi es s uc u es s ong enough o
mee pe o mance equi emen s o changes in use, unc ion and size [8].
Du abili y is also impo an o o he sys ems, such as açade and in e io sys ems,
o ensu e hey a e used o hei ulles ex en , he eby educing ma e ial inpu s.
This no only ex ends he se ice li e o hese sys ems bu also minimises he need
o equen eplacemen s and epai s, leading o lowe esou ce consump ion and
was e gene a ion. Addi ionally, du able açade and in e io sys ems con ibu e o
he o e all ene gy e iciency and pe o mance o he building, u he suppo ing
sus ainabili y goals. By ocusing on du abili y ac oss all building sys ems, he long-
e m en i onmen al impac and ope a ional cos s can be signi ican ly educed.
A he componen le el, du abili y depends on he du a ion and in ensi y o use,
de ined by he se ice li e and he numbe o cycles he componen o p oduc unde -
goes, espec i ely. Acco ding o he Ma e ial Ci cula i y Indica o (MCI) by he
Ellen MacA hu Founda ion and G an a Design [26], componen s ha las longe
han hei indus y a e age equi alen s con ibu e o g ea e ci cula i y. This is ela ed
o componen quali y and he condi ions o ma e ials cons i u ing he componen . A
componen ’s se ice li e is de e mined by he sho es li espan among i s ma e ials;
ideally, hese ma e ials should ha e simila li espans. I one ma e ial de e io a es
while he es emain unc ional, he componen eaches i s EoL. In his sense, D D
becomes a key complemen a y s a egy o du abili y, ensu ing ha componen s can
be disman led and hei ma e ials eco e ed o euse o ecycling.
Fu he mo e, du abili y is ele an o he accessibili y o componen s o eplace-
men and main enance. Thus, du abili y is again associa ed wi h D D and easy main-
enance s a egies, which p o ide c i e ia o he accessibili y o elemen s and hei
demoun abili y wi hou causing damage o hem o adjacen elemen s.
13.1.4 Design o Disassembly (D D)
D A encompasses se e al ci cula i y s a egies and associa ed concep s, such as lex-
ibili y, con e ibili y, and expandabili y [27], which ha e a signi ican impac a he
building sys em le el. A he componen le el, D A p inciples a e closely associ-
a ed wi h Design o Disassembly (D D). Howe e , D D is also ele an a sys em
le el, pa icula ly impac ing sho e -li e sys ems like se ices, and o en o e laps
wi h mul iple D A s a egies.
The close associa ion be ween D A and D D is e lec ed in he ac ha mul iple
aspec s o hese wo concep s a e o en app oached unde he same umb ella. Fo
example, well-known me hods o assessing adap abili y o en conside D D- ela ed
issues, as seen in s udies by Ge aed s [24] and Conejos e al. [22]. In some cases,
hese concep s a e ea ed in a uni ied con ex (e.g., [28]). Table 13.3 p esen s D D
c i e ia conside ed in D A models, namely Adap STAR by Conejos e al. [22], and
350 A. Tleuken e al.
Table 13.6 Key bene i s and conside a ions o adap i e euse in buildings
En i onmen al bene i s Reducing o e all li ecycle ene gy consump ion
Conse ing embodied ene gy and esou ces
Lowe ing ca bon dioxide and g eenhouse gas emissions
Dec easing ossil uel consump ion
Reducing eshwa e consump ion
Op imising ma e ials use
Minimising land ill was e
His o ic and cul u al signi icance Main aining a chi ec u al in eg i y
Con ibu ing o he cul u al he i age o a place
P ese ing unique his o ical and cul u al cha ac e is ics
Highligh ing u ban cul u al he i age buildings
S uc u al sa e y assessmen Re o i ing s uc u e o mee sa e y s anda ds and
building codes
Ensu ing compliance wi h cu en sa e y s anda ds
In as uc u e and sys em upg ades Upg ading elec ical, plumbing, hea ing, en ila ion, and
ai condi ioning (HVAC) sys ems
Enhancing ene gy e iciency
Financial incen i es Suppo ing inancial incen i es
P o iding ax c edi s
Facili a ing g an s
Implemen ing easy main enance s a egies enables businesses and indi iduals o
ex end he li espan and pe o mance o physical asse s, p e en b eakdowns, educe
down ime, and a oid cos ly epai s o eplacemen s [55,56]. Addi ionally, hese
s a egies op imise ene gy e iciency and esou ce consump ion o hei equipmen ,
which educes hei en i onmen al oo p in and ope a ional expenses. These bene-
i s o easy main enance make i a compelling s a egy o inco po a ing CE in o
buildings, hei sys ems and componen s. Table 13.7 ou lines a ious concep s and
s a egies ha call o easy main enance o main ainabili y o imp o ed closing and
slowing ma e ial loops.
To e ec i ely implemen easy main enance s a egies in he CE, businesses and
indi iduals can ake se e al ac ionable s eps depending on each case condi ions
[57]. Table 13.7 ou lines some o he ac ions o acili a e he implemen a ion o hese
s a egies.
Designing buildings wi h easy main enance in mind, such as inco po a ing
modula componen s and accessible in as uc u e, can simpli y epai s and
upg ades, he eby ex ending he li espan o he building and i s componen s. Mo e-
o e , adop ing p e en i e and p edic i e main enance app oaches allows building
owne s and acili y manage s o p oac i ely iden i y and add ess issues be o e hey
escala e in o majo p oblems. Regula main enance inspec ions and se icing ensu e
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 351
Table 13.7 Ac ions o implemen ing easy main enance s a egies (adap ed om [57–59])
Main enance p og amme Regula ly main aining p oduc s o ex end hei li espan and
educe he need o eplacemen
Accessibili y Ensu ing all componen s a e easily accessible o inspec ion,
main enance, and epai
Designing p oduc s o du abili y C ea ing p oduc s ha a e made o las , wi h componen
pa s o ma e ials ha can be eused
Ease o disassembly Designing p oduc s ha can be easily disassembled o
epai , e u bishmen , o ecycling
Choosing eusable p oduc s Selec ing p oduc s ha can be eused o hei o iginal
pu pose wi hou signi ican al e a ion
Repai ing p oduc s Fixing p oduc s when hey b eak down ins ead o eplacing
hem
Recycling p oduc s Sepa a ing p oduc s in o hei componen pa s and ecycling
hem
Compos ing o ganic was e B eaking down o ganic was e in o nu ien - ich soil ha can
be used o g ow new plan s
Condi ion-based main enance Moni o ing he condi ion o equipmen in eal- ime o
p e en b eakdowns and op imise pe o mance
P edic i e main enance Using da a and analy ics o p edic when equipmen will
need main enance, allowing o p oac i e in e en ions
Remo e moni o ing Using senso s and o he echnology o moni o equipmen
emo ely, allowing o ea ly de ec ion o issues and p oac i e
main enance
op imal pe o mance and educe he likelihood o p ema u e eplacemen s, he eby
conse ing esou ces and minimising was e [59].
Addi ionally, emb acing he CE in building main enance can con ibu e o a
mo e sus ainable ma e ials and was e managemen sys em. P ope was e seg ega ion,
ecycling p og ammes, and he p omo ion o epai and e u bishmen se ices can
di e ma e ials om land ills and educe he demand o i gin esou ces. Fu he -
mo e, inco po a ing ene gy-e icien echnologies and enewable ene gy sys ems in o
building main enance p ac ices can signi ican ly educe he en i onmen al oo p in
o buildings.
13.1.8 Componen Reco e y o Reuse and Recycling
D A and D D a e impo an enable s o a CE in BC&S. Al hough hese s a egies a e
implemen ed a he design s age, he ull ealisa ion o hei alue happens a he EoL
s age when componen s a e eco e ed. Componen eco e y, enabled by D A and
D D, is essen ial o closing he loop by c ea ing po en ial o euse, e u bishmen ,
emanu ac u ingand ecycling.Howe e , he eal alueisle e agedwhen es ablished
352 A. Tleuken e al.
me hods o hese euse and eco e y pa hways a e in place. This elies on egional
and na ional ac o s, including p e ailing echniques and ma e ials, ma ke condi-
ions, s akeholde emb acing, skilled labou , suppo ing egula ions, and exis ing
s anda ds indica ing ecycling and euse a es.
Theselec iono ma e ials om heplanningphase h ough hedesignandp ocu e-
men phases signi ican ly in luences hei eusabili y and ecyclabili y a he EoL
s age. He e a e key s a egies o enhance componen eco e y o euse and ecycling:
1. Ma e ial Selec ion: Choose ma e ials ha a e du able, ecyclable, and eusable
om he ou se . This ensu es ha a he EoL s age, ma e ials can be e icien ly
eco e ed and epu posed.
2. Es ablishing Reco e y Pa hways: De elop clea and e icien me hods o
eco e ing building componen s a he EoL s age. This includes se ing up
sys ems o so ing, anspo ing, and p ocessing ma e ials.
3. Li ecycle Managemen : Implemen Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) o e alua e
he en i onmen al impac o building ma e ials h oughou hei li ecycle. This
helps iden i y oppo uni ies o euse and ecycling, ensu ing ha ma e ials a e
u ilised o hei ulles po en ial [60,61].
4. Collabo a i e Ne wo ks: Fos e collabo a ion among s akeholde s, including
a chi ec s, enginee s, con ac o s, and was e managemen companies. This
collabo a ion can lead o inno a i e app oaches and echnologies ha imp o e
eco e y p ocesses and ma e ial euse.
5. Regula o y Suppo : Ad oca e o policies and egula ions ha suppo he
eco e y and euse o building componen s. This includes incen i es o using
ecycled ma e ials and penal ies o imp ope disposal.
6. Ma ke Condi ions: Unde s and and adap o ma ke condi ions ha a ec he
iabili y o eused and ecycled ma e ials. This includes c ea ing demand o
such ma e ials and ensu ing hei compe i i eness in he ma ke .
7. S akeholde Engagemen : Engage all s akeholde sin he alue chain o emb ace
CE p ac ices. This includes aining and educa ing skilled labou o handle
eco e y p ocesses e ec i ely.
13.1.9 P oduc Responsibili y
Ci cula i y p ac ices o buildings aim o educe en i onmen al impac and esou ce
consump ion h ough s a egies ha conside he en i e li ecycle o a building.
P oduc esponsibili y plays a key ole in add essing he en i onmen al and social
challenges associa ed wi h he building li ecycle, ocusing on he e hical and p ac ical
aspec s o he ma e ials, componen s and p oduc s used in cons uc ion.
Responsible sou cing o ma e ials is c ucial, emphasising sus ainabili y om
he design phase onwa d. Fac o s such as ecyclabili y and eusabili y should be
in eg a ed in o P oduc Se ice Sys ems (PSS) o minimise en i onmen al pollu-
ion. PSS is an inno a i e business model ha encompasses he design, ins alla ion,
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 353
Table 13.8 Key elemen s o p oduc esponsibili y o enhance CE in buildings
Responsible
sou cing
Ensu ing ha ma e ials a e sus ainably sou ced, ecyclable, enewable, and
ha e a low ca bon oo p in
Li ecycle
assessmen
E alua ing he en i onmen al impac s o ma e ials and componen s om
p oduc ion o disposal, suppo ing in o med decisions o long- e m
sus ainabili y
Recyclabili y and
eusabili y
Designing componen s o easy disassembly, euse, o ecycling a he end
o hei se ice li e, educing was e and p omo ing esou ce e iciency
Inno a i e
business models
Adop ing PSS o ocus on p o iding sus ainable se ices co e ing design,
ins alla ion, main enance, and decons uc ion
S akeholde
collabo a ion
Engaging supplie s, con ac o s, and clien s o ensu e sus ainable p ac ices
h oughou he cons uc ion p ocess
Regula o y
compliance
Adhe ing o en i onmen al egula ions and s anda ds ha p omo e
sus ainable cons uc ion p ac ices and he use o eco- iendly ma e ials
main enance, and decons uc ion o building ma e ials and componen s, p o iding
sus ainable and e icien solu ions h oughou he building’s li ecycle.
An exempla y applica ion o PSS is seen in he Mo inga Company o Ge many,
whose p ojec in Hambu g Ha enCi y aims o cons uc a sus ainable building using
nume ous ecycled ma e ials wi hou any pollu an s [42]. Table 13.8 ou lines key
elemen s o p oduc esponsibili y o ci cula i y in buildings.
13.1.10 Sha ing and Exchange Oppo uni ies
One o he p ima y objec i es o implemen ing ci cula i y in he cons uc ion sec o
is o achie e maximum e iciency and op imise common p ocesses by mo ing away
om he adi ional p oduce-use-dispose enginee ing model. The closed-loop sys em
o he CE can be enhanced by in eg a ing and de eloping a cul u e o Sha ing and
Exchange (S&E), as p oposed by he ReSOLVE amewo k [62], among cons uc-
ion indus y s akeholde s. By sha ing common machine y, equipmen , da abases,
so wa e, and by-p oduc s om a ious p ocesses, o by exchanging ou da ed ech-
nologies wi h inno a i e ones, he cons uc ion sec o can align wi h CE p inciples
[63].
Howe e , se e al challenges a e associa ed wi h implemen ing S&E oppo u-
ni ies in he building sec o . An impo an example is he disjoin ed supply chain
and ine icien in o ma ion exchange be ween big playe s [64]. The esolu ion lies
in adop ing new echnologies such as Big Da a Analysis (BDA), Blockchain ech-
nology (BTC), and Digi al Pla o ms, which allow designe s o in es iga e eusable
ma e ials and collabo a e mo e e ec i ely [64]. While he implemen a ion o hese
echnologies can be cos ly, posing a ba ie o smalle companies, leading i ms like
A up a e se ing as example by ad ancing he cons uc ion indus y owa ds hese
new me hods, op imised by s a emen s like “ om bin o BIM” [65].
354 A. Tleuken e al.
Sha ing asse s like o ice spaces and public acili ies, also known as he collabo a-
i e economy o pooling o goods, is gaining popula i y in he cons uc ion indus y.
A no ewo hy example is he Sou h Aus alian Go e nmen ’s p omo ion o collabo a-
i e use, managemen , and main enance o acili ies wi h simila inpu s and ou pu s,
aiming o ex ac mo e alue while educing esou ce low and consump ion [64].
Enhancing he exchange o equipmen and ma e ials is c ucial o he cons uc-
ion sec o . Guidance o ansi ioning om ou da ed app oaches o con empo a y
p ac ices can be d awn om he Indus ial Symbiosis model, whe e la ge companies
sha e se ices commonly used by e e yone [66]. Simila ly, cons uc ion companies
can bene i om sha ing machine y o equipmen ins ead o pu chasing. Equip-
men sha ing be ween con ac o s can be ad an ageous in e ms o inances, ime,
and con enience, while pu chasing o en ing equipmen in eme gencies o sho age
can delay wo k due o addi ional bu eauc acy, anspo a ion, and ins alla ion [67,
68]. P ac ical cen alised and decen alised esou ce-sha ing and exchange models,
conside ing alloca ion and con lic - esolu ion models, demons a e he cons uc ion
sec o ’s p og ess in implemen ing CE concep s [68]. Table 13.9 highligh s a ious
indica o s and c i e ia o e alua ing he implemen a ion o CE in his con ex .
Table 13.9 Indica o s and c i e ia o e alua ing he implemen a ion o he ci cula economy in
sha ing and exchange oppo uni ies in building componen s and se ices
E iciency and
op imisa ion
Mo ing away om he adi ional “p oduce-use-dispose” model owa ds
ci cula i y
Sha ing and
exchange cul u e
Sha ing common esou ces such as machine y, equipmen , da abases,
so wa e, and by-p oduc s, as well as exchanging ou da ed echnologies
wi h inno a i e ones
Resolu ion o
challenges
Adop ion o echnologies like big da a analysis (BDA), Blockchain
echnology (BTC), and digi al pla o ms o esol e ine iciencies and
imp o e collabo a ion
Collabo a i e
economy
The end o sha ing asse s like o ice spaces and public acili ies in he
cons uc ion indus y, also known as a collabo a i e economy o pooling o
goods
Resou ce
e iciency
Ex ac ing mo e alue while educing esou ce low and consump ion, a
key c i e ion o CE implemen a ion
Equipmen and
ma e ial exchange
Shi ing om adi ional pu chasing o en ing app oaches o mo e
collabo a i e sha ing models
Indus ial
symbiosis
Following he Indus ial symbiosis model, whe e la ge companies sha e
se ices, as a di ec ion o ansi ioning om ou da ed o con empo a y
p ac ices in he cons uc ion sec o
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 355
13.2 Ci cula Economy o Building Componen s
and Sys ems: R-app oaches and ReSOLVE
F amewo k
The p inciples o he CE a e ex ensi ely discussed in he li e a u e, e ol ing om
he basic 3R ( educe, euse, ecycle) amewo k o he mo e comp ehensi e 9R
amewo k ( e use, e hink, educe, euse, epai , e u bish, emanu ac u e, epu -
pose, ecycle, eco e ) [69,70]. The co e idea behind R-app oaches is o es ablish a
was e hie a chy ha p io i ises he mos e ec i e s a egies o minimising esou ce
consump ion and was e p oduc ion, wi h EoL ecycling as he las ci cula eso .
The 3R p inciples can be applied o de ine, app ise and p io i ise indica o s o
ci cula i y o BC&S. The “Reduce” app oach in ol es op imising he numbe o
connec ions, s uc u al elemen s, laye s, acades componen s and inishing ma e ials,
as well as selec ing ma e ials ha a e ligh weigh ye du able and main ainable. The
“Reuse” app oach ocuses on p ese ing he quali y o building componen s om
exis ing buildings o use in new cons uc ions, employing ci cula p ac ices such
as d y me hods o s uc u al connec ions. The “Recycle” app oach, as a las eso ,
in ol es ex ac ing aluable esou ces om was e o u he use. Recycling can
be u he ca ego ised in o h ee le els, anked om mos o leas p e e able: upcy-
cling (e.g. c ea ing new wooden u ni u e om old wooden boa ds), ecycling (e.g.
c ushingdemolishedconc e e o useasagg ega e in newconc e e),anddowncycling
(e.g., using conc e e beams o agg ega es o oad pa emen ) [71,72].
The ReSOLVE amewo k ou lines key ac ions o ansi ioning om linea
o ci cula business models: Regene a e, Sha e, Op imise, Loop, Vi ualise, and
Exchange [63]. Each o hese ac ions can ela e o he ci cula i y o BC&S, guiding
he decision-making p ocess. “Regene a e” sugges s selec ing ma e ials ha can be
eplenished na u ally. “Sha e” ad oca es o business models ha encou age collab-
o a i e use o ma e ials, componen s, equipmen , and echnology, hus minimising
he need o new esou ces. “Op imise” in ol es educing he numbe o building
componen s and choosing du able elemen s ha equi e less main enance. “Loop”
aims o minimise was e h ough euse and ecycling, applying o bo h he eco e y
o cons uc ion and demoli ion was e (C&DW) a he EoL s age and he design
s age, which should conside disassembly and adap abili y echniques o acili-
a e ecycling/upcycling p ac ices wi hou ex ensi e so ing. “Vi ualise” in ol es
c ea ing i ual da abases o collec da a on building ma e ials and componen s,
con en , his o y, and labelling, imp o ing euse oppo uni ies and educing was e
gene a ion. “Exchange” p omo es he de elopmen o eclaimed ma e ials ma ke s,
connec ing alue chain s akeholde s h ough p o iding pla o ms o sha ing, selling
o pu chasing seconda y cons uc ion componen s.
While he R-app oaches and he ReSOLVE amewo k p o ide aluable guide-
lines o CEbusiness models, o he suppo ing ac o sa eessen ial, including a obus
egula o y amewo k, inancial incen i es, s akeholde in e es , and in ol emen .
356 A. Tleuken e al.
13.3 Classi ica ion o Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s
o Building Componen s and Sys ems (BC&S)
In gene al, he ci cula i y c i e ia o BC&S can be g ouped in o he ollowing ca e-
go ies: cha ac e is ics o a building componen o sys em, cons uc ion and demoli-
ion was e (C&DW) managemen , connec ions condi ions, egula ions and documen-
a ion and s akeholde in ol emen . These ca ego ies we e de i ed om a comp e-
hensi e hema ic analysis, which also highligh ed addi ional aspec s such as ma e-
ial euse po en ial, li ecycle assessmen , and economic easibili y. Including hese
aspec sp o idesamo eholis icapp oach oe alua ing ci cula i y in buildingcompo-
nen s and sys ems. These c i e ia ca ego ies a e connec ed o mul iple indica o s o
he EU moni o ing amewo k o CE by Eu os a [73]. This amewo k encompasses
i e dis inc hema ic a eas (TA): p oduc ion and consump ion (TA1), was e handling
(TA2), seconda y aw ma e ials (TA3), compe i i eness and inno a ion (TA4), and
global sus ainabili y and esilience (TA5). Table 13.10 p o ides in o ma ion on CE
c i e ia and indica o s o BC&S ci cula i y c i e ia ca ego ies and co esponding
Eu os a indica o s.
13.3.1 The Cha ac e is ics o Building Componen s
and Sys ems
These include he ollowing indica o s: main ainabili y (meaning hey can con inue
o be kep in use h ough main enance) and du abili y [69]. I is also impo an o
conside he ecyclabili y o eusabili y o he ecycled ma e ials o ensu e hey can
con inue con ibu ing o he CE beyond hei cu en applica ion. Talking abou he
in e ac ion wi h o he objec s in he s uc u e, sys ems, and componen s should be
e e sible, simple, and as o connec ion [74]. F om Eu os a ci cula c i e ia, he
ollowing indica o s can be ela ed o BC&S:
•Ci cula Ma e ial Use Ra e (can be used o e alua e he ci cula i y le el o BC&S
ma e ials);
•Con ibu ion o Recycled Ma e ials o Raw Ma e ials Demand
•End-o -Li e Recycling Inpu Ra es (EOL-RIR) ( his indica o can be used o
e alua e he numbe o ecycled ma e ials used in BC&S)
•T ade in Recyclable Raw Ma e ials ( his indica o can be used o assess euse o
ma e ials used o BC&S)
•Ma e ial Foo p in ( his indica o can be ela ed o he o al amoun o building
ma e ials and s uc u al elemen s used du ing cons uc ion and main enance li e
s ages o a s uc u e)
•G eenhouse Gas Emissions om P oduc ion Ac i i ies ( his indica o ela es
o he p oduc ion o BC&S causing GHG emissions, which equi es op imised
p oduc ion o BC&S, as well as euse, sha ing, and ecycling)
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 357
Table 13.10 A summa y o ci cula i y c i e ia o buildings a componen and sys em le els
Ci cula i y c i e ia o BC&S Rela ed indica o s om
eu os a moni o ing amewo k
Ca ego y C i e ia Sou ce
Cha ac e is ics (TA1,
TA3, TA4)
Main ainabili y o he
componen s
Du abili y o he
componen s
[69]Ci cula ma e ial use a e (cei_
s m030)
Con ibu ion o ecycled
ma e ials o aw ma e ials
demand-end-o -li e ecycling
inpu a es (EOL-RIR) (cei_
s m010)
T ade in ecyclable aw
ma e ials (cei_s m020)
Ma e ial oo p in (cei_pc020)
G eenhouse gas emissions
om p oduc ion ac i i ies
(cei_gs 011)
Ma e ial impo dependency
(cei_gs 030)
EU sel -su iciency o aw
ma e ials (cei_gs 020)
Reuse, ecycling, and
upcycling po en ial
in e ace: e e sibili y,
simplici y, speed
[74]
Cons uc ion and
demoli ion was e
(C&DW)
managemen (TA2,
TA3)
To al amoun o
C&DW p oduced
Reuse a e
Reco e y a e
Recycling a e
Sepa a e collec ion a e
Reused p oduc s om
C&DW
[75]Was e gene a ion pe capi a
(cei_pc034)
Gene a ion o was e excluding
majo mine al was es pe GDP
uni (cei_pc032)
Gene a ion o packaging was e
pe capi a (cei_pc040)
Gene a ion o plas ic
packaging was e pe capi a
(cei_pc050)
Recycling a e o all was e
excluding majo mine al was e
(cei_wm010)
Recycling a e o packaging
was e by ype o packaging
(cei_wm020)
Recycling a e o was e o
elec ical and elec onic
equipmen (WEEE) sepa a ely
collec ed (cei_wm060)
Connec ions
condi ions (TA1,
TA2, TA4)
Re e sible connec ions [20,76–78] Resou ce p oduc i i y (cei_
pc030)
S anda dised
connec ions and
as ene s
[79]
Modula cons uc ion [8,75,80]
S anda dised labelling [81]
Minimise s uc u al
elemen s used
[82]
(con inued)
358 A. Tleuken e al.
Table 13.10 (con inued)
Ci cula i y c i e ia o BC&S Rela ed indica o s om
eu os a moni o ing amewo k
Ca ego y C i e ia Sou ce
Regula ions and
documen a ion (TA5)
Guides o he use o
building ma e ials
e icien ly
P o ocols o
incen i isa ion o CE
p ac ices use
P ocu emen ha
co e s ci cula
p oduc s
Volun a y ag eemen s
Sequence o
disassembly,
ecommended ools,
and sa e y guides
[75,83]P i a e in es men and g oss
added alue ela ed o ci cula
economy sec o s (cei_cie012)
Pa en s ela ed o ecycling and
seconda y aw ma e ials (cei_
cie020)
S akeholde
in ol emen
Ini ia i es on euse
Cons uc ion
companies ha
p io i ise he use o
ci cula me hods and
componen s
S akeholde s’
engagemen in he
design p ocess
T aining
[75] Pe sons employed in ci cula
economy sec o s (cei_cie011)
•Ma e ial Impo Dependency & EU Sel -Su iciency o Raw Ma e ials (highe
impo dependency o BC&S om o he coun ies a he han use o local
esou ces, can lead o highe ca bon oo p in , his is why local ma e ials should
be p e e ed o ci cula i y).
13.3.2 Cons uc ion and Demoli ion Was e (C&DW)
Managemen
Va ious indica o s exis o e alua ing he cons uc ion and demoli ion was e
(C&DW) c i e ion, including euse, ecycling and eco e y a es, he sepa a e ea -
men o C&DW, and he ex en and equency o he euse o BC&S. These indica o s
can be u he de ailed, as seen in Po ugal’s ac ion plan o he CE, which measu es
he execu ion a e o he equi emen o use a minimum o 5% ecycled ma e ials in
cons uc ion [75].
P io i ising he use o ecycled o eused ma e ials o e aw ma e ials in cons uc-
ion and eno a ion p ocesses is bene icial o esou ce conse a ion. Howe e , he
quali y and condi ion o he ecycled o ma e ials o be eused ma e ials a e c ucial
13 Ci cula i y C i e ia and Indica o s a he Building Componen … 359
in his case; he e o e, i is essen ial o assess hei quali y and condi ion o ensu e
hey mee he desi ed s anda ds o s uc u al in eg i y, appea ance, and pe o mance
and heal h.
Acco ding oEu os a ’sci cula i yc i e ia,such indica o scanbe ela ed o BC&S
o C&DW:
•Was e Gene a ion pe Capi a: Lowe was e gene a ion pe capi a du ing he li e-
cycle o BC&S indica es imp o ed ci cula i y, as i implies less ma e ial being
was ed.
•Gene a ion o Was e Excluding Majo Mine al Was es pe GDP Uni : This
measu es how e icien ly componen s and sys ems a e used o minimise was e.
•Gene a ion o Packaging Was e pe Capi a and gene a ion o Plas ic Packaging
Was e pe Capi a: These indica o s ela e o he packaging ma e ials used o
deli e ingBC&S,wi hen i onmen allysound packaging p e e ed o ci cula i y.
•Recycling Ra e o All Was e Excluding Majo Mine al Was e: This measu es how
e icien ly was e composed o componen s and sys ems is ecycled o u he
applica ions.
•Recycling Ra e o Packaging Was e by Type o Packaging: This indica o ela es
o he ecycling o packaging ma e ials used o deli e ing BC&S.
•Recycling Ra e o Was e o Elec ical and Elec onic Equipmen (WEEE) Sepa-
a ely Collec ed: This indica o ela es o ci cula i y p ac ices in he elec ical
sys ems o buildings.
13.3.3 Connec ions Condi ions
In he implemen a ion o a CE, he connec ions be ween he BC&S should be
designed as demoun able uni s ha can be easily sepa a ed and emo ed wi hou
causing damage o a ached elemen s and pa s [78]. This in ol es using e e sible
connec ions, such as bol s o sc ews, click connec ions, elc o connec ions, and
magne ic connec ions, ins ead o pe manen adhesi es, welds, o complex ix u es
[76,77].Theseconnec ions acili a e he euseo eco e edelemen sandcomponen s
[84], and help achie e unc ional independence [20].
S anda disa ion o connec ions is also an impo an enable o ci cula i y, as
s anda dised connec ions and as ene s enable quick and simple assembly and disas-
sembly.Addi ionally,s anda disedconnec ionscompensa e heneed o s anda dised
componen s and elemen s, simpli ying he p ocess and u he suppo ing ci cula i y
[79].
The u ilisa ion o modula cons uc ion echniques enhances ci cula i y p ocess
by enabling easy assembly and disassembly o building componen s [75,80]. Modu-
la i y is a signi ican enable o adap abili y, allowing o design simplici y and
acili a ing spa ial sys em modi ica ion and ans o mabili y [8].
Implemen ing s anda dised labelling sys ems wi h clea iden i ica ion ags o
ma kings on BC&S can g ea ly aid in hei iden i ica ion, so ing, and acking du ing
366 A. Tleuken e al.
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