Ci a ion: dos San os, V.A.; Pe ei a da
Sil a, P.; Se ano, L.M.V. The
Ma i ime Sec o and I s P oblema ic
Deca boniza ion: A Sys ema ic
Re iew o he Con ibu ion o
Al e na i e Fuels. Ene gies 2022,15,
3571. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
en15103571
Academic Edi o s: Eugenio Meloni,
Albe o-Jesus Pe ea-Mo eno, José
Ca los Magalhães Pi es, Ju i Beliko ,
I a Ridjan Sko , Gio gio Vila di and
An onio Zuo o
Recei ed: 4 Ap il 2022
Accep ed: 5 May 2022
Published: 13 May 2022
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ene gies
Re iew
The Ma i ime Sec o and I s P oblema ic Deca boniza ion: A
Sys ema ic Re iew o he Con ibu ion o Al e na i e Fuels
Vinicius And ade dos San os 1,2 , Pa ícia Pe ei a da Sil a 1,3,4,5,* and Luís Manuel Ven u a Se ano 6,7,*
1
MIT-Po ugal P og amme, Ene gy o Sus ainabili y Ini ia i e (EFS), Depa men o Mechanical Enginee ing,
Uni e si y o Coimb a, 3030-194 Coimb a, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
2Chemical P ocess Enginee ing and Fo es P oduc s Resea ch Cen e (CIEPQPF), Chemical Enginee ing
Depa men , Uni e si y o Coimb a, 3030-790 Coimb a, Po ugal
3Cen e o Business and Economic Resea ch (CeBER), Uni e si y o Coimb a, A Dias da Sil a, 165,
3004-512 Coimb a, Po ugal
4Facul y o Economics, Uni e si y o Coimb a, A Dias da Sil a, 165, 3004-512 Coimb a, Po ugal
5The Ins i u e o Sys ems Enginee ing and Compu e s a Coimb a INESC, Uni e si y o Coimb a, Pólo II,
3030-290 Coimb a, Po ugal
6School o Technology and Managemen , Poly echnic o Lei ia, 2411-901 Lei ia, Po ugal
7Associa ion o De elopmen o Indus ial Ae odynamics (ADAI), Uni e si y o Coimb a,
3030-788 Coimb a, Po ugal
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (P.P.d.S.); [email p o ec ed] (L.M.V.S.)
Abs ac :
The p esen s udy seeks o selec he mos impo an a icles and e iews om he Web o
Science da abase ha app oached al e na i e uels owa ds he deca boniza ion o he ma i ime sec o .
Th ough a sys ema ic e iew me hodology, a combina ion o keywo ds and manual e ining ound a
con ibu ion o 103 wo ks wo ldwide, he Eu opean con inen accoun ing o 57% o all publica ions.
Twen y- wo ypes o uels we e ci ed by he au ho s, lique ied na u al gas (LNG), hyd ogen, and
biodiesel con ibu ing o 49% o he men ions. G eenhouse gases, sul u oxide, ni ogen oxide, and
pa icula e ma e educ ions a e some o he main ad an ages o cleane sou ces i used by he
essels. Ne e heless, he e is a lack o p ac ical esea ch on new s anda ds, engine pe o mance, cos ,
and egula ions om he academy o di ec mo e s akeholde s owa ds low ca bon in ensi y in he
shipping sec o .
Keywo ds: low ca bon uels; g eenhouse gases; ma i ime anspo a ion; sys ema ic e iew
1. In oduc ion
In pas cen u ies he ma i ime sec o has p o ed o be he mos impo an means
o anspo o wo ld goods, anspo ing mo e han 1 billion ons o p oduc s by sea
wo ldwide, g owing a an a e age a e o 3% pe yea since 1970 [
1
]. Al hough sea
anspo a ion is he bes indica o o he wo ld economic g ow h, he side e ec has been
he impac ega ding he complexi y o deca boniza ion measu es.
Nowadays, ma i ime ossil uel consump ion accoun s o a ound 2.2 million ba els
o oil equi alen (MBOE), which ep esen s almos 1000 million ons o equi alen ca bon
dioxide (M CO
2
eq), e lec ing 3% o global emissions [
2
]. Mo eo e , he so-called bunke
uel has a e y low quali y, impac ing high emissions o sul u oxide (SOx), ni ogen oxide
(NOx), and pa icula e ma e (PM) [3,4].
The Sul u Emission Con ol A eas (SECA) en e ed in o o ce in 2015 o educe he
sul u con en om 4.5% o 0.1% in he Bal ic Sea and Ame ican coas and 0.5% elsewhe e
in 2020. The NOx emission educ ion egula ions ha e also been in place since 2016 [5].
The demand o low emissions o such compounds igge ed a end owa d cleane
uels, as well as he conce ns o e he g eenhouse gases (GHG) emission educ ions, which
ha e d awn he a en ion o go e nmen s wo ldwide.
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/en15103571 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ene gies
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 2 o 30
Since 2011, he In e na ional Ma i ime O ganiza ion (IMO) has implemen ed a eg-
ula o y measu e o ene gy e iciency equi emen s o all ships globally o educe gas
emissions om he shipping sec o , h ough p og ams such as he Ene gy E iciency Design
Index S anda ds (EEDI) and he Ship Ene gy E iciency Managemen Plan (SEEMP) [
6
–
9
].
Howe e , se e al measu es a e s ill needed o achie e he a ge o 50% lowe emissions by
2050 [9].
The In e na ional Ene gy Agency scena io p oposed a numbe o ac i i ies ha mus
en e in o o ce immedia ely o mee he expec ed a ge s, which includes he use o
al e na i e uels.
The e a e cu en ly se e al s udies and esea ch connec ing he ma i ime sec o o low
emissions. Ne e heless, only LNG has been widely discussed while o he al e na i es a e
ha dly men ioned. The e o e, he sys ema ic e iew eme ges as an impo an me hodology
o quan i y he numbe o esea ch, egions, and au ho s ha a e add essing low ca bon
op ions o he ma i ime sec o .
The sys ema ic e iew me hodology is equen ly used in clinical esea ch and social
sciences. Howe e , i has been cons an ly used in o he esea ch ields as well [
10
–
12
]. We
looked up se e al pape s and e iews in he Web o Science (WoS) da abase wi h speci ic
selec ed keywo ds ela ed o low ca bon uels in he ma i ime sec o o unde s and he
p oposed esea ch ques ions (RQ) in s a is ical e ms: Wha is he numbe o al e na i e low
ca bon uel publica ions? (RQ1); Wha a e he la ges coun y con ibu o s? (RQ2) Who
ha e been he mos impo an au ho s? (RQ3); Which jou nal has con ibu ed he mos in
numbe o publica ions? (RQ4); and Wha ha e been he mos ci ed al e na i e uels (RQ5).
This s udy assesses he main publica ions (a icles and e iews) in he cu en ly
a ailable li e a u e on he Web o Science (WoS) da abase o iden i y he mos ele an
cleane al e na i e uels as deca boniza ion sou ces in he ma i ime sec o , highligh ing
hei ad an ages and disad an ages as well as iden i ying he gaps o o e come in u u e
esea ch. Mo eo e , we will make a desc ip i e s a is ical analysis o he selec ed pape
o iden i y he mos in luen ial and p oduc i e au ho s, egions, and jou nals ha ha e
con ibu ed highly o his ho opic o e ime. The a icle is a anged as ollows. Sec ion 2
p esen s he gene al e iew o essel ypes, cu en uel g ades used, and he emissions
conce ns o IMO. Sec ion 3se s ou he me hodology o pe o m he e iew, delinea ing he
keywo ds and e ining p ocedu e. Sec ion 4p esen s he analysis execu ed, highligh ing
he p oduc ion o e ime, main jou nals, egions, coun ies’ collabo a ions, mos ci ed
al e na i e uels as low ca bon op ions, and he ba ie s o be o e come. Sec ion 5p esen s
he conclusions, discussion, and sugges ions o he u u e.
2. Gene al Re iew o Vessel Types and Cu en Fuels
2.1. Ca go Ship Classi ica ion and P opulsion
Nowadays, a ound 52,000 ca go ships anspo goods ac oss he wo ld. They a e bulk
ca ie s, oil anke s, and con aine ships [
12
]. Ma ine diesel engines a e undamen ally
he same as ha o oad ehicles, ye hey a e commonly bigge and wo k wi h highe
e iciency. Abou 75% o all ma ine diesel engines a e ou -s oke; no wi hs anding, 75%
o he in oduced powe is deli e ed by wo-s oke engines [
13
,
14
]. All o hese ships
ep esen 500 GW o engine capaci y [
12
], mo e han all ins alled enewable (428 GW)
and ossil (365 GW) powe in Eu ope [
15
]. In o de o comp ehend he dimension o he
shipping sec o which has an exclusi e demand o ossil uels, Figu e 1compa es he
di e en sou ces o he Eu opean elec ici y capaci y ( enewable and non enewable) e sus
he wo ld ma i ime engine capaci y.
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 3 o 30
Ene gies2022,15,xFORPEERREVIEW3o 31



Figu e1.Wo ldma i imeenginepowe compa ed oEu opeanins alledpowe (The igu ewas
cons uc edbasedonda acap u ed omBalcombee .al(2019)[12]andS a is a(2020)[15].
The ea eessen ially h eeca ego ieso ma ineengines:slowspeed,mediumspeed,
andhigh‐speed,no mallyclassi iedinkno s(15–25kno s)[12,16].Theca ego ychoice
dependson hesize,enginespeed,andpu pose.Mode a espeedengines egula ly
unc ionunde 350 e olu ionspe minu e( pm)andha eexcep ionallylow uel
u iliza ion.As a assizeisconce ned,slow‐speedenginesa e hela ges engineson he
plane  ha usehea y ueloil(HFO) o igni ion[13,17].
2.2.Ma ineBunke Classi ica ion
Ma ine uelcanbeclassi iedasdis illa e,in e media e,and esidual(Table1).The
dis illa eclassesa enamedma inegasoil(MGO)o ma inedis illa eoil(MDO)which
ha edi e en g ades(DMA,DMB,DMX,DMZ).Thele e s“A”,“B”…“Z”, e e  o he
pa icula p ope iesunde  hep oduc speci ica ion,ISO8217:2017[18,19].
Thein e media e ueloil(IFO)isdi idedin og ades180and380, hesenumbe s
co espond o hemaximumkinema ic iscosi yo  he esidual uel,insqua emillime e s
pe second(mm2/s)a 50°C[19].
Residual uels,alsocalled esidualma ine uels(RMA,RMB,RMD,RME,RMG,
RMK)o hea y ueloil(HFO),inpa icula ,a eo  e ylowquali y,lowe cos ,anda e
hemos used,andindi e en g ades[19].As hedis illa eclass, hele e  e e s o hei 
p ope iesunde In e na ionalO ganiza ion o S anda diza ion(ISO)8217:2017[19].

0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Wo ldMa i imeEngineCapaci y
Wind
PV
Gas
Coal
Nuclea
Oil
Hyd o
Biomass
O he
GW
Figu e 1.
Wo ld ma i ime engine powe compa ed o Eu opean ins alled powe (The igu e was
cons uc ed based on da a cap u ed om Balcombe e .al (2019) [12] and S a is a (2020) [15].
The e a e essen ially h ee ca ego ies o ma ine engines: slow speed, medium speed,
and high-speed, no mally classi ied in kno s (15–25 kno s) [
12
,
16
]. The ca ego y choice
depends on he size, engine speed, and pu pose. Mode a e speed engines egula ly unc ion
unde 350 e olu ions pe minu e ( pm) and ha e excep ionally low uel u iliza ion. As
a as size is conce ned, slow-speed engines a e he la ges engines on he plane ha use
hea y uel oil (HFO) o igni ion [13,17].
2.2. Ma ine Bunke Classi ica ion
Ma ine uel can be classi ied as dis illa e, in e media e, and esidual (Table 1). The
dis illa e classes a e named ma ine gas oil (MGO) o ma ine dis illa e oil (MDO) which
ha e di e en g ades (DMA, DMB, DMX, DMZ). The le e s “A”, “B”
. . .
“Z”, e e o he
pa icula p ope ies unde he p oduc speci ica ion, ISO 8217:2017 [18,19].
Table 1.
Classi ica ion o ma ine uels ( he able was cons uc ed based on da a a ailable in s udies o
Mohd Noo e al. (2018) [13] and Ve mie e (2021) [19]).
Ma ine
Fuel Fuel Type Fuel G ade Common Indus ial
Name De ini ion
MGO
Dis illa e DMX, DMA, DMB,
DMZ
Gas oil o ma ine gas oil,
ma ine diesel oil
Iden ical o au omo i e diesel
MDO
I con ains a mix u e o hea y uel oil and
a highe p opo ion o ma ine gas oil.
IFO
In e media e
IFO 180, 380 In e media e uel oil such as ma ine diesel oil, a mix u e o a
highe p opo ion o HFO wi h MGO.
HFO Residual RMA, RMB, RMD,
RME, RMG, RMK Fuel oil o esidual uel oil
The lowes g ade o ma ine uel. I is a
esidual oil, high- iscosi y, and equi es
p ehea ing be o e use.
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 4 o 30
The in e media e uel oil (IFO) is di ided in o g ades 180 and 380, hese numbe s
co espond o he maximum kinema ic iscosi y o he esidual uel, in squa e millime e s
pe second (mm2/s) a 50 ◦C [19].
Residual uels, also called esidual ma ine uels (RMA, RMB, RMD, RME, RMG, RMK)
o hea y uel oil (HFO), in pa icula , a e o e y low quali y, lowe cos , and a e he mos
used, and in di e en g ades [
19
]. As he dis illa e class, he le e e e s o hei p ope ies
unde In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion (ISO) 8217:2017 [19].
2.3. In e na ional Shipping Emissions: Cu en and Fo ecas Scena ios
Mos CO
2
emissions om in e na ional shipping a e p oduced by bulk ca ie s, con-
aine ships, and oil anke s (15%, 18%, and 11% o he o al shipping emissions, espec-
i ely). The high emissions o hese essels a e di ec ly connec ed wi h he long jou neys
o deli e ing hei ca go ac oss seas and con inen s [12,20].
The sha e o consump ion by uel ype is 72% o HFO, 26% o ma ine gas oil, and 2%
o LNG [
12
,
21
]. The main conce n o HFO consumed by he shipping sec o is he sul u
con en es ima ed a 13% o he wo ld’s sul u emissions [
12
,
22
]. SOx emissions con ibu e
o se e al en i onmen al p oblems, such as acidi ica ion o he wa e and soil, and human
heal h issues [12,23].
The new egula ions al eady in o ce imposed by Annex VI o he IMO ha e limi ed
he sul u con en in Emission Con ol A eas (ECA) (0.1%) (0.1% m/m) and non-ECA a eas
(0.5% m/m), eplacing he HFO wi h MGO o LNG [
12
]. The ECA a eas a e comp ised
o he Bal ic Sea, No h Sea, Eas and Wes coas s o he Uni ed S a es, and he Ca ibbean
Sea wi hin a dis ance o 200 nau ical miles [
24
], while non-ECA a eas ep esen he es o
he wo ld.
Conce ning NOx emissions, Tie I came in o o ce in 2000 wi h s anda ds anging om
app oxima ely 10 o 17 g/kWh, acco ding o speed engines, Tie 2 (in 2011) os e ed 20%
NOx educ ion below Tie 1, and Tie 3 s anda ds applied o he NOx Emission Con ol
A ea (NECA) (The same egions o ECA a eas as sul u con ol) o engines ins alled a e
1 Janua y 201
6, wi h 80% NOx educ ion below Tie 1 [
25
]. Regula ion 13 o Ma pol Annex
VI s ipula es ha he emission con ol o all ship engines is designed o powe s abo e
130 kilowa s (kW) [26]
. Al hough egula ions ega ding SOx and NOx a e s ic e , he CO
2
emission educ ion measu es a e s ill weak and insu icien .
The In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency (IRENA) [
27
] ecen ly published a epo
p ojec ing he uel demand in he shipping sec o in 7.9–12.4 EJ by 2050, lis ing he mos
ele an con ibu ing ac o s: global economic g ow h, economic g ow h in eme ging
ma ke s, shi owa d cleane cooking uels, s ong g ow h in he pe ochemical sec o ,
egional ade ag eemen s, and cleane ene gy ansi ion.
2.4. Ma i ime Sec o and CO2Emissions
CO
2
emissions in he ma i ime sec o a e o ecas o each alues wo- old highe
han cu en le els by 2050. This scena io aised IMO conce ns o plan e ec i e measu es
agains he uncon olled emissions o he sec o . The 72nd Ma ine En i onmen P o ec ion
Commi ee (MEPC) esolu ion o he IMO se he goal o educing emissions by hal in he
nex h ee decades [24].
The scena ios in Figu e 2p edic he GHG emissions by 2050, hose da a we e con-
s uc ed by he IMO in he Thi d G eenhouse Gases S udy o IMO [
20
], ollowing he
assump ions below:
•
Combina ions o he Rep esen a i e Concen a ion Pa hways (RCP) ( he RCPs (RCP2.6,
RCP4.5, RCP6, and RCP8.5) a e p ojec ions adop ed by he In e go e nmen al Panel
o Clima e Change (IPCC) which ep esen s he ange o adia i e o cing caused by
he GHG emissions in he yea 2100 (2.6, 4.5, 6, and 8.5 W/m
2
, espec i ely) [
20
]), and
he Sha ed Socioeconomic Pa hway (SSP) ( he SSPs a e p ojec ions un il he yea 2100
u ilized by he IPCC which o ecas s social-economic global changes and d aws he
GHG emissions in i e scena ios wi h di e en clima e policies: SSP1 (sus ainabili y),
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 5 o 30
SSP2 (in e media e challenge), SSP3 ( egional i al y), SSP4 (inequali y), and SSP5
( ossil- ueled de elopmen ) [20]) in all scena ios.
•
Scena ios 1–4 we e simula ed by combining he RCP and SSP wi h high pene a ion o
lique ied na u al gas (LNG) and high imp o emen in ene gy e iciency (60%) o e
he 2012 lee a e age by 2050.
•
Scena ios 5–8 we e simula ed by combining he RCP and SSP wi h high pene a ion o
LNG and lowe imp o emen in ene gy e iciency (40%) o e he 2012 lee a e age
by 2050.
•
Scena ios 9–12 we e simula ed by combining he RCP and SSP wi h low pene a ion
o LNG and high imp o emen in ene gy e iciency (60%) o e he 2012 lee a e age
by 2050.
•
Scena ios 13–16 a e he business as usual scena io (BAU) which we e simula ed by
combining he RCP and SSP wi h low pene a ion o LNG and lowe imp o emen in
ene gy e iciency (40%) o e he 2012 lee a e age by 2050.
•The do ed line is he ambi ious a ge o 438 M CO2eq by 2050 p oposed by IMO.
Ene gies2022,15,xFORPEERREVIEW5o 31


Thescena iosinFigu e2p edic  heGHGemissionsby2050, hoseda awe e
cons uc edby heIMOin heThi dG eenhouseGasesS udyo IMO[20], ollowing he
assump ionsbelow:
 Combina ionso  heRep esen a i eConcen a ionPa hways(RCP)( heRCPs
(RCP2.6,RCP4.5,RCP6,andRCP8.5)a ep ojec ionsadop edby he
In e go e nmen alPanelo Clima eChange(IPCC)which ep esen s he angeo 
adia i e o cingcausedby heGHGemissionsin heyea 2100(2.6,4.5,6,and8.5
W/m2, espec i ely)[20]),and heSha edSocioeconomicPa hway(SSP)( heSSPsa e
p ojec ionsun il heyea 2100u ilizedby heIPCCwhich o ecas ssocial‐economic
globalchangesandd aws heGHGemissionsin i escena ioswi hdi e en clima e
policies:SSP1(sus ainabili y),SSP2(in e media echallenge),SSP3( egional i al y),
SSP4(inequali y),andSSP5( ossil‐ ueledde elopmen )[20])inallscena ios.
 Scena ios1–4we esimula edbycombining heRCPandSSPwi hhighpene a ion
o lique iedna u algas(LNG)andhighimp o emen inene gye iciency(60%)o e 
he2012 lee a e ageby2050.
 Scena ios5–8we esimula edbycombining heRCPandSSPwi hhighpene a ion
o LNGandlowe imp o emen inene gye iciency(40%)o e  he2012 lee 
a e ageby2050.
 Scena ios9–12we esimula edbycombining heRCPandSSPwi hlowpene a ion
o LNGandhighimp o emen inene gye iciency(60%)o e  he2012 lee a e age
by2050.
 Scena ios13–16a e hebusinessasusualscena io(BAU)whichwe esimula edby
combining heRCPandSSPwi hlowpene a iono LNGandlowe imp o emen 
inene gye iciency(40%)o e  he2012 lee a e ageby2050.
 Thedo edlineis heambi ious a ge o 438M CO2eqby2050p oposedbyIMO

Figu e2.GHGlong‐ e mscena io(The igu ewasadjus edonda aa ailableinThi dG eenhouse
GasS udy2014)[20].
2800
438
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2055
Scena io1RCP8.5/SSP5 Scena io2RCP6.0/SSP1 Scena io3RCP4.5/SSP3
Scena io4RCP2.6/SSP4 Scena io5RCP8.5/SSP5 Scena io6RCP6.0/SSP1
Scena io7RCP4.5/SSP3 Scena io8RCP2.6/SSP4 Scena io9RCP8.5/SSP5
Scena io10RCP6.0/SSP1 Scena io11RCP4.5/SSP3 Scena io12RCP2.6/SSP4
Scena io(BAU)13RCP8.5/SSP5 Scena io14(BAU)RCP6.0/SSP1 Scena io15(BAU)RCP4.5/SSP3
Scena io16(BAU)RCP2.6/SSP4 IMO
M CO
2
eq
Figu e 2.
GHG long- e m scena io (The igu e was adjus ed on da a a ailable in Thi d G eenhouse
Gas S udy 2014) [20].
Recen ly he IMO assumed ha he measu es o educe emissions mus be imple-
men ed as ea ly as possible o his cen u y, se ing ambi ion le els and guiding p inci-
ples [24].
GHG educ ions a e s ill only based on he Ene gy E iciency Design Index (EEDI)
and he Ship Ene gy E iciency Managemen Plan (SEEMP), which a e in line wi h he
echnical and ope a ional ca ego ies [
28
,
29
]. Technical measu es ocus on design and
imp o emen in ene gy e iciency, p opulsion, powe sys em, and low ca bon uels. Some
ac ions can be implemen ed h ough e o i ing o exis ing ships, while o he s only in

Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 6 o 30
new ships [
28
]. E en so, al e na i es a e equi ed and he sec o has u ned i s a en ion o
al e na i e op ions.
Nex , we ou line he me hods o he app oach and he mos ecen s udies ha ci e al-
e na i e sou ces as one o he deca bonizing measu es o be applied in he ma i
ime sec
o .
3. Ma e ial and Me hods
A he momen he e a e se e al s udies ega ding low ca bon al e na i e uels, ne e -
heless ew o hem apply o he ma i ime sec o .
To highligh impo an a icles and e iews, a sys ema ic analysis was made o he Web
o Knowledge online da abase se ice by Thomson Reu e s Inc. S udies we e adap ed [
30
]
om he simila s udy al eady a ailable in he li e a u e [
31
]. Based on a combina ion
o wo ds o ind pape s which men ion cleane uels as an al e na i e o deca bonize he
ma i ime sec o .
Re ining
The e ining me hod will be elabo a ed on in 3 s eps. The 1s s ep is aken in he
ad anced sea ch by applying he ield ag displayed in Table 2below.
Table 2. Keywo ds e ining.
1s S ep o Re ining Keywo d Resea ch
TS = ( enewable ene gy o bio uels o ad anced bio uel o al e na i e uels o low ca bon uel o
biome hanol o bioe hanol o biodiesel o me hyl es e o biogas o bio LNG o bio lique ied
na u al gas o Hyd o ea ed Vege able oil o enewable uel o py olysis oil o Fische T opsch o
hyd ogen o hyd o he mal lique ac ion o ba e ies o s a e o he a echnologies) and
TS = (deca b
oniza ion o low ca bon emissions o deca bonize o g eenhouse gases educ ions o
GHG educ ions o g eenhouse gases emissions o GHG emissions) and
TS = (Ma i i
me sec o o
shipping sec o o in e na ional shipping sec o o ma i ime anspo a ion o deca bonize
in e na ional ma i ime o al e na i e uel o ma ine applica ions o ma ine diesel engines)
TS ep esen s he opic and he bina y a iables OR, AND ela e he keywo ds wi h
he in en ion o inding pape s on he Web o Science da abase.
The 2nd s ep is o ela e only pape s and e iews, in he English, du ing he pe iod
om Janua y 2000 o Janua y 2022.
The 3 d s ep is conduc ed manually, he pape s which app oach al e na i e uels as
cleane sou ces o he ma i ime deca boniza ion.
4. Resul and Discussion
4.1. Selec ed Pape s and Desc ip i e S a is ics
Figu e 3displays he h ee s eps sugges ed, as well as hei esea ch c i e ia. The i s
selec ed s udies eached an o e all combina ion o 328 a icles, e iews, p oceedings pape s,
and book chap e s, wi h pape s and e iews accoun ing o 91% o he o al. Ne e heless,
i was necessa y o ca y ou manual e ining o he deca boniza ion o he ma i ime sec o
and al e na i e and low ca bon uels.
A e manual e ining, he RQ1 can be answe ed, whe e 91 pape s and 12 e iews
(Figu e 3) we e selec ed as a baseline o pa o he s a e o he a . The g ow h in
publica ions in 2018 (Figu e 4) was e iden , om only 3 (2.91% o o al) in 2017 o 29 (28.16%
o o al) in 2021. The yea s om 2020 o 2022 co espond o 65% o he pape s conce ned,
d i en by he IMO’s ecen manda o y equi emen s o g eenhouse gas emissions which
gained p ominence due o eal in en ions o educ ion ecen ly.
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 7 o 30
Ene gies2022,15,xFORPEERREVIEW7o 31


Ne e heless,i wasnecessa y oca you manual e ining o  hedeca boniza iono  he
ma i imesec o andal e na i eandlowca bon uels.
A e manual e ining, heRQ1canbeanswe ed,whe e91pape sand12 e iews
(Figu e3)we eselec edasabaseline o pa o  hes a eo  hea .Theg ow hin
publica ionsin2018(Figu e4)wase iden , omonly3(2.91%o  o al)in2017 o29
(28.16%o  o al)in2021.Theyea s om2020 o2022co espond o65%o  hepape s
conce ned,d i enby heIMO’s ecen manda o y equi emen s o g eenhousegas
emissionswhichgainedp ominencedue o ealin en ionso  educ ion ecen ly.

Figu e3.Rela eddocumen son e ineds eps.

Figu e4.Publica ionso e  heyea s.
We ind heanswe  oRQ2in heselec edwo ks,whichhighligh  hehigh
con ibu iono  heEu opeancoun ies(57%)(Table3),p obablyd i enby hes ic  ules
inplacesince2015in heBal ic, heNo hSea,andNo hAme icancoas  ega dingSOx
andNOx.Mo eo e ,Eu opehasahighene gydependence, hus he eisacommi men 
o educeno only heemissionsassocia edwi h ossilsou cesusedin hema i imesec o 
1s S ep‐328documen s
● Resea chc i e ia:
Combina iono keywo ds
Webo ScienceDa aBase
● Pe iod:Janua yo 2000
oJanua yo 2022
2ndS ep‐297documen s
● Resea chc i e ia:
● Types:A icles,Re iews
● Language:English
3 dS ep‐103documen s
● ExclusionC i e ia:
● Dono add essMa i ime
T anspo a ion
Deca boniza ionand
al e na i e ueluse(194
pape selmina eda e 
abs ac , i leandkey
wo ds ead)
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
Numbe o publica ions %
Figu e 3. Rela ed documen s on e ined s eps.
Ene gies2022,15,xFORPEERREVIEW7o 31


Ne e heless,i wasnecessa y oca you manual e ining o  hedeca boniza iono  he
ma i imesec o andal e na i eandlowca bon uels.
A e manual e ining, heRQ1canbeanswe ed,whe e91pape sand12 e iews
(Figu e3)we eselec edasabaseline o pa o  hes a eo  hea .Theg ow hin
publica ionsin2018(Figu e4)wase iden , omonly3(2.91%o  o al)in2017 o29
(28.16%o  o al)in2021.Theyea s om2020 o2022co espond o65%o  hepape s
conce ned,d i enby heIMO’s ecen manda o y equi emen s o g eenhousegas
emissionswhichgainedp ominencedue o ealin en ionso  educ ion ecen ly.

Figu e3.Rela eddocumen son e ineds eps.

Figu e4.Publica ionso e  heyea s.
We ind heanswe  oRQ2in heselec edwo ks,whichhighligh  hehigh
con ibu iono  heEu opeancoun ies(57%)(Table3),p obablyd i enby hes ic  ules
inplacesince2015in heBal ic, heNo hSea,andNo hAme icancoas  ega dingSOx
andNOx.Mo eo e ,Eu opehasahighene gydependence, hus he eisacommi men 
o educeno only heemissionsassocia edwi h ossilsou cesusedin hema i imesec o 
1s S ep‐328documen s
● Resea chc i e ia:
Combina iono keywo ds
Webo ScienceDa aBase
● Pe iod:Janua yo 2000
oJanua yo 2022
2ndS ep‐297documen s
● Resea chc i e ia:
● Types:A icles,Re iews
● Language:English
3 dS ep‐103documen s
● ExclusionC i e ia:
● Dono add essMa i ime
T anspo a ion
Deca boniza ionand
al e na i e ueluse(194
pape selmina eda e 
abs ac , i leandkey
wo ds ead)
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
Numbe o publica ions %
Figu e 4. Publica ions o e he yea s.
We ind he answe o RQ2 in he selec ed wo ks, which highligh he high con ibu ion
o he Eu opean coun ies (57%) (Table 3), p obably d i en by he s ic ules in place since
2015 in he Bal ic, he No h Sea, and No h Ame ican coas ega ding SOx and NOx.
Mo eo e , Eu ope has a high ene gy dependence, hus he e is a commi men o educe no
only he emissions associa ed wi h ossil sou ces used in he ma i ime sec o bu also o
educe he dependence on ex e nal ene gy. Rega ding he anking by coun y, 41 coun ies
showed con ibu ions, he i s 5 coun ies accoun ing o 49% o he o al. England and he
USA accoun ed o he highes p opo ion (18%), ollowed by China and No way (14%),
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 8 o 30
Ge many and Sweden (12%), and he Ne he lands (5%). The emaining coun ies accoun ed
o 4% o less.
Table 3. Numbe o s udies pe coun y.
Rank Coun ies % Coun ies % Posi ion Region %
1s England 9 G eece 1 1s Eu ope 57
USA 9 No he n I eland 1 2nd Asia 21
2nd China 7 Poland 1 3 d No h Ame ica 12
No way 7 Japan 1 4 h Sou h Ame ica 4
3 d Ge many 6 Aus ia 1 5 h Oceania 3
Sweden 6 Bosnia 1 6 h A ica 2
4 d Ne he lands 5 Cyp us 1 7 h Middle Eas 1
5 h
Singapo e 4 Denma k 1
Spain 4 Iceland 1
B azil 4 Li huania 1
6 h
Tu key 3 Mal a 1
I aly 3 Mon eneg o 1
Canada 3 Sco land 1
7 h
Sou h Ko ea 2 Se bia 1
Taiwan 2 Saudi A abia 1
C oa ia 2 Uni ed A ab Emi a es 1
Finland 2 Fiji 1
I eland 2 Sou h A ica 1
Aus alia 2 Nige ia 1
8 h India 1 Egyp 1
Malaysia 1 To al
100%
Conce ning au ho s (RQ3), a o al o 446 au ho s w o e 103 a icles (Appendix A). Fou
pe cen o he a icles we e w i en by indi idual au ho s, while 19.42% we e w i en by
wo au ho s, 16.50% by h ee au ho s, and 60.19% in ol ed a eam o ou o mo e au ho s
(Table 4). Fu he mo e, Table 5shows he lis o he mos p oduc i e au ho s. Lins ad, E.
and Xing, H. w o e 3 a icles each. A he same ime, he o he au ho s published ei he
wo pape s o one pape each. The e o e, Bouman, EA. and Balcombe, P. ha e he mos
ci ed pape s—7% and 14% espec i ely—ou o a o al o 1600 ci ed pape s.
Table 4. Numbe o au ho s pe pape .
Numbe o Au ho s pe
Pape Numbe o Pape s %
13 1 1
12 1 1
11 1 1
10 3 3
9 1 1
8 1 1
7 9 9
6 9 9
5 11 11
4 25 24
3 17 16
2 20 19
1 4 4
To al 103 100
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 9 o 30
Table 5. Mos p oduc i e and ci ed au ho s.
Au ho s Numbe o
Pape s %Times
Ci ed %Ci a ions
pe Pape Au ho s Numbe o
Pape s %Times
Ci ed %Ci a ions
pe Pape
Linds ad, E 3 3% 26 2% 9 Law, L 1 1% 0 0% 0
Xing, H 3 3% 37 2% 12 Liu, J 1 1% 0 0% 0
Ampah, JD 2 2% 6 0% 3 Mallouppas, G 1 1% 5 0% 5
Bach, H 2 2% 19 1% 10 Mukhe jee, A 1 1% 2 0% 2
Balcombe, P 2 2% 109 7% 55 Mwangi, JK 1 1% 29 2% 29
Ca alho, F 2 2% 1 0% 1 Nabi, MN 1 1% 8 1% 8
Gabina, G 2 2% 35 2% 18 Nai , A 1 1% 2 0% 2
Lin, CY 2 2% 39 2% 20 Nikolic, D 1 1% 2 0% 2
Mulle -Casse es, E 2 2% 5 0% 3 Nine, RD 1 1% 3 0% 3
Pe cic, M 2 2% 26 2% 13 Nuch u ee, C 1 1% 26 2% 26
Sa i, A 2 2% 1 0% 1 Ogunkunle, O 1 1% 16 1% 16
Shannina, M 2 2% 28 2% 14 O iz-Imedio, R 1 1% 3 0% 3
A ms ong, VN 1 1% 45 3% 45 Pan, HS 1 1% 32 2% 32
A ilhan, S 1 1% 22 1% 22 Peng, WH 1 1% 8 1% 8
Awoyomi, A 1 1% 4 0% 4 Pe zold, A 1 1% 53 3% 53
Ay ali, T 1 1% 0 0% 0 P ei e , A 1 1% 13 1% 13
ben B ahim 1 1% 14 1% 14 Popp, L 1 1% 0 0% 0
Bice , Y 1 1% 30 2% 30 P asad, RD 1 1% 2 0% 2
Bouman, EA 1 1% 226 14% 226 P ussi, M 1 1% 14 1% 14
Cassa , MP 1 1% 0 0% 0 Righi, M 1 1% 38 2% 38
Chen, ZS 1 1% 0 0% 0 Rizzo, AM 1 1% 0 0% 0
Chiong, MC 1 1% 1 0% 1 Rod iguez, CG 1 1% 0 0% 0
Choi, W 1 1% 16 1% 16 Schons eine , K 1 1% 10 1% 10
Ch is odoulou, A 1 1% 1 0% 1 Se a, P 1 1% 15 1% 15
Co bin, JC 1 1% 14 1% 14 Spoo -Tuomi, K 1 1% 11 1% 11
Co ez, L 1 1% 0 0% 0 S yh e, L 1 1% 68 4% 68
Cze manski, E 1 1% 4 0% 4 Taccani, R 1 1% 4 0% 4
Elka as, AG 1 1% 3 0% 3 Tan, ECD 1 1% 1 0% 1
Gallo, M 1 1% 5 0% 5 Tanze , SE 1 1% 20 1% 20
Ga cia, B 1 1% 0 0% 0 To es-Ga cia, M 1 1% 11 1% 11
Ghenai, C 1 1% 43 3% 43 T i yza, NL 1 1% 0 0% 0
Gilbe , P 1 1% 71 4% 71 T ed en, IO 1 1% 0 0% 0
Gonzalez-A ias, J 1 1% 0 0% 0 Tzanna os, E 1 1% 5 0% 5
Gysel, NR 1 1% 11 1% 11 Ushako , S 1 1% 7 0% 7
Hagos, DA 1 1% 29 2% 29 an de K o 1 1% 0 0% 0
Hansson, J 1 1% 29 2% 29 Wahl, J 1 1% 0 0% 0
Helgason, R1 1 1% 11 1% 11 Wang, H 1 1% 4 0% 4
He dzik, J 1 1% 0 0% 0 Wang, ZC 1 1% 2 0% 2
Hi da is, SE 1 1% 47 3% 47 Wineb ake, JJ 1 1% 5 0% 5
Ho a h, S 1 1% 33 2% 33 Winnes, H 1 1% 86 5% 86
Hwang, SS 1 1% 6 0% 6 Wu, P 1 1% 17 1% 17
Inal, OB 1 1% 26 2% 26 Yildi im Peksen, D 1 1% 0 0% 0
Kesieme, U 1 1% 27 2% 27 Yusu , AA 1 1% 0 0% 0
Khan, MY 1 1% 23 1% 23 Zah aee, SM 1 1% 0 0% 0
Kis ne , L 1 1% 1 0% 1 To al 103 100% 1600 100%
Table 6highligh s he equency o he pape s published in he jou nals (RQ4). The
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion,Sus ainabili y, and T anspo a ion Resea ch Pa D s and ou , wi h
wen y-one pe cen o all published pape s (21%), ollowed by Ene gies and Ene gy (12%),
he In e na ional Jou nal o Hyd ogen Ene gy, and Renewable & Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews
(10%). The emaining jou nals published only ou pape s o less.
The i s en pape s (10% o he o al) lis ed in Table 7co esponded o 768 ci a ions
(48% o he o al) which is almos hal o he selec ed documen s, p obably o he eason
hey a e one o he i s e e ences o al e na i e uel use as an op ion o educe GHG
emissions and o he pollu an gases. The majo indings om hose s udies a e summa ized
in sequence (Table 7).
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 16 o 30
Table 8.
GHG emissions o di e en uels ( he able was cons uc ed based on da a a ailable in
Balcombe e .al (2019) s udies [12].
Fuel Types gCO2eq/kWh
LNG 580–870
Hyd ogen 113–997
Biodiesel 90–430
Me hanol 50–290
Py olysis Oil 250–340
FT-diesel 50
HVO 210–400
E hanol 140–250
SVO 290
Ad anced bio uels, such as ad anced bio-me hanol, bio-me hane, FT-diesel, and
py olysis oil can impac he CO
2
eq ca bon oo p in u he (Table 8) due o he ac ha
hey do no compe e wi h ood and eed p oduc ion since he eeds ock comes mainly om
was e [12].
The s udies by Bouman e al. (2017) [
28
] p esen ed bio uels as displaying he bigges
po en ial o educing GHG emissions in he ma i ime sec o . Fu he mo e, hei biodeg ad-
abili y is an ad an age ega ding acciden al spills [
12
,
68
]. Se a and Fancello (2020) [
69
]
ci ed he ad an ages o bio uels in connec ion wi h hei biodeg adabili y. Howe e , he
au ho s highligh ed he a en ion o cons ain s on he emissions associa ed wi h di ec and
indi ec land use.
In s udies by Law e al. [
70
] he impo ance o he li e cycle assessmen (well- o-wake)
o e he al e na i e uel use is men ioned. The en i e supply chain mus ensu e ha all he
impac s some uels can cause and a well- o-wake ene gy assessmen o ma ine uels s ill
lacking conside a ion in li e a u e be accoun ed o . F om se e al bio uel ypes and ou es,
biodiesel and bio-me hanol we e ci ed as good op ions in e ms o cos s, a ailabili y, and
le el o echnology. Howe e , he main p oblems conce n NOx, SOx, and PM. The au ho
also concluded ha hyd ogen and ammonia a e he wo s op ions due o he o e all ene gy
consumed and high cos s o p oduc ion.
P ussi e al. [
71
] also men ioned ha ze o-emission in al e na i e uels only occu s
om a ank- o-wake pe spec i e, since many emissions and impac s may occu be o e hei
p oduc ion and o he GHG me hodologies mus be used (well- o- ank). The au ho also
commen ed ha i al e na i e op ions do no come om a enewable basis, he ca bon
oo p in can be highe han he con en ional ossil sou ces al eady used.
The supply chain o al e na i e uels assessmen is a de e minan o e i y how clean
some uels can be, and he ull li e cycle assessmen is he mos impo an ool ci ed by
some au ho s o quan i y he many impac s caused by di e en ene gy sou ce op ions.
4.1.11. Ma i ime Bio uel Use and Ba ie s
The new manda o y ules conce ning ma i ime anspo can inc ease he cos consid-
e ably o he sec o by a ound USD 60 billion pe annum. The uel expendi u e ep esen s
almos hal o he ope a ing cos , and i can e lec an inc ease o 10% o he equi alen o
he wen y- oo uni (TEU) cos anspo ed [69,72].
Only a ew al e na i e op ions a e cu en ly a ailable and LNG appea s o be he
bes ansi o y op ion. Howe e , he pa adigm is in bunke supplie s, who do no wan o
make in es men s un il su icien demand is gua an eed, and he ship-owne s do no make
in es men s i he e a e no e ueling poin s [
69
,
73
]. This obse a ion can also apply o he
al e na i e uel op ions.
The sea ch o new and manda o y measu es has awakened he conce ns abou he
ebound e ec hey can p oduce [
69
,
74
]. Fo example, some s udies sugges ha , i he
new ECA egula ions a e applied in he Medi e anean Sea, hey can inc ease he cos

Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 17 o 30
o ma i ime anspo by abou 6.95 EUR/GJ [
69
,
75
,
76
] and os e a modal shi o land
anspo , con ibu ing o inc easing CO2emissions [64,69].
Ano he eal p oblem is he spli o incen i es be ween shipowne s and cha e e s.
The cos o in es men s in cleane al e na i es is only easible i he o me di ec ly ope a e
hei ships o make be e ag eemen s wi h cha e e s, spli ing he economic ad an ages
and disad an ages o g eene decisions.
As ag eed be ween ship-owne s and he po ope a o s, GHG emission educ ion is
subjec o h ee main kinds o isks: business, echnical, and ex e nal [
69
,
77
]. The i s
conce ns he payback pe iod, he second is a ibu ed o he lack o eliabili y o he ules
applied, and he hi d e e s o he cos o uel, policy, and egula ions.
An impo an obse a ion has been made by Machado (2019) in B azil [
78
]. The
implemen a ion o he new ules conce ning 0.5% less sul u emissions can impac he cos
o he diesel used in oad anspo . Due o his ac , dis illed ma ine uel is simila o
he diesel used in oad anspo a ion. The high demand can impac he lack o uel and
consequen ly inc ease he p ice.
I can ha e he same impac on i s -gene a ion bio uel, which is al eady being used in
blends o oad anspo in many pa s o he wo ld.
This conce n men ioned be o e opens up he way o ad anced bio uels and al e na i e
uel explo a ion. Howe e , he low de elopmen o his sou ce makes i highly expensi e
and discou ages i s use.
5. Conclusions and Sugges ions o he Fu u e
The s udy selec ed high-s anda d pape s in he Web o Science da abase o iden i y
he con ibu ion o academia in he li e a u e o he use o al e na i e uels in he shipping
sec o as a low ca bon op ion. Se e al assessmen s was done o analyze ac o s as numbe
o pape s, he mos au ho s, he main egions and how ci ed hose a icles and e iews
ha e been employed o con ibu e o educe he GHG emissions in ma i ime sec o .
The esea ch was impo an o unde s anding which esou ces ha e con ibu ed mos
o he scena io, how hey ha e de eloped, wha is expec ed o he u u e, and why hey a e
impo an . Based on keywo d combina ion, 103 a icles we e ound ha men ion bio uels
o low ca bon al e na i es used in he ma i ime sec o .
The LNG is undoub edly he main low ca bon al e na i e wi h many ships al eady
ope a ing wi h his sou ce in he wo ld. Eigh y-eigh pe cen o he pape s e e ed o
LNG as an impo an sou ce in he ma i ime sec o o GHG educ ion. Mo eo e , i can
signi ican ly educe o he emissions, such as SO
x
, NO
x
, and PM. Ne e heless, he me hane
slip (me hane ha escapes in o he a mosphe e) is one o he d awbacks due o i s high
GHG po en ial. Bio-LNG could be a po en ial op ion, bu p oduc ion is s ill oo low o mee
he high demand in he shipping sec o .
Hyd ogen is one o he mos ci ed op ions (16.2%). In a ank- o-wheel assessmen , H
2
om ossil sou ces has nil GHG emissions, which can also be highly ca bon-in ensi e when
analyzed om a well- o-wheel pe spec i e. Renewable hyd ogen o g een hyd ogen has
been widely discussed o he medium- and long- e m, bu he cu en s age o de elopmen
and use in he shipping sec o is s ill low.
Biodiesel is a enewable and low ca bon sou ce, which ep esen ed 14.5% o o al
men ions. This op ion, oge he wi h HVO (3.8%) and SVO (3.4%) a e sou ces ha can be
blended in o he cu en ma ine engines wi hou u he modi ica ion. Ne e heless, he
main eeds ock comes om ood/ eed sou ces and om de o es ed a eas, which can aise
o he issues.
Me hanol accoun ed o 23.8% o men ions in he assessed s udies. The la ges ba ie
is i s p oduc ion, which is consolida ed only h ough ossil esou ces, and a modes numbe
o essels a e al eady unning on his al e na i e uel.
A new ecen esou ce widely discussed in academia is ammonia. This uel ( ossil
o enewable) is capable o be employed in ICE o ull cells. The esou ce ecei ed 9.8%
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 18 o 30
o men ions in he assessed pape s. Howe e , i s ill appea s as a p omising hope o he
u u e since i is s ill limi ed o he esea ch ield.
The ad anced ou e o al e na i e uel p oduc ion had an exp essionless con ibu ion.
Py olysis oil and Fische –T opsch diesel accoun ed o 5.1 and 4.3% o ci a ions, espec i ely,
in he selec ed pape s. Al hough hey ha e an exp essi e con ibu ion o GHG emission
educ ions, he d awback is he low de elopmen le el o hose echnologies, lack o
s anda ds, and high cos o p oduc ion.
In all cases men ioned be o e, he cleane uels a e s ill no su icien ly ep esen a i i y
in he ma i ime sec o . P obably due o he lack o incen i es om he p oduc ion and
consume demand. Mo eo e , he e is a lo o esis ance om he shipping indus y. The
s udy concluded ha se e al ba ie s, such as low echnology de elopmen , cos and
accessibili y, shipping indus y, cha e e accep ance, and lack o homogeneous egula ions
o e in e na ional wa e s, hampe he de elopmen o new uel sou ces.
Some al e na i es can be used as a blend in cu en uels, such as LNG, biodiesel,
and me hanol. Mo eo e , lignocellulosic esidues can inc ease hei a ailabili y wi hou
cons aining ood and eed p oduc ion, no he compe i ion wi h bio uels al eady used in
he oad sec o [63].
In e ms o ends, Ampah e al. [
31
] concluded, ha LNG has been he mos in es-
iga ed al e na i e sou ce, mainly d i en by he ac ha i is an abundan cleane uel;
u he mo e, hei p oduc ion, anspo a ion, s o age, and inal use hold consolida ed
echnologies wi h cos -compe i i eness. Howe e , he au ho also concluded ha he e is a
new esea ch endency o e me hanol, ammonia, and hyd ogen.
Top expe s belie e ha implemen a ion may be di icul due o he associa ed high
cos . Ne e heless, high cos compa ed o wha ? I is clea ha ossil uel s ill accoun s o
exp essi e subsidies in he wo ld, and he ma i ime sec o uses he cheapes uel compa ed
o o he anspo modes. Consequen ly, he ques ion one mus ask is wha p ice will we
pay in he u u e? This s udy has been impo an o show he lack o in-dep h s udies on
cleane uel op ions in he ma i ime sec o . The p i a e sec o and go e nmen s mus s a
ac ing now o s imula e esea ch and de elopmen , which, consequen ly, will soon sp ead
o he shipping indus y.
The s udy e iew he ein has no included p ac ical s udies on he al e na i e p oduc-
ion and es s, whe e all o hem a e limi ed only in heo y. P ac ical s udies a e essen ial o
gain he eliabili y and con idence o he shipping indus y.
O he s udies, i.e., on he b eak-e en le el o oil p ice, could be ca ied ou o assay a
which p ice le el o oil would he cleane sou ces be compa able o he cu en ossil uels.
The de elopmen o he ca bon ma ke will also be an impo an measu e o s imula ing
ma i ime sec o deca boniza ion.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
V.A.d.S.: concep ualiza ion, me hodology, in es iga ion, w i ing—o iginal
d a , w i ing— e iew and edi ing; P.P.d.S.: esou ces, concep ualiza ion, alida ion, supe ision,
w i ing— e iewand edi ing; L.M.V.S.: esou ces, concep ualiza ion, alida ion, supe ision, w i ing—
e iew and edi ing. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This Resea ch was unded by he Science and Technology Founda ion (FCT), Minis y o
Science and Highe Educa ion (MCTES), Eu opean Social Fund (FSE), and Eu ope Union (EU), unde
he g an numbe PD/BD/142848/2018.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No applicable.
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 19 o 30
Acknowledgmen s:
The au ho would like o acknowledge he inancial suppo ecei ed om he
Science and Technology Founda ion (FCT), Minis y o Science and Highe Educa ion (MCTES),
Eu opean Social Fund (FSE), and Eu ope Union (EU), unde he g an numbe PD/BD/142848/2018.
Pa ícia P. Sil a acknowledges ha his wo k has been pa ially suppo ed by he Eu opean Regional
De elopmen Fund in he amewo k o COMPETE 2020 P og amme and he FCT hough p ojec
T4ENERTEC (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029820), by he FCT unde p ojec s UID/MULTI/00308/2020
and UIDB/05037/2020 and by he Ene gy o Sus ainabili y Ini ia i e o he Uni e si y o Coimb a.
Con lic s o In e es :
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o
pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Abb e ia ions
€Eu os
BAU Business-as-usual
Bio-LNG Bio lique ied na u al gas
Bio-SNG Bio syn he ic na u al gas
CO2Ca bon dioxide
CH4Me hane
DMA Des ila e ma ine oil A
DMB Des ila e ma ine oil B
DMX Dis illa e ma ine oil X
DMZ Dis illa e ma ine oil Z
EEDI Ene gy E iciency Design Index
FT-diesel Fische –T opsch diesel
gCO2eq G am o equi alen ca bon dioxide
GHG G eenhouse gases
GHG G eenhouse gases
GJ Gigajoule
GW Gigawa
HFO Hea y uel oil
HVO Hyd o ea ed ege able oil
ICE In e nal combus ion engine
IEA In e na ional Ene gy Agency
IFO In e media e uel oil
IGC In e na ional Code o he Cons uc ion and Equipmen o Ships Ca ying
Lique ied Gases in Bulk
IRENA In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency
IMF In e media e ma ine uel
IMO In e na ional Ma i ime O ganiza ion
ISO In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion
kWh Kilowa -hou
LNG Liqui ied na u al gas
Ma pol In e na ional Con en ion o he P e en ion o Pollu ion om Ships
MBOE Million ba el o oil equi alen
MCDA Mul i-c i e ia decision analysis
MDO Ma ine dis illa e oil
LNG Liqui ied na u al gas
MBOE Million Ba el o Oil Equi alen
MCDA mul i-c i e ia decision analysis
MDO Ma ine dis illa e oil
M CO2eq Million ons o equi alen ca bon dioxide
N2O Ni ous oxide
RMA Residue ma ine oil A
RMB Residual ma ine oil B
RMD Residual ma ine oil D
RME Residual ma ine oil E
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 20 o 30
RMF Residue ma ine Fuel
RMG Residual ma ine oil G
RMK Residual ma ine oil K
RPM Re olu ion pe minu e
RQ Resea ch ques ion
s Second
SECA Sul u Emissions Con ol A ea
SEEMP Ship Ene gy E iciency Managemen Plan
SOx Sul u oxide
SVO S aigh ege able oil
SSP Sha ed socio-economic pa hway
Tonne
TEU Twen y equi alen uni s
USA Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
USD US Dolla
WoS Web o Science
Appendix A
Table A1. Selec ed a icles.
Numbe A icle Ti le Au ho s
1Re o i ing owa ds a g eene ma ine shipping u u e: Reassembling ship uels and
lique ied na u al gas in No way [79]
2
S udy on cha ac e is ics o ma ine hea y uel oil and low ca bon alcohol blended uels
a di e en empe a u es [80]
3Li e cycle assessmen o diesel and hyd ogen powe sys ems in ugboa s [81]
4Ca bon aba emen cos o hyd ogen-based syn he ic uels-A gene al amewo k
exempla ily applied o he ma i ime sec o [82]
5Decision suppo me hods o sus ainable ship ene gy sys ems: A
s a e-o - he-a e iew [83]
6Biogas upg ading o biome hane as a local sou ce o enewable ene gy o powe ligh
ma ine anspo : P o i abili y analysis o he coun y o Co nwall [84]
7Blending o Hyd o he mal Lique ac ion Bioc ude wi h Residual Ma ine Fuel: An
Expe imen al Assessmen [85]
8Possibili ies o Ammonia as Bo h Fuel and NOx Reduc an in Ma ine Engines: A
Nume ical S udy [86]
9In luence o was e oil-biodiesel on oxic pollu an s om ma ine engine coupled wi h
emission educ ion measu es a a ious loads [87]
10 Global u u es o ade impac ing he challenge o deca bonize he in e na ional
shipping sec o [88]
11 P ospec s o ca bon-neu al ma i ime uel p oduc ion in B azil [89]
12
A Compa ison o Al e na i e Fuels o Shipping in Te ms o Li ecycle Ene gy and Cos
[70]
13 Reduc ion o ma i ime GHG emissions and he po en ial ole o E- uels [90]
14 Pa icle-Gaseous pollu an emissions and cos o global biomass supply chain ia
ma i ime anspo a ion: Full-scale syne gy model [91]
15 Re iewing wo decades o cleane al e na i e ma ine uels: Towa ds IMO’s
deca boniza ion o he ma i ime anspo sec o [31]
16 Challenges and oppo uni ies o ma ine p opulsion wi h al e na i e uels [92]
17 Techno-economic and En i onmen al Compa ison o In e nal Combus ion Engines
and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells o Ship Applica ions [93]
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 21 o 30
Table A1. Con .
Numbe A icle Ti le Au ho s
18 A S udy in o he A ailabili y, Cos s and GHG Reduc ion in D op-In Bio uels o
Shipping unde Di e en Regimes be ween 2020 and 2050 [94]
19
En i onmen al impac assessmen o hyd ogen-based auxilia y powe sys em onboa d
[95]
20 Bio uels o Ma i ime T anspo a ion: A Spa ial, Techno-Economic, and Logis ic
Analysis in B azil, Eu ope, Sou h A ica, and he USA [96]
21 Pe spec i e Use o Fas Py olysis Bio-Oil (FPBO) in Ma i ime T anspo : The Case
o B azil [97]
22
Powe - o-Ships: Fu u e elec ici y and hyd ogen demands o shipping on he A lan ic
coas o Eu ope in 2050 [98]
23 How can LNG- uelled ships mee deca bonisa ion a ge s? An en i onmen al and
economic analysis [46]
24 Technical eliabili y o shipboa d echnologies o he applica ion o al e na i e uels [99]
25 Deca boniza ion o Ma ine Fuels-The Fu u e o Shipping [100]
26 Bio uel Op ions o Ma ine Applica ions: Technoeconomic and Li e-Cycle Analyses [101]
27 Al e na i e uel op ions o low ca bon ma i ime anspo a ion: Pa hways o 2050 [102]
28
The Posi ion o Ammonia in Deca bonising Ma i ime Indus y: An O e iew and
Pe spec i es: Pa I Technological ad an ages and he momen um owa ds
ammonia-p opelled shipping
[103]
29 Blending new and old in sus ainabili y ansi ions: Technological alignmen be ween
ossil uels and bio uels in No wegian coas al shipping [104]
30 Lique ied Na u al Gas as Ship Fuel: A Mal ese Regula o y Gap Analysis [105]
31
Can Ma ke -based Measu es S imula e In es men s in G een Technologies o he
Aba emen o GHG Emissions om Shipping? A Re iew o P oposed
Ma ke -based Measu es
[106]
32 Deca boniza ion in Shipping Indus y: A Re iew o Resea ch, Technology
De elopmen , and Inno a ion P oposals [107]
33 Po en ial and limi ing ac o s in he use o al e na i e uels in he Eu opean
ma i ime sec o [71]
34
P oduc ion o al e na i e ma ine uels in B azil: An in eg a ed assessmen pe spec i e
[43]
35 G een hyd ogen as an al e na i e uel o he shipping indus y [108]
36 Ne Ze o o he In e na ional Shipping Sec o ? An Analysis o he Implemen a ion
and Regula o y Challenges o he IMO S a egy on Reduc ion o GHG Emissions [109]
37 Analysis and Modeling he Ene gy Sys em o a Chemical Tanke by LEAP [110]
38 Fuel Cell Powe Sys ems o Ma i ime Applica ions: P og ess and Pe spec i es [111]
39 Ene gy e iciency o in eg a ed elec ic p opulsion o ships—A e iew [112]
40
Li e-cycle cos assessmen o al e na i e ma ine uels o educe he ca bon oo p in in
sho -sea shipping: A case s udy o C oa ia [113]
41 A comp ehensi e e iew on coun e measu es o CO2emissions om ships [114]
42
Nume ical analysis o economic and en i onmen al bene i s o ma ine uel con e sion
om diesel oil o na u al gas o con aine ships [115]
43 A Pe spec i e on Bio uels Use and CCS o GHG Mi iga ion in he Ma ine Sec o [116]
44 Deca bonizing Ma i ime T anspo : The Impo ance o Engine Technology and
Regula ions o LNG o Se e as a T ansi ion Fuel [117]
45 Renewable Ammonia as an Ene gy Fuel o Ocean Explo a ion and T anspo a ion [118]

Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 22 o 30
Table A1. Con .
Numbe A icle Ti le Au ho s
46 Exhaus emissions and engine pe o mance analysis o a ma ine diesel engine uelled
wi h Pa ina i polyand a biodiesel-diesel blends [119]
47 Comp ehensi e analysis o he ai quali y impac s o swi ching a ma ine essel om
diesel uel o na u al gas [120]
48 Deca bonising he c i ical sec o s o a ia ion, shipping, oad eigh and indus y o
limi wa ming o 1.5–2 ◦C[121]
49 Implemen ing ma i ime ba e y-elec ic and hyd ogen solu ions: A echnological
inno a ion sys ems analysis [122]
50 Li e-cycle cos assessmen s o di e en powe sys em con igu a ions o educe he
ca bon oo p in in he C oa ian sho -sea shipping sec o [123]
51
In es iga ion o mee China II emission legisla ion o ma ine diesel engine wi h diesel
me hanol compound combus ion echnology [124]
52 Li e Cycle Assessmen o Al e na i e Ship Fuels o Coas al Fe y Ope a ing in
Republic o Ko ea [125]
53 Cha ac e iza ion o Biome hanol-Biodiesel-Diesel Blends as Al e na i e Fuel o
Ma ine Applica ions [126]
54 Assessmen o uel cell ypes o ships: Based on mul i-c i e ia decision analysis [127]
55 An e alua ion o he cos -compe i i eness o ma i ime uels—a compa ison o hea y
uel oil and me hanol ( enewable and na u al gas) in Iceland [128]
56 Vege able oils as enewable uels o powe plan s based on low and medium speed
diesel engines [129]
57 P ocess and Economic E alua ion o an Onboa d Cap u e Sys em o LNG-Fueled
CO2Ca ie s [130]
58 Sus ainabili y in Ma i ime Sec o : Was e Managemen Al e na i es E alua ed in a
Ci cula Ca bon Economy Pe spec i e [131]
59 The Po en ial Role o Ammonia as Ma ine Fuel-Based on Ene gy Sys ems Modeling
and Mul i-C i e ia Decision Analysis [66]
60 Towa ds he IMO’s GHG Goals: A C i ical O e iew o he Pe spec i es and
Challenges o he Main Op ions o Deca bonizing In e na ional Shipping [69]
61 LNG and C uise Ships, an Easy Way o Ful il Regula ions-Ve sus he Need o
Reducing GHG Emissions [132]
62 En i onmen al and Economic E alua ion o Fuel Choices o Sho Sea Shipping [133]
63 Deca boniza ion o Ma i ime T anspo : Analysis o Ex e nal Cos s [56]
64 Challenges and oppo uni ies o ze o emission shipping in sma islands: A s udy o
ze o emission e y lines [134]
65 Hyb id uel cell and ba e y p opulsion sys em modelling and mul i-objec i e
op imisa ion o a coas al e y [135]
66 Cha ac e iza ion o pa icula e ma e emi ed by a ma ine engine ope a ed wi h
lique ied na u al gas and diesel uels [136]
67 High ene gy densi y s o age o gaseous ma ine uels: An inno a i e concep and i s
applica ion o a hyd ogen powe ed e y [137]
68 Pa hways o clima e-neu al shipping: A Danish case s udy [65]
69 Lignocellulosic ma ine bio uel: Technoeconomic and en i onmen al assessmen o
p oduc ion in B azil and Sweden [53]
70
Hyb id sola PV/PEM uel Cell/Diesel Gene a o powe sys em o c uise ship: A case
s udy in S ockholm, Sweden [36]
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 23 o 30
Table A1. Con .
Numbe A icle Ti le Au ho s
71 Pollu ion T adeo s o Con en ional and Na u al Gas-Based Ma ine Fuels [138]
72 Bio uel as an al e na i e shipping uel: echnological, en i onmen al and economic
assessmen [4]
73
Fuel demand and emissions o ma i ime sec o in Fiji: Cu en s a us and low-ca bon
s a egies [139]
74
How o deca bonise in e na ional shipping: Op ions o uels, echnologies and policies
[12]
75 Pe o mance o ma ine diesel engine in p opulsion mode wi h a was e oil-based
al e na i e uel [140]
76 Well- o-wheel assessmen o na u al gas ehicles and hei uel supply
in as uc u es—Pe spec i es on gas in anspo in Denma k [141]
77
Well- o-wheel g eenhouse gas emissions o ba e y elec ic ehicles in coun ies
dependen on he impo o uels h ough ma i ime anspo a ion: A Sou h Ko ean
case s udy
[142]
78
Al e na i e uels o shipping : Op imising lee composi ion unde en i onmen al and
economic cons ain s [143]
79 Techno-economic analysis o a deca bonized shipping sec o : Technology sugges ions
o a lee in 2030 and 2040 [52]
80 En i onmen al impac ca ego ies o hyd ogen and ammonia d i en ansoceanic
ma i ime ehicles: A compa a i e e alua ion [42]
81 Assessmen o ull li e-cycle ai emissions o al e na i e shipping uels [33]
82 Applica ion o Al e na i e Ma i ime Powe (AMP) Supply o C uise Po [144]
83 Global ene gy scena ios and hei implica ions o u u e shipped ade [145]
84 G eenhouse gas emissions om ships in po s—Case s udies in ou con inen s [34]
85 S a e-o - he-a echnologies, measu es, and po en ial o educing GHG emissions
om shipping—A e iew [28]
86 Was e oil-based al e na i e uels o ma ine diesel engines [146]
87 E alua ion o pollu an emissions om wo-s oke ma ine diesel engine ueled wi h
biodiesel p oduced om a ious was e oils and diesel blends [147]
88 Sus ainable anspo by use o al e na i e ma ine and a ia ion uels-A well- o- ank
analysis o assess in e ac ions wi h Singapo e’s ene gy sys em [148]
89 Reducing GHG emissions om ships in po a eas [32]
90
Emission Reduc ions o Ni ogen Oxides, Pa icula e Ma e and Polycyclic A oma ic
Hyd oca bons by Using Mic oalgae Biodiesel, Bu anol and Wa e in Diesel Engine [149]
91 E ec o hyd ogen addi ion on c i e ia and g eenhouse gas emissions o a ma ine
diesel engine [150]
92 Impac o Suga cane Renewable Fuel on In-Use Gaseous and Pa icula e Ma e
Emissions om a Ma ine Vessel [151]
93 Conside a ions on he po en ial use o Nuclea Small Modula Reac o (SMR)
echnology o me chan ma ine p opulsion [37]
94 Vessel op imisa ion o low ca bon shipping [35]
95 E ec s o Biodiesel Blend on Ma ine Fuel Cha ac e is ics o Ma ine Vessels [44]
96 S a egies o p omo ing biodiesel use in ma ine essels [45]
97
Na u al gas as a uel al e na i e o sus ainable domes ic passenge shipping in G eece
[152]
98 Emission cha ac e is ics o GTL uel as an al e na i e o con en ional ma ine gas oil [153]
Ene gies 2022,15, 3571 24 o 30
Table A1. Con .
Numbe A icle Ti le Au ho s
99 Impac o Algae Bio uel on In-Use Gaseous and Pa icula e Emissions om a Ma ine
Vessel [154]
100 In es iga ion o engine pe o mance and emissions o a diesel engine wi h a blend o
ma ine gas oil and syn he ic diesel uel [155]
101
Ope a ion o Ma ine Diesel Engines on Biogenic Fuels: Modi ica ion o Emissions and
Resul ing Clima e E ec s [38]
102 Clima e Impac o Bio uels in Shipping: Global Model S udies o he Ae osol Indi ec
E ec [39]
103 Use o soy-de i ed uel o en i onmen al impac educ ion in ma ine engine
applica ions [156]
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