Joana C is ina Rod igues F ei as
“OUTSIDE THE BUBBLE”: EXPLORING YOUTH
(IN)EQUALITIES IN THE CONTEXT OF THE
ERASMUS+ PROGRAMME
DISSERTATION INSERTED IN THE MASTERS IN SOCIAL INTERVENTION,
INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP, SUPERVISED BY DR CRISTINA MARIA
COIMBRA VIEIRA, PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
EDUCATION SCIENCES AND THE FACULTY OF ECONOMICS OF THE UNIVERSITY
OF COIMBRA
JANUARY 2022
Joana C is ina Rod igues F ei as
“Ou side he bubble”: explo ing you h (in)equali ies in he con ex
o he E asmus+ p og amme
Disse a ion inse ed in he Mas e s in Social In e en ion, Inno a ion and
En ep eneu ship, supe ised by D C is ina Ma ia Coimb a Viei a,
p esen ed o he Facul y o Psychology and Educa ion Sciences and he
Facul y o Economics o he Uni e si y o Coimb a
Janua y 2022
Dedico es a ese às ( elizmen e, já mui as) “c ianças” que me mos a am o lado de o a
da bolha, às “pessoas que azem coisas” e pa ilham a sua ene gia, co agem e
expe iências, e a quem ac edi a “na magia da mobilidade” e que ale a pena aze mais
po um amanhã com menos desigualdades.
i
Acknowledgemen s
À Dou o a C is ina Viei a, ob igada pelo cons an e enco ajamen o, abe u a,
disponibilidade e comp eensão que o am undamen ais em oda es a jo nada. Es ou
e dadei amen e g a a po me e acompanhado nela.
Às “minhas pessoas”, ob igada pela companhia no caminho. Família, sem o osso amo e
os alo es que me incu i am, ce amen e não e ia esc i o uma ese sob e (des)igualdades.
Ob igada, mãe, po me desa ia es semp e a aze mais e melho , mesmo quando eu du ido
que seja capaz, e nunca saí es do meu lado. Ob igada, maninhos, po me pe gun a em pela
ese mesmo não pe cebendo bem o que é, e po odos os ab aços que o am a o ça que po
ezes não inha. Ob igada a quem pacien emen e me deixou desaba a , oi um “sounding
boa d” das mui as ideias que i e, me mandou mensagens e GIFs pa os pa a me mo i a
e aze companhia. Ob igada, Bá ba a, Luísa, Ca ol, Ca olina, Alina, E in, Ve a, Nia, Cy il,
So ia, Bia e, Do a. [Pa a i, um ag adecimen o especial po encon a es semp e empo pa a
me ou i , da eedback cons u i o, um apoio pessoal e p o issional incondicional, e a é
um “p o” do SPSS (Tiago, ob igada)!]
À u minha do MISIE, ob igada pelas ossas pa ilhas e en usiasmo inspi ado es du an e e
o a das aulas, mas ambém po o na am pe íodos ine i a elmen e soli á ios numa jo nada
pe co ida lado a lado. E às p o esso as (e ao p o esso ), po desa ia em o nosso sen ido
c í ico, alo iza em as nossas expe iências p é ias, e deixa em anspa ece a paixão pelo
que nos aziam em cada aula que nós ine i a elmen e ans o má amos em deba es
espe acula es. Fizemos des e mes ado mui o mais do que um cu so académico. Vou e
saudades.
Às di eções e écnicos da Escola de Comé cio do Po o, P o i ecla Po o e Escola
P o issional de Ma osinhos, pa icula men e à D ª Ana Mes e e à Ri a Oli ei a, e a odos/as
os jo ens que dedica am o seu empo a esponde ao ques ioná io, um ag adecimen o po
iabiliza em a minha in es igação empí ica.
À Agência Nacional E asmus+ Educação e Fo mação, D ª Isabel G adil e D ª Claúdia
Gomes, pelos dados o necidos e simpá icas in e ações.
ii
À Dou o a Magda Nico e ao Dou o Da id Cai ns ag adeço as o ien ações e bibliog a ia
que gen ilmen e me cede am.
A odas pessoas que se en usiasma am po mim e comigo, que me disse am/esc e e am “I
wan o ead you hesis”, o meu ob igada. De o ma especial, à And eia Hen iques e ao
P o . Howa d Williamson, que se disponibiliza am pa a me ou i e alida / eo ien a
ideias, mesmo mal me conhecendo, e ao Jo ge Quei ós e à Lau a Popa pelas ecomendações
e in e esse.
Aos jo ens, alunos, you h wo ke s, aine s p o esso es, coo denado es e o ganizações
(MJS, Fo um Es udan e, Associação Spin e a que ida Raquel, Dynamo In e na ional
Mobili é, ECP, SG oup) com quem c uzei caminho, ob igada pelas opo unidades e po me
mos a em que é possí el “ eben a a bolha”.

iii
Temos o di ei o de se iguais quando a nossa di e ença nos
in e io iza; e emos o di ei o de se di e en es quando a nossa
igualdade nos desca ac e iza. Daí a necessidade de uma igualdade
que econheça as di e enças e de uma di e ença que não p oduza,
alimen e ou ep oduza as desigualdades.
Boa en u a Sousa San os (2003)
i
Abs ac
Inclusion and he need o add ess he challenges aced by younge gene a ions a e
mo e han e e on he agenda o global poli ical ins i u ions, p ac i ione s, and esea che s.
2022 has e en been p onounced he Eu opean Yea o You h in ecogni ion o he
heigh ened di icul ies de i ing om he Co id-19 pandemic. In his con ex , he E asmus+
P og amme adop s he mission o c ea ing a le el playing ield o he you h o oday by
educing inequali y and inc easing inclusion, wi h a doubled budge and new s a egies, bu
s ill p esen ing he o ic ha is mo e a ge han people-o ien ed. By acknowledging he e
a e 'in isible' inequali ies in accessing oppo uni ies, his s udy aims o help ‘pop he
bubble’ o E asmus+.
This disse a ion c i ically analyses he E asmus+ P og amme and iden i ies some
o he oppo uni ies and challenges o i as a possible ool o inclusion. Namely, i sugges s
ha he poli ical e m 'young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies' and he idea o compa a i e
disad an age migh pose e hical, concep ual, and me hodological challenges o esea che s
and p ojec ac o s alike. Thus, he pu sui o E asmus+ as a P og amme ha is inclusi e
and gene a es inclusion would bene i om u he discussion and p ac ical app oaches o
his concep , o ake a less unc ionalis app oach o you h inequali ies, as such de eloped
by he You h sec o .
Building on hese a gumen s and a b ie p esen a ion o some concep s and
assump ions su ounding you h inequali ies, he s udy mo es on o an empi ical phase ha
pu s he spo ligh on hose who a e a ge ed bu o en no consul ed: young people acing
disad an aged si ua ions who ha e ne e pa icipa ed in E asmus+. Fo ha , a non-
expe imen al quan i a i e su ey design in an online ques ionnai e o ma was conduc ed
wi h a pu posi e sample o med by 40 s uden s o in e na ionalised Voca ional Educa ion
and T aining (VET) ins i u ions om he ci y o Po o, Po ugal. The choice o esea ch
E asmus+ in VET ins ead o o he sec o s is clea ed h ough an in-dep h cha ac e isa ion
o i a he EU and na ional le el, which shows s uden s in his ype o educa ion ma ch he
p o ile o pa icipan s a ge ed. Mo eo e , he li e a u e e iew demons a es ha VET, like
E asmus+, shows oom o imp o emen in he way i add esses he goals and needs o
young people.
The da a analysis e eals ha he pa icipan s in he s udy posi i ely e alua e he
E asmus+ inclusi e e o s de eloped in hei schools and ha e a posi i e ou look owa ds
he p og amme i sel , showing an in e es and in en o pa icipa e in lea ning mobili y. The
a he uni o m dis ibu ion o p e e ences ega ding ypes o suppo and o he measu es
s eng hens he a gumen ha add essing inclusion is an in e disciplina y a ai ha should
be u he pu sued.
Keywo ds: you h inequali ies; E asmus+; social inclusion; Voca ional Educa ion and
T aining; you h policies
i
Resumo
A inclusão e a necessidade de abo da os desa ios en en ados pelas ge ações mais
jo ens es ão, mais do que nunca, na agenda de ins i uições polí icas globais, p o issionais
e in es igado es. Inclusi amen e, o ano de 2022 oi p oclamado o Ano Eu opeu da
Ju en ude, em econhecimen o das di iculdades ac escidas deco en es da pandemia
Co id-19. Nes e con ex o, o P og ama E asmus+ em po missão c ia condições
equi a i as pa a os jo ens de hoje, eduzindo as desigualdades e aumen ando a
inclusão;com um o çamen o dob ado e no as es a égias, mas ainda ap esen ando uma
e ó ica que é mais al o do que as pessoas o ien adas. Ao econhece que exis em
desigualdades 'in isí eis' no acesso a opo unidades, es e es udo p e ende ajuda a ' eben a
a bolha' do E asmus+.
Es a disse ação analisa c i icamen e o P og ama E asmus+ e iden i ica algumas
das opo unidades e desa ios des e enquan o po encial e amen a de inclusão.
Nomeadamen e, suge e-se que o e mo polí ico 'jo ens com menos opo unidades' e a ideia
de des an agem compa a i a podem ep esen a desa ios é icos, concei uais e
me odológicos pa a an o pa a in es igado es como pa a a o es do p oje o. A p ossecução
do obje i o de aze do E asmus+ um p og ama inclusi o e ge ado de inclusão bene icia ia
de no as discussões e abo dagens p á icas a es e concei o, a im de adop a uma abo dagem
menos uncionalis a às desigualdades en e os jo ens, como al desen ol ida no sec o da
Ju en ude.
Com base nes es a gumen os e numa b e e ap esen ação de alguns concei os e
p essupos os em o no das desigualdades en e os jo ens, o es udo a ança pa a uma ase
empí ica que coloca o oco sob e aqueles que são isados, mas mui as ezes não
consul ados: jo ens que en en am si uações de des an agem e que nunca pa icipa am no
E asmus+. Pa a al, oi ealizado um inqué i o quan i a i o não expe imen al no o ma o
de ques ioná io online com uma amos a in encional o mada po 40 alunos de ins i uições
de Ensino e Fo mação P o issional (EFP) com um oco na in e nacionalização da cidade
do Po o, Po ugal. A escolha de in es iga o E asmus+ no se o de EFP em de imen o de
ou os é explici ada po meio de uma ca ac e ização ap o undada do mesmo ao ní el
eu opeu e nacional, que demos a que os es udan es des es p og amas educa i os
co espondem ao pe il de pa icipan e desejado. Além dis o, a e isão de li e a u a
demons ou que o EFP, simila men e ao E asmus+, ap esen a pon os de melho ia na o ma
como abo da os obje i os e necessidades dos jo ens.
xiii
Lis o annexes
Annexe 1. Ques ionnai e (in Po uguese, he language i was applied in; e sion queXML PDF
o he digi al su ey expo ed om Limesu ey) ................................................................. 87
Annexe 2. Ques ionnai e o schools (E asmus+ coo dina o s) – adap ed om Google Docs
e sion ................................................................................................................................ 97

xi
Table o con en s
Acknowledgemen s .............................................................................................................i
Abs ac ..............................................................................................................................i
Resumo............................................................................................................................... i
Abs ac ........................................................................................................................... iii
Lis o abb e ia ions ........................................................................................................... x
Lis o igu es .....................................................................................................................xi
Lis o annexes ................................................................................................................ xiii
Table o con en s .............................................................................................................xi
In oduc ion ........................................................................................................................ 1
Pa I – Theo e ical amewo k ......................................................................................... 5
Chap e I – Mapping inclusion in he con ex o E asmus+ .......................................... 6
In oduc ion ......................................................................................................................... 6
1. Unde s anding E asmus+ ............................................................................................ 6
1.1. Main cha ac e is ics .................................................................................................. 7
1.2. Sec o s ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.3. Backg ound ............................................................................................................ 11
1.4. Budge ................................................................................................................... 14
1.5. Managemen , implemen a ion, and main ac o s ...................................................... 15
1.6. Moni o ing, epo ing and e alua ion ..................................................................... 18
1.6.1. Pp og ess indica o s ............................................................................................ 19
2. Inclusion in he con ex o E asmus+ ........................................................................ 20
2.1. Backg ound ............................................................................................................ 20
2.2. Ci cumsc ibing inclusion in E asmus+ ................................................................... 20
2.3. Young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies ................................................................. 21
2.3.1. De ini ion ............................................................................................................ 21
2.3.2. Cons ains, c i icism and con o e sy .................................................................. 25
2.4. Lea ning oppo uni ies om he You h sec o ....................................................... 27
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 29
x
Chap e II – You h inequali ies and policies: he case o Voca ional Educa ion and
T aining ............................................................................................................................. 31
In his second chap e , a b ie con ex o you h inequali ies and policies will be p o ided as a
backd op o explo ing Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VET). The con ex o VET in
Eu ope and Po ugal, he coun y whe e he empi ical esea ch was de eloped, o allow o a
co ec in e p e a ion o he esea ch and i s esul s and his choice and explain how VET
embodies you h inequali ies and con adic ions in i s policies. ............................................ 31
1. You h inequali ies and policies ................................................................................... 31
2. Voca ional Educa ion and T aining ............................................................................ 33
2.1. Desc ip ion and ele ance in he EU and o E asmus+ ........................................ 33
2.2. The Po uguese case ............................................................................................... 36
3. The ‘in isibili y’ o VET lea ne s ................................................................................ 37
4. E asmus+ o VET: mobili y o lea ne s................................................................... 39
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 42
Pa II – Empi ical esea ch ............................................................................................ 44
Chap e III – Planning, o ganisa ion and ca ac e isa ion o he s udy ........................ 45
In oduc ion ....................................................................................................................... 45
1. Subjec , objec i es and me hodology .......................................................................... 45
2. Design o he in es iga ion ......................................................................................... 48
3. Popula ion and sampling me hod ............................................................................... 49
4. Resea ch ool o da a collec ion: a ionale o i s cons uc ion .................................... 51
5. P ocedu e o da a collec ion ..................................................................................... 54
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 61
Chap e IV – P esen a ion, analysis and discussion o esul s ..................................... 62
1. Desc ip i e analysis .................................................................................................... 62
2. P esen a ion and discussion o esul s ........................................................................ 63
2.1. A i ion ................................................................................................................. 63
2.2. Cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s ........................................................................... 63
3. P e e ences ega ding E asmus+ ................................................................................ 65
3.1. Sel -pe cep ion in ela ion o E asmus+ ................................................................. 66
3.2. Ex e nal suppo in ela ion o E asmus+ .............................................................. 67
4. Pe cep ions on how schools de elop E asmus+ ........................................................ 67
x i
5. E alua ion o easons o no apply ( o go on E asmus)+ ........................................... 68
5.1. Sel -pe cep ion ....................................................................................................... 69
5.2. Pee s ...................................................................................................................... 69
5.3. Socio-economic ac o s .......................................................................................... 70
5.4. Pe cep ion o E asmus+’s bene i s ......................................................................... 71
5.5. Languages .............................................................................................................. 71
6. E alua ion o measu es and ac ions ha would inc ease mo i a ion and o con idence
and in e es in going on E asmus+ ..................................................................................... 72
6.1. In o ma ion............................................................................................................ 72
6.2. Suppo .................................................................................................................. 73
6.3. P epa a ion ............................................................................................................ 74
6.4. In e na ional expe ience ......................................................................................... 75
6.5. C i e ion ................................................................................................................. 75
6.6. Pe sonalisa ion ....................................................................................................... 76
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 76
Gene al conclusion ........................................................................................................... 79
Re e ences ......................................................................................................................... 83
Annexes ............................................................................................................................. 87
Annexe 1. Ques ionnai e (in Po uguese, he language i was applied in; e sion queXML PDF
o he digi al su ey expo ed om Limesu ey) ................................................................ 87
Annexe 2. Ques ionnai e o schools (E asmus+ coo dina o s) – adap ed om Google Docs
e sion ............................................................................................................................... 97
1
In oduc ion
The changes b ough upon by he economic c ises, globalisa ion, digi alisa ion,
ha e p o oundly ans o med how Wes e n socie ies sel - egula e, ans o ming
ela ionships and pa hs in socie y, al e ing he unc ioning o he economy and, pa icula ly
impac ul o young people, he job and housing ma ke s. Addi ional and new ac o s o
inequali y and exclusion se a di e en landscape o you h, who no longe ha e hei social
s a us o p o essional goals assu ed by an academic i le, ans o ming hei pa h in a
“lo e y o o une wheel, whe e he sa es odds o e no hing bu low ewa ds”
1
(Cal o,
2011:45). E en young people wi h highe educa ion deg ees ace di icul ies in en e ing
he job ma ke and ansi ioning o independen adul li e, as a esul o p eca ious
employmen condi ions and loss o amily income due o aus e i y measu es (Cai ns e al.,
2017). Addi ionally, since 2020, he COVID-19 pandemic caused a sudden dis up ion o
young people’s o mal and non- o mal educa ion, a ec ing young people’s income,
ea ning po en ial and well-being ( esolu ion o he Eu opean Pa liamen o 8 Oc obe 2020
on he You h Gua an ee), leading he Eu opean Union (EU) o decla e 2022 “ he Eu opean
Yea o You h” and de ine a se o ac i i ies o deba e you h p oblems. In such a con ex ,
he e is a clash be ween he demand o mode nisa ion o answe o he equi emen s o a
global and digi al wo ld and he a gumen ha mo e de eloped socie ies a e mo e equipped
o igh exclusion and he c i icism o he p i a isa ion o social p oblems (Al es, 2006).
The lack o discussion and ideological meaning on concep s such as inclusion, ollowing a
uni o med agenda se and sha ed by in e na ional o ganisa ions ha Nó oa (2000, as ci ed
in Al es, 2006) calls a “wo ldwide bible”.
The E asmus+ P og amme – he eina e also e e ed o as “E asmus+” o “ he
P og amme” – is an example o i . I is he Eu opean Union’s p og amme o you h,
educa ion and spo o he pe iods o 2014 – 2020 and 2021-2027. The p og amme se s
ou o ackle s uc u al p oblems such as you h unemploymen o social exclusion by
suppo ing young people wi h lea ning oppo uni ies. These a e in ended o help hem o
“acqui e ele an knowledge and compe ences and hus become ac i e and engaged
ci izens and ac o s o change” and o de elop pe sonal and p o essional skills ha inc ease
1
F ee ansla ion
2
hei employabili y (Eu opean Commission, 2020). Ye , e en hough p o iding equal igh s
o all ci izens is one o he se e al goals o his ambi ious and complex p og amme, he
ensions iden i ied in he p e ious pa ag aph a e also isible in E asmus+, as he
P og amme ollows wha Al es (2006) desc ibes as p i a ising social p oblems, unde a
he o ic o quali y, e iciency, au onomy, lexibili y and adap abili y. Pu ing he ocus on
young people’s indi idual agency, which elies on hem ha ing de eloped such skills
du ing hei educa ional pa h esul s in a ede ined concep o me i oc acy which holds
young indi iduals accoun able o o e coming social challenges and a oiding exclusion
(Al es, 2006). Mo eo e , laws in he go e nance o p ojec s inanced by he E asmus+
may lead o inequali ies in access o oppo uni ies, leading o a heigh ened le el o
p eca iousness and he ep oduc ion o social inequali y (Cai ns e al., 2017).
An analysis o he s a e o he a o esea ch on E asmus+ and inclusion and
consul ing expe s om di e en ields ein o ced he pe inence o s udying his issue;
especially, s udies wi h an app oach ha agg ega es con ibu ions om he educa ion and
he you h sec o s, and young people’s pe spec i es. Fo cla i y, in he con ex o his
in es iga ion he de ini ion o “young people” ollows he one o he E asmus+
P og amme, om 13 o 30 yea s old.
2
App oaching E asmus+ P og amme om a socio-c i ical pe spec i e, his
disse a ion is a nonexpe imen al explo a o y and desc ip i e s udy ha uses he wide lens
p o ided by he di e en ields o s udy o he Mas e in Social In e en ion, Inno a ion
and En ep eneu ship – sociology, social wo k, and psychology. I explo es he ensions
be ween how inclusion is amed and suppo ed by he E asmus+ P og amme
ins i u ionally alongside concep s and esea ch on you h inequali ies, o iden i y ends and
oppo uni ies o imp o emen and o measu e he pe cep ions o young people on links
be ween hese opics. I a ge s he audience o he inclusion measu es o E asmus+, young
people classi ied as ha ing ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ (ye no excluding o he s), speci ically
hose who ha e no ye pa icipa ed in i s ac i i ies, o di e en ia e i sel om mos s udies
abou his opic and EU’s e alua ions, which a e based on he opinions o de ac o
pa icipan s. Due o he la ge geog aphical and hema ic scope o E asmus+, he empi ical
esea ch was cons ained o a speci ic ac ion o he P og amme, KA1 mobili y o s uden s
2
The e is no ag eed de ini ion o he you h age g oup uni e sally, nei he a he EU le el, as Membe S a es
ha e di e en age anges bu o s a is ical pu poses, he Uni ed Na ions de ines ‘you h’ as hose pe sons
be ween he ages o 15 and 24 yea s ( o mo e in o see: h ps://www.un.o g/en/global-issues/you h).

3
in he sec o o Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VET), and he Me opoli an A ea o
Po o.
The iden i ica ion o he objec o his s udy ela es o se en yea s o E asmus+
expe iences o i s au ho , ou o which as a p o essional, namely as a you h wo ke in a
you h mobili y- ocused o ganisa ion, and a p ojec coo dina o in a oca ional educa ion
high school. The daily con ac wi h young people who i he ca ego y o ‘ ewe
oppo uni ies’ has un eiled mul iple and di e se easons why young people, who despi e
being awa e, in o med and e en encou aged o ake pa in in e na ional mobili y, a oid
e en showing in e es in E asmus+. Those inside he “bubble” can easily be obli ious o
hese easons which include discom o wi h o eign languages, suspicion ins iga ed by
hei social con ex o no pe cei ing hemsel es as sui able pa icipan s, socio-economic
con ex . O e he yea s, he mul iple exchanges wi h o he p o essionals in ol ed wi h
E asmus+ in he you h and educa ion sec o s, as well as egula dialogue wi h
ep esen a i es om Eu opean and na ional ins i u ions esponsible o he P og amme led
o acknowledging di e en app oaches and obs acles aced by o ganisa ions in p omo ing
equal access o pa icipa ion, spa king he in e es o u he explo ing he opic.
This disse a ion is di ided in o wo pa s wi h wo chap e s each.
Pa I se s he heo e ical amewo k o he s udy, which esul s om a e iew o
li e a u e, analysis o documen s and in o mal exchanges wi h p ac i ione s. Chap e I
p o ides an o e iew o he E asmus+ P og amme – i s backg ound, s uc u e,
managemen , objec i es, impac and e alua ion – and maps how inclusion is add essed,
measu ed and esea ched in con ex . I p o ides a c i ical iew o he e m ‘young people
wi h ewe oppo uni ies’ and he p og amme i sel . Chap e II explo es he opic o you h
inequali ies and policies, namely he ensions be ween he he o ic o policymake s and he
desi ed ou comes o such policies. I hen p oceeds o desc ibe Voca ional Educa ion and
T aining, p o iding con ex on Eu ope and Po ugal, depic ing a p o ile o s uden s and
concluding wi h i s connec ion o E asmus+ and inclusion.
Pa II con ains he empi ical esea ch, esul ing om a su ey ques ionnai e o
young Voca ional Educa ion and T aining s uden s om a speci ic geog aphical a ea and
simila schools and s udy ields on how hey pe cei e hemsel es, he way he E asmus+
P og amme is implemen ed in hei schools and gene al inclusi i y measu es he
P og amme (2014-2020). Chap e III explains he subjec and objec i es o he s udy,
me hodological choices, s eps o de elopmen o he esea ch ool, as well as e hical
conce ns had du ing he s udy. Chap e IV p esen s he esul s o he ques ionnai e
4
suppo ed by a desc ip i e analysis o equencies and c oss- abula ions using SPSS and
discusses i s indings unde he ligh o he concep s p e iously de eloped.
I should be no ed ha he s udy was designed in 2020 (unde he amewo k o he
i s E asmus+ P og amme) and was de eloped h oughou he ansi ion pe iod and he
beginning o he second P og amme, which has a s onge ocus on inclusion. Al hough i
demanded a eadap a ion o he esea ch design and e iewing addi ional li e a u e and
documen s, i was decided o ake ad an age o his con inui y and in eg a e bo h
p og ammes in his disse a ion. Howe e , i should be no iced he empi ical esea ch ools
we e c ea ed du ing he i s E asmus+ P og amme and hus do no add ess he new
inclusion mechanisms.
The choice o he English language (despi e he empi ical esea ch ha ing been
ca ied ou in Po ugal and he Po uguese language), was p omp ed by he ac o he
knowledge p oduced on he opics i co e s in English and ansla ing hem could lead o
inaccu acy as no all he e ms ha e a di ec ansla ion in Po uguese. Plus, E asmus+ is
an in e na ional p og amme whose main ac o s and ac i i ies use English as a
communica ion language and p oducing his in es iga ion in his language allows o i s
con en and esul s o be accessible o i s po en ial a ge audience and by a la ge amoun
o people ac oss Eu ope.
To conclude his in oduc ion, i can be poin ed ou ha his s udy os e s a socio-
c i ical and in eg a ing app oach o E asmus+, by p o iding a cu en and ex ensi e
unde s anding o inclusion wi hin he P og amme, including Eu opean poli ical and
ope a ional undamen als and p ac ices wi h concep s and a gumen s om esea che s and
p ac i ione s om which he di e en ac o s in ol ed in in e na ional mobili y can d aw
insigh s and inspi a ion. Concu en ly, i e idences he impo ance o using E asmus+ as a
ool o p omo e less inequali y among young people, no simply by opening he
pa icipa ion in ac i i ies ab oad o hose wi h ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’, bu by using
P og amme unding o de elop educa ional and social in e en ions based on needs-
analysis and ailo ed o hei con ex and expec a ions.
5
Pa I – Theo e ical amewo k
6
Chap e I – Mapping inclusion in he con ex o E asmus+
In oduc ion
Comple ing 35 yea s in 2022, E asmus+ is one o he bes -known Eu opean Union
(EU) lagship p og ammes. I has become a ecognised symbol o you h mobili y,
especially o highe educa ion s uden s, bu , i co e s wo sec o s: Educa ion and T aining
(all le els o eaching); and he You h sec o , wi h a wide ange o ac ions. I also has an
ambi ious se o goals, among which is he social inclusion o young people.
In his chap e , an o e iew o his complex and di e se p og amme will be
p o ided in wo sec ions. “Unde s anding he E asmus+ P og amme” desc ibes he main
ea u es o E asmus+, such as coun ies in ol ed, s uc u e, budge , managemen and
e alua ion, as well as he con ex ha led o i s c ea ion and how hese s uc u al ea u es
can impac i s goal o becoming. “Inclusion in he E asmus+ P og amme” explo es he
backg ound, suppo mechanisms, ypes o moni o ing and assessmen o he inclusion
aspec , explo es he e m ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ and p o ides examples o p ac ices o be
adop ed owa ds a mo e inclusi e E asmus+.
The main sou ces o in o ma ion o his chap e we e EU o icial documen s such
as he E asmus+ P og amme Guide (2014, 2020 and 2021 e sions), Annual Repo s, Mid-
e m P og amme E alua ion among o he s, and e idence om academic esea ch.
I is impo an o no e ha while he wo d “mobili y” is o en associa ed wi h
anspo a ion and he abili y o mo e eely, be easily mo ed o wi h he change o social
class, in he amewo k o E asmus+, and, hus, o his s udy, i e e s o mo ing physically
o a di e en coun y, o unde ake s udy, aining o non- o mal o in o mal lea ning
ac i i ies and may include p epa a o y ac i i ies, such as language p epa a ion, as well as
sending, ecei ing and ollow-up ac i i ies. (Eu opean Commission, 2020)
1. Unde s anding E asmus+
Al hough a popula p og amme, he speci ics o he E asmus+ p og amme, such as
s uc u al unc ioning, managemen , and implemen a ion, as well as he ja gon used in i
(highly in luenced by he Eu opean ins i u ions) migh be un amilia o he eade . Thus, in
his sec ion, an o e iew o he main aspec s o E asmus ele an o his o ganisa ion will
be p o ided.
13
2017:29). This in ended o eplace he image o Eu ope as a se o dis an , non- anspa en
and bu eauc a ic ins i u ions wi h “a Eu ope o Ci izens whe ein people would ge o know
each o he , app ecia e hei mu ual cul u al di e ences and, a he same ime, o m a
Eu opean iden i y by saying ‘yes’ o co e Eu opean alues” (F iesenhahn e al., 2013:5).
The main ea u e ha se s E asmus+ apa om p edeceasing mobili y schemes is i s
unde lying philosophy and ha ing a co e se o alues ha e lec he poli ical mo i a ion
behind i s c ea ion, including he ask o legi imising he Eu opean ins i u ions” (Feyen
2013:22, as ci ed in Cai ns e al., 2018:6).
On he o he hand, he way mobili y was pe cei ed was also in luenced by e olu ion
in social hinking, in which a elling gained impo ance o young people a symbol o
eedom and li e i sel
6
, I also became an objec o in e es o philosophe s and social
scien is s o whom mobili y ep esen ed a new s a e o mind in a mo e open and agmen ed
wo ld (De lin e al., 2017).
Whe eas he o iginal E asmus
7
p og amme, es ablished on he 25 h o June 1987,
was exclusi ely dedica ed o highe educa ion, due o he success and wide ecogni ion o
he “E asmus” name, he need o s onge b anding led o adop ing he name “E asmus+
P og amme” o all mobili y p og ammes in 2014 (Eu opean Commission, 2014a). The
“+” ep esen s he in eg a ion o mo e han 25 yea s o p e ious Eu opean p og ammes
(some lis ed in Figu e 2) implemen ed by he Eu opean Union (EU). I also illus a es he
goal o c ea ing mo e syne gies and complemen a i y among sec o s
8
(Eu opean
Commission, 2014a). I is wo h no ing ha , unlike p e ious p og ammes, E asmus+ has
emained e y simila
9
(in e ms o scope, a chi ec u e, and deli e y mechanisms)
h oughou wo consecu i e pe iods, as he p og amme e alua ion indica ed bu eauc acy
and complexi y has a ocus o imp o emen (Eu opean Commission, 2017).
10
7
The name is a back onym o EuRopean (Communi y) Ac ion Scheme o he Mobili y o Uni e si y
S uden s p og amme and simul aneously a ibu e o he Du ch philosophe Deside ius E asmus, also known
as E asmus o Ro e dam was bo n. He was a dominan igu e o he ea ly-16 h-cen u y humanis mo emen ,
amous by i s i e a ions in di e en coun ies in sea ch o knowledge.
8
“Remo ing a i icial bounda ies be ween he a ious Ac ions and p ojec o ma s, os e ing new ideas,
a ac ing new ac o s om he wo ld o wo k and ci il socie y, and s imula ing new o ms o coope a ion”
9
Volun ee ing ac ions p e iously co e ed by E asmus+ o you h (i.e. Eu opean Volun a y Se ice) we e
in eg a ed in he Eu opean Solida i y Co ps P og amme in 2018-2019.
10
This ollowed an in e en ion logic ha aims o p o ide s abili y and con inui y o he ac o s in ol ed unde
he mo o “e olu ion no e olu ion”.

14
1.4. Budge
The budge o E asmus+ is alloca ed h ough he long- e m spending plan o he
Eu opean Union (EU) called Mul iannual Financial F amewo k, adop ed gene ally o
se en yea s o ensu e s abili y.
11
This amewo k lays down he limi amoun s o be spen
in he di e en ca ego ies o expendi u e in he annual budge s (which usually emain
below he maximum amoun o gua an ee lexibili y). The amoun alloca ed wi hin he
annual budge migh be inc eased wi h unding om o he p og ammes/packages (and
ac ions o ex e nal engagemen .
The app o al o he annual budge can be summed up as ollows: he Eu opean
Commission p oposes a d a annual budge o be amended o app o ed by he na ional
go e nmen s (ga he ed in he Council o he EU) and by he Eu opean Pa liamen (whose
membe s a e elec ed by Eu opean ci izens). A e an ag eemen is eached, he Council and
he Pa liamen o e o app o e he inal e sion.
12
The Commission's Communica ion o 14 Feb ua y 2018 called o a subs an ially
s eng hened, inclusi e and ex ended E asmus+ p og amme in es men on E asmus o be
a p io i y pos -2020 and o he Co id-19 eco e y which is e lec ed on he budge .
Figu e 3 - E olu ion o he budge o he E asmus+ P og amme om 2014 o 2027
Unde he Mul iannual Financial F amewo k (MFF) o he pe iod om 2014 o
2020, E asmus+ was alloca ed 14 895 million Eu os, wi h he a ge o suppo ing 4 million
people. The o al budge alloca ed o he P og amme aking place om 2021 o 2027, is
26506 million Eu os, which will be opped up by a leas ano he 2200 million o he
inancial s ands and aims o each up o 12 million pa icipan s. This ep esen s a no o ious
11
Mo e in o ma ion in: budge -b ochu e-a5-17-05_in e ac i e.pd (eu opa.eu)
12
The di e en s eps o he adop ion o he EU budge can be ollowed a :
h p://ec.eu opa.eu/budge /documen s/budge _cu en _yea _en.h m
€0 €5 000 €10 000 €15 000 €20 000 €25 000 €30 000
Budge 2014 - 2020
Budge 2021 - 2017
E olu ion o he budge o he E asmus+ P og amme
15
budge inc ease o 56,8% bu also a ipled aimed numbe o pa icipan s, om he i s o
he second edi ion o he P og amme, demons a ing EU’s high ambi ions o E asmus+.
Fo me Eu opean Commission P esiden Jean Claude Juncke claimed ha "E e y eu o
ha we in es in E asmus+ is an in es men in he u u e o a young pe son and ou
Eu opean idea. I canno imagine any hing mo e wo hy o ou in es men han hese leade s
o omo ow” (S asbou g, 13 June 2017)
13
. Howe e , he posi i e ou comes o suppo ing
an expensi e p og amme like E asmus+ go beyond indi iduals and esul in a highly isible
symbol o a you h ul Eu ope, made o people wo king, s udying, and aining, oge he
(Cai ns e al., 2018), in u n pain ing he pic u e o an in e cul u al and ole an Eu opean
Union, one ha is “uni ed in di e si y”
14
. Cai ns e al (2018), explains ha a g ea e numbe
o pa icipan s in E asmus+ esul s in a ou o Eu opean policymake s, who a e mo e
likely o be ega ded as wo king e ec i ely and esponsibly by he public i a la ge amoun
o people is p o ided wi h oppo uni ies. An in e es ing piece o da a ha subs an ia es his
a gumen is he ac he i s P og amme was inanced by he MMF unde he ca ego y
“Compe i i eness o g ow h and jobs” and he second unde “Cohesion, Resilience and
Values”.
1.5. Managemen , implemen a ion, and main ac o s
The P og amme is implemen ed h ough a combina ion o di ec and indi ec
managemen ( h ough g an s and p ocu emen s) and inancial ins umen s in ol ing
se e al ac o s which a e going o be desc ibed and a e ep esen ed in Figu e 4.
The Eu opean Commission, unde he leade ship o he Di ec o a e-Gene al o
Educa ion, You h, Spo and Cul u e (DG EAC), bea s he o e all esponsibili y o he
supe ision and coo dina ion o E asmus+: i manages he budge and se s p io i ies, a ge s
and c i e ia o he P og amme on an on-going basis, guides and moni o s he gene al
implemen a ion, ollow-up and e alua ion o he P og amme a Eu opean le el. I
supe ises and coo dina es he s uc u es in cha ge o implemen ing he P og amme a he
na ional le el. As Cunha & San os (2017) a gue, E asmus e lec s he complex and
con inuous p ocess o cons uc ion o he Eu opean iden i y and i s ex ension o di e en
a eas, and his applies o i s managemen , as DG EAC wo ks in co-ope a ion wi h
DG Employmen Social A ai s and Inclusion (DG EMPL, o pa s o he p og amme
13
Re ie ed om: EUR-Lex - 52018SC0277 - EN - EUR-Lex (eu opa.eu).
14
Mo o o he Eu opean Union.
16
conce ning skills and quali ica ions policy, adul lea ning and oca ional educa ion and
aining) and he Educa ion, Audio- isual, and Cul u e Execu i e Agency (EACEA),
esponsible o cen alised ac ions, ende s, s udies and esea ch, p og amme isibili y and
o he s (Eu opean Commission, 2021b).
The implemen a ion o he E asmus+ P og amme is mainly done h ough indi ec
managemen , en us ed o he E asmus+ Na ional Agencies (NA), one o mo e ins i u ions
appoin ed by each P og amme Coun y (some coun ies ha e sepa a e NAs o You h and
Educa ion, as is he case o Po ugal, and hey can also ha e di e en egional scopes wi hin
he coun y, like Belgium). NAs ha e he impo an ole o b inging he p og amme close
o i s a ge audience, and adap ing i o na ional sys ems and p io i ies, ac ing as a link
be ween he EU and he local, egional, and na ional o ganisa ions. These NAs p omo e
and implemen he P og amme by selec ing managing, moni o ing, and e alua ing he
p ojec s unded in hei coun y; p o iding suppo o p ojec applican s and pa icipa ing
o ganisa ions h oughou he p ojec li e cycle; collabo a ing wi h ele an na ional
au ho i ies, he ne wo k o all Na ional Agencies and he Eu opean Commission; enhance
isibili y and dissemina ion o he P og amme and i s esul s a he local and na ional le el.
NAs a e expec ed o guide pa icipa ing o ganisa ions h ough all phases, om he i s
con ac wi h he P og amme h ough he applica ion p ocess o he ealisa ion o he p ojec
and inal e alua ion. Thei ole includes ad ising, counselling, moni o ing, and coaching
sys ems ailo ed o hei needs o gua an ee equal oppo uni ies (Eu opean Commission,
2020).
The deadlines, budge , and o he speci ici ies o each ac ion a e published in speci ic
Calls o p oposals by he agency managing hem ( he EACEA o he Na ional Agencies)
and made a ailable on hei pla o ms. An annual E asmus+ Guide o a Call may announce
new ypes o ac ions o suppo which did no exis he yea be o e (e.g., in 2020, a special
call was launched o digi al educa ion ela ed o Co id-19). This gi es he Eu opean
Commission he possibili y o adjus E asmus+ o con empo a y socie al challenges and
oppo uni ies and o he EU’s poli ical con ex wi hin he scope o ac ion and objec i es
de ined in he mul i-annual p og amme amewo k ( ha is i such changes a e app o ed by
he EU ins i u ions esponsible o amending and app o ing hem (see “Budge ” sec ion).
Two ypes o ac o s can access p ojec s inanced by he P og amme: he "pa icipa ing
o ganisa ions" (any o ganisa ion ac i e in he ields o educa ion, aining, you h o spo ,
playe s in he labou ma ke who coo dina es o is a pa ne in a unded p ojec ) and he
"pa icipan s" (indi iduals in ol ed in p ojec s and/o mobili y - s uden s, ainees,
17
app en ices, pupils, adul lea ne s, young people, olun ee s, p o esso s, eache s, aine s,
you h wo ke s, p o essionals o o ganisa ions ac i e in he ields o educa ion, aining and
you h).
E asmus+ p ojec s p oposals a e submi ed and managed by pa icipa ing
o ganisa ions in he co esponding call o unding. I he applica ion is app o ed, he
applican o ganisa ion becomes an E asmus+ “bene icia y” and ge s inancial suppo o
he ealisa ion o hei p ojec . Fo p ojec s in ol ing se e al o ganisa ions, he applican
akes he ole o “coo dina o ”, and he emaining a e he “p ojec pa ne s” (which may o
no be g an ed unding, depending on hei ole in he wo k plan de ined in he applica ion).
Pa icipa ing o ganisa ions a e esponsible o he p ac ical implemen a ion o he p ojec ,
i s ac i i ies and ou comes, as well as epo ing. They selec he pa icipan s o be in ol ed
in he ac i i ies h ough he p ocess hey see mo e i wi hin he p inciples o he
p og amme.
This mul i-le el managemen can be seen as bene icial as i allows o ailo ed
p ojec s ha can be co-cons uc ed wi h hei a ge ed pa icipan s, os e ing inclusion.
Howe e , human esou ces limi a ions and o e load, namely due o he amoun o
bu eauc acy, ei he a he le el o Na ional Agencies o he bene icia ies, hinde his
•Es ablishes he
p og amme amewo k
and budge o 7 yea s
•Publishes a e ised
P og amme Guide and
calls annually
•Moni o s and suppo
implemen a ion o he
o e all p og amme and
epo s i o EU
ins i u ions
•Manages calls o
ende s and cen alised
ac ions (EACEA)
Eu opean
Commission
•Manage calls o
unding h oughou
he yea
•Awa d unding o
selec ed p ojec s and
moni o hei
implemen a ion
•Suppo applican s
and bene icia ies
•Ad ise and suppo
he Commission
Na ional
Agencies •Implemen and
manage he
app o ed p ojec
•Collabo a e wi h
pa ne s and
suppo
pa icipan s
•Repo o he
co esponding
agency
•T ack ac i i ies
using he p e-
es ablished ools
Bene icia ies
•Take pa in
p ojec ac i i ies
(i.e. in e na ional
mobili y)
•Di ec ly con ibu e
o he p ojec as
pa ne s acco ding
o he wo k plan
( o o ganisa ions)
Pa icipan s and
pa icipa ing
o ganisa ions
Figu e 4 – Main ac o s in he E asmus+ P og amme and p ojec s and hei oles
18
possibili y. The lack o expe ience and adequa e aining can also p e en be e esul s;
hence quali ica ion o p ojec leade s is a ield o imp o emen (Fabb is & Boe i, 2019)
as well as inancial suppo o human esou ces.
1.6. Moni o ing, epo ing and e alua ion
The epo ing on he P og amme is done by all he ac o s in di e en s ages.
Pa icipan s a e asked o ill in a digi al ques ionnai e managed by EU Su ey whe e hey
e alua e hei pe cep ions abou he mobili y expe ience (e.g. i i was con ibu ed o
inc eased skills). The bene icia y o ganisa ions ha e he con ac ual obliga ion o
egis e ing and epo ing each mobili y o he Na ional Agency and submi ing a leas a
inal epo (in e im epo s depend on he ype o p ojec ) on a digi al pla o m (Mobili y
Tool) o epo o he EACEA in he case o cen alised ac ions. The NAS hen use he da a
ga he ed o p oduce an in e im coun y epo , submi ed o he Eu opean Commission,
who, in u n, sends ou a se o ecommenda ions o he coun y (Eu opean Commission,
2021b).
The Commission publishes yea ly E asmus+ Annual Repo s wi h he mos ele an
da a om all he P og amme Coun ies. This epo is made a ailable o he public on he
webpage o he Publica ions O ice o he EU and can be hen used by o he s akeholde s
o suppo posi ion pape s o ecommenda ions, o esea ch, and imp o ing p ac ices,
among o he s. Howe e , a look a he publica ion da e o hese epo s shows hey a e only
published a ound he yea a e he yea hey e e o has inished. Fo example, he la es
epo , e e ing o 2020, was published in Decembe 2021, which dec eases hei
applicabili y.
The o e all P og amme is moni o ed and epo ed on by he Eu opean Commission,
which should ely on independen audi bodies o issue an opinion on he yea ly
implemen a ion and o also sha e all ele an in o ma ion wi h he Commission and i s
ep esen a i es and he Eu opean Cou o Audi o s. An in e im e alua ion o he cu en
P og amme should be implemen ed by 31 Decembe 2024, along wi h he inal e alua ion
o he 2014-2020 P og amme. The inal e alua ion is se o 31 Decembe 2031.
15
Once
again, he e is a long pe iod be ween he eal da es he P og amme ends (2024) and he
15
In o ma ion e ie ed om Regula ion (EU) 2021/817 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o
20 May 2021 es ablishing E asmus+: he Union P og amme o educa ion and aining, you h and spo and
epealing Regula ion (EU) No 1288/2013 - PE/32/2021/INIT

19
epo ing (2031), due o he complexi y o EU p ocedu es, which limi s he use ulness o
such epo s o o he s akeholde s.
1.6.1. Pp og ess indica o s
The Commission is equi ed o p esen a se o annual inancial and accoun abili y
epo s unde he In eg a ed Financial and Accoun abili y Repo ing on he
implemen a ion, pe o mance, esul s, managemen o he EU budge , including E asmus+,
o he Eu opean Pa liamen and he Council o he EU, which con ains bo h inancial and
p og ess indica o s. Fo E asmus+ o he pe iod o 2021 - 2027, he pe o mance indica o s
a e subdi ided in o he s ands o Educa ion and T aining, You h and Spo and Key
Ac ions, and include he numbe o pa icipan s and o ganisa ions aking pa in he
P og amme (acco ding o ypes o mobili y, as well as speci ic cha ac e is ics i.e. being a
newcome o ganisa ion o a pa icipan wi h “ ewe oppo uni ies”); he sha e o
pa icipan s ha conside hey ha e bene i ed om hei pa icipa ion in lea ning mobili y
ac i i ies and ha ha e an inc eased Eu opean sense o belonging a e pa icipa ion, and
he sha e o ac i i ies add essing clima e change.
16
These indica o s a e used o e lec on
successes, limi a ions and esul s, which in luence decisions on he u u e o E asmus+.
Acco ding o Cai ns e al. (2018), hese indica o s a e insu icien o esea che s as hey
aim o illus a e c oss-coun y ends in pa icipa ion o e ime and “denuded o socio-
demog aphic a iables is he e o e us a ing, and pe haps a bi suspicious, lea ing us o
specula e abou ac o s such as he impac o social class on E asmus pa icipa ion and he
gende dimension o educa ional exchanges”. Pe haps, o his eason, he Commission has,
in he pas , hi ed ex e nal e alua o s/ esea che s o conduc o he e alua ions using
di e en esea ch ools o ga he in o ma ion (e.g., E asmus Impac s udy, conduc ed ia
an online su ey).
Some s akeholde s o he P og amme de elop hei own s udies (e.g., he ESN su ey
de eloped by E asmus S uden Ne wo k) ocusing on sec o ial ends. All hese
con ibu ions p o ide addi ional da a ha can con ibu e o policymaking and P og amme
implemen a ion, and p o ide impo an guidelines o bene icia ies, coo dina o s, and
pa ne s o imp o e cu en and u u e p ojec s, namely by making hem mo e inclusi e.
16
The de ailed Pe o mance F amewo k can be ound in:
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/in o/si es/de aul / iles/abou _ he_eu opean_commission/eu_budge /p og amme_and_p
e o mance_-_e asmus_0.pd
20
2. Inclusion in he con ex o E asmus+
2.1. Backg ound
The ideals o inclusion and equali y a e ensh ined in he EU T ea ies
17
s a e ha “in all
i s ac i i ies, he Union shall obse e he p inciple o he equali y o i s ci izens, who shall
ecei e equal a en ion om i s ins i u ions, bodies, o ices and agencies”. They a e also
he main policy agendas globally, such as he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen
o he Uni ed Na ions, which es ablished “Reduced Inequali ies” as a global goal (SDG
10)”, as well as EU policies and s a egies ocused on he ields co e ed by E asmus+
(including he Eu opean Skills Agenda, he Eu opean Union Wo k Plan o Spo , Digi al
Educa ion Ac ion Plan, Eu opean Union You h S a egy 2019-2027, he goal o eaching a
Eu opean Educa ion A ea by 2025, he Eu opean You h Goals, and o he s).
As a esul and building on se e al decla a ions o he EU calling o be e and equal
oppo uni ies o young people (such as he B a isla a Decla a ion, signed
on 16 Sep embe 2016, Rome Decla a ion, signed on 25 Ma ch 2017), inclusion is one o
he main alues o he E asmus+ p og amme and a pa icula ocus is pu on i o he
unding o he pe iod o 2021-2027, making i an o e a ching p io i y o all i s sec o s
and key ac ions. This inc eased ocus on inclusion builds on he esul s o p e ious
e alua ion
18
which emphasised he need o make he u u e p og amme mo e inclusi e and
u he widen access (Eu opean Commission, 2021c).
2.2. Ci cumsc ibing inclusion in E asmus+
Acco ding o he E asmus+ Guide (2021), he P og amme seeks o p omo e equal
oppo uni ies and access, inclusion, di e si y and ai ness and pa icipan s wi h ewe
oppo uni ies hemsel es a e a he hea o hese objec i es and o ganisa ions a e asked o
make hei p ojec s accessible o a di e se ange o pa icipan s, namely hose who such
ace obs acles, conside ed “young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies”.
Meye s e al. (2020) explain ha E asmus+ policy documen s e e o wo le els o
inclusion, no always di e en ia ing clea ly be ween he: he inclusion o he a ge g oups
17
A icle 9 o he consolida ed e sion.
18
Mid- e m e alua ion o he 2014-2020 P og amme; Open public consul a ion o 2018.
21
(young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies), making he P og amme mo e inclusi e; and
inclusion in socie y a la ge, by os e ing he pa icipa ion o e e yone in all a eas o
socie y, pa icula ly, o hose g oups (who a e excluded o a ce ain deg ee om some o
hese domains). This a ionale is in line wi h he idea ha he lack o di e si y in he p o iles
o young people who access E asmus con ibu es o ein o cing social disad an age
(Cai ns, 2019). When E asmus+ p ojec s a e no managed and implemen ed o acili a e
he access o young people om di e en backg ounds, he e is a isk o u he suppo ing
hose who a e al eady ahead o hei pee s a he socio-economic le el, alling p ey o he
‘Ma hew E ec ’ (Cai ns e al., 2017). ‘Ma hew e ec ’ is a psychological amewo k ha
aims o explain why people who al eady accumula e mo e o a gi en alue a e p omp o
con inue o do so, e.g., he pe son who ge s awa ded he i s place, eclipses he o he s and
gains ecogni ion ha will lead o be e esou ces and ad an ages o he u u e, while
hose in las place a e disca ded, and mo e p omp o con inue o do so, as hey emain
unno iced (Rod íguez, 2009).
In his espec , “exclusion and ewe oppo uni ies can be conside ed o be
in e dependen , one esul ing in he o he and ice- e sa.” i can be concluded ha he
inclusi eness o he E asmus+ P og amme is in ended o be a s ep owa ds o e en a model
o an inclusi e socie y, os e ing inclusion a la ge (Meye s e al., 2020:16).
The cu en measu es o suppo inclusion in E asmus+ a he le el o he
bene icia y mainly include addi ional unding o pa icipan s wi h ewe oppo uni ies and
p ojec s ocused on inclusion and ecommenda ions o digi al pla o ms wi h esou ces and
ools. A he na ional and EU le el o E asmus+ managemen , measu es ha e a mo e
s uc u al componen and include he c ea ion o s a egies o inclusion and di e si y in
each coun y.
19
2.3. Young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies
2.3.1. De ini ion
19
The ull se o p inciples, measu es and goals is p esen ed in he Commission Implemen ing Decision (EU)
2021/1877 o 22 Oc obe 2021 on he amewo k o inclusion measu es o he E asmus+ and Eu opean
Solida i y Co ps P og ammes 2021-2027, a ailable o consul a ion he e: Commission Implemen ing
Decision (EU) 2021/1877 o 22 Oc obe 2021, on he amewo k o inclusion measu es o he E asmus+ and
Eu opean Solida i y Co ps P og ammes 2021-2027.
22
The e m ‘young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies’, including young people wi h
disabili ies’ ins ead o ‘disad an aged’ o ‘disabled’ young people, was i s used in 2016.
Since hen, i is used consis en ly in policy ex s and linked o (social) inclusion. The
implemen a ion guidelines o he Inclusion and Di e si y S a egy o E asmus+ 2021 -
2027 de ine hem as:
(Young) people who, o economic, social, cul u al, geog aphical o heal h easons, due
o hei mig an backg ound, o o easons such as disabili y o educa ional di icul ies o
o any o he eason, including a eason ha could gi e ise o disc imina ion
20
(…) ace
obs acles ha p e en hem om ha ing e ec i e access o oppo uni ies unde he
P og amme (Eu opean Commission, 2021c:10)
A non-exhaus i e lis o ba ie s ha can hinde hei pa icipa ion bo h as a s and-alone
ac o and in combina ion among hem is p o ided by he E asmus+ Guides o help
bene icia ies unde s and which g oups a e co e ed by his umb ella e m. As explained,
he pe iod o his in es iga ion co e ed bo h P og ammes, and i was conside ed in e es ing
o compa e how he concep and examples o “ ewe oppo uni ies” e ol ed be ween he
wo pe iods o he p og amme. Thus, he de ini ions co esponding o he E asmus+ guide
o each pe iod we e explo ed ( igu e 5).
Young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies
E asmus+ P og amme Guide (2014)
E asmus+ P og amme Guide (2021)
“Obs acles”
“Ba ie s in accessibili y and ou each”
Social obs acles
Social ba ie s
- Disc imina ion (because o gende ,
e hnici y, eligion, sexual o ien a ion,
disabili y, e c.).
- Limi ed social skills o an i-social o
isky sexual beha iou s.
- P eca ious si ua ion.
- (Ex-)o ende s, (ex-)d ug o alcohol
abuse s.
- Being a young and/o single pa en .
- Social adjus men di icul ies such as limi ed
social compe encies, an i-social o high- isk
beha iou s, ( o me ) o ende s, ( o me ) d ug o
alcohol abuse s.
- Social ma ginalisa ion, and amily ci cums ances
(being he i s in he amily o access highe
educa ion; a pa en , especially a single pa en ; a
ca egi e ; a b eadwinne ; an o phan o ha ing
li ed o cu en ly li ing in ins i u ional ca e).
20
F amed unde A icle 21 o he Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s o he Eu opean Union, co e s
disc imina ion based on any g ound such as sex, ace, colou , e hnic o social o igin, gene ic ea u es,
language, eligion o belie , poli ical o any o he opinion, membe ship o a na ional mino i y, p ope y, bi h,
disabili y, age o sexual o ien a ion.
29
lea ning, bu he same can be ue o lea ning ins i u ions. Namely, ha is one o he
sugges ions p o ided in “Inclusion A o Z”, which combines heo y and p ac ical me hods
o in eg a e inclusion in E asmus+ p ojec s. I explains ha o succeed in doing so, p ojec
coo dina o s should each ou o young people, gi e hem a cen al place in he discussion
and p edic a longe - e m impac ha does no limi o he mobili y expe ience i sel
(Sch oede , 2014).
A model ha p o essionals in Educa ion and T aining can bene i om o e hink how
hey wo k wi h young people was c ea ed by Roge Ha , and p esen ed as a me apho ical
“ladde ,” wi h each ascending ung ep esen ing inc easing le els o agency, con ol, o
powe .
Figu e 6 - Roge Ha ’s o iginal 1992 illus a ion o he Ladde o Child en’s Pa icipa ion om Child en’s
Pa icipa ion: F om Tokenism o Ci izenship
Conside ing ha “young people’s pa icipa ion canno be discussed wi hou
conside ing powe ela ions and he s uggle o equal igh s” (Ha , 1992:8), his model
allows hose o ganizing o holding a p ojec o young people o c i ically e alua e he
p ocess, he le el o inclusion o young people in i , and aise pe sonal awa eness abou he
le el o someone’s pa icipa ion.
Conclusion

30
Se e al conclusions can be d awn om his chap e . Fi s , i can be acknowledged
ha as an EU P og amme, E asmus+ aces challenges and limi a ions such ela ed o
bu eauc a ic p ocedu es EU, such as he adop ion o ules and budge o 7 yea s (which
allows o s abili y bu also limi s adap abili y o he annual calls); a complex s uc u e
o med by di e en objec i es and ins i u ions ha makes i di icul o p o ide in o ma ion
in use ul ime (such as e alua ion esul s); a clea subo dina ion o he objec i es o he
ins i u ions, namely he p io i ies se by he Eu opean Commission (which a e impac ed by
he changes in he p esidency); and an insu icien socio-cha ac e isa ion o da a ha allow
be e ing “pain he pic u e” o inclusion. Howe e , he inc eased budge and he c ea ion
o a comp ehensi e plan and s a egy o Inclusion and Di e si y, which include s uc u al
changes in ins i u ions and addi ional unding o ins i u ions who wo k wi h inclusion, a e
seen as a posi i e de elopmen owa ds an E asmus+ ha is mo e e ec i e in in ol ing a
mo e di e se p o ile o pa icipan s.
Secondly, he e m “you h wi h ewe oppo uni ies” has e ol ed h ough he yea s
and now p o ides a c oss-sec o ial con ex o he a ge g oup o E asmus+ and lexibili y
in each coun y and con ex ha akes in o accoun ha di e en ba ie s may o e lap.
Ne e heless, i p esen s se e al p oblems, anging om possible labelling and seg ega ion
o g oups o pa icipan s o he di icul y in measu ing who a e such pa icipan s wi hou
ins umen s o do so, among o he conce ns ega ding he e hical use o he addi ional
inancing.
Finally, he You h sec o o E asmus+ has aluable insigh s on he connec ion o
esea che s o he ield o ac i i y, sha ing o good p ac ices and ac i e in ol emen o
pa icipan s ha can gi e an impo an con ibu ion o u he ad ancing he inclusion
e o s in all sec o s, and hus, should be eplica ed/explo ed by hem.
31
Chap e II – You h inequali ies and policies: he case o
Voca ional Educa ion and T aining
In oduc ion
In his second chap e , a b ie con ex o you h inequali ies and policies will be
p o ided as a backd op o explo ing Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VET). The
con ex o VET in Eu ope and Po ugal, he coun y whe e he empi ical esea ch was
de eloped, o allow o a co ec in e p e a ion o he esea ch and i s esul s and his
choice and explain how VET embodies you h inequali ies and con adic ions in i s
policies.
1. You h inequali ies and policies
The impac o globalisa ion in acili a ing labou ma ke de egula ion, inc eased
ou sou cing o p oduc ion, changing employmen o ms and labou p o iles is o con inued
in e es ac oss Eu ope. The conce n e ol es a ound how hese issues a ec he ansi ion
o adul hood, and how an inabili y o mo e easily h ough educa ion o he labou ma ke
can esul in disad an age and social exclusion (Robe s, 2011).
Inequali y has been concep ualised in many ways. Di e en meanings a ibu ed o
he e m ha e consequences no only o he measu es p oposed o add ess i bu also o
he impac o hese measu es on he li es o g oups and indi iduals a ec ed, as can be seen
om he example o E asmus+’s app oach o inclusion. Se e al mul idimensional
amewo ks ha e been de ised o shed ligh on hem, which mo e om ocusing solely on
income o po e y and highligh ways in which inequali ies combine and in e sec .
Unde he wel a e s a e sys em, public policies a e he ga ekeepe s o democ acy
and capi alism, ensu ing edis ibu ion o he ea nings o he s a e h ough axa ion by
ans o ming hem in o goods and se ices o indi iduals, especially hose in less
p i ileged economic posi ions, as well as public in es men (San os, 1987). Bu whe eas
he e is a dis ibu ion o bene i s in line wi h edis ibu i e social jus ice claims, aiming o
a mo e jus dispe sal o esou ces and goods, his also “ins i u ionalises cul u al no ms o
en i lemen and dese ; and hey cons uc a ious dis inc (and o en unequally alued)
subjec posi ions o iden i ies o hei claiman s and bene icia ies” (F ase , 1996:55).
32
Inequali ies ha e many aces, and many sou ces, in e ac i e, cumula i e, and no mu ually
excluded ones (Nico, 2016). In his sense, young people can ind hemsel es accumula ing
inequali ies h oughou li e, as well as su passing hem. He e he concep o
in e sec ionali y can p o ide an in e es ing amewo k. De i ed om black and c i ical ace
and eminis heo ies, in e sec ionali y explains ha indi iduals a e si ua ed on many
di e en axes o inequali y, including class, ace, age and gende , and ha all o hese axes
in e sec . An in e sec ional app oach e eals ha hose mos likely o be le behind a e
g oups whose disad an age and ma ginalisa ion in e sec along di e en dimensions,
ein o cing and exace ba ing one ano he , explaining he pe sis ence o ma ginalisa ion
p ocesses o ce ain g oups.
You h policies, such as hose ela ed o E asmus+ and Voca ional Educa ion and
T aining, ha e he ul ima e objec i e o dec easing inequali ies among young people.
Howe e , he e is equen ension be ween policymake s and esea che s on how o
achie e u he equali y o you h in Eu ope. The o me , albei in en ions and also a ious
documen a ion a he Eu opean le el on he need o c oss-sec o al policies, end o look
app oach you h issues h ough he lens o employabili y o labou ma ke ; he la e look a
he p oblems o young people as “c oss-sec o al”, in holis ic pe spec i es, ha ake and
analyse each li e as a whole (educa ion, employmen , heal h, cul u e, e c.) (Nico, 2016).
The demands o a global and digi al wo ld and he o ic o inno a ion, esilience, and
g ow h con ibu e o he o emen ioned “wo ldwide bible” (Nó oa, 2000, as ci ed in Al es,
2006) whe e concep s a e applied wi hou ideological meaning. Fu he c i icising his idea
o uni o mising socie al issues, Bou dieu (1998, ci ed in Al es, 2006) s a ed ha
ins i u ions o mode ni y sha e in a endency o p esen hemsel es as wo king o he
common good, bu in ac ep oduce social inequali ies.
Cai ns (2019) acknowledges ha p og ammes such as E asmus+ unless hey
become mo e ep esen a i e, isk being hemsel es a ac o o u he inequali ies, a he
han con ibu ing o pu ing young people in disad an aged si ua ions a he same le el as
hei pee s. De lin e al., (2017) no e ha social inclusion is an ongoing p ocess in
e e yone’s li e and hus con ibu ing o i ( o example, h ough lea ning mobili y unde
E asmus+) is no a “one- ime” hing and can ha e a di e en impac on di e en people in
he same g oup.
Thus, ensu ing he social inclusion o young people equi es poli ical cou age and
he s a egic in es men o inancial and human esou ces, based on bo h a quan i a i e and
quali a i e analysis o he causes and consequences o social exclusion (Colley e al., 2007).
33
Ha ing acknowledged, in he p e ious chap e , ha he You h sec o p esen s a mo e
ad anced de elopmen in inclusion, i was decided o u he explo e, as p epa a ion o
he empi ical esea ch, he sec o o Educa ion and T aining. In i , Voca ional Educa ion
and T aining was deemed he mos in e es ing o esea ch, as i sha es he poli ical
con adic ions desc ibed abo e and ca e s o a less p i ileged audience (in gene al). I will
be p esen ed in he nex poin .
2. Voca ional Educa ion and T aining
2.1. Desc ip ion and ele ance in he EU and o E asmus+
VET is de ined as a ype o educa ion p o ided a di e en le els o young people
- ini ial VET (IVET), he ocus o his esea ch - and adul s, ha p o ides lea ne s wi h he
equi ed pe sonal and p o essional skills o pe o m a job and/o aining and/o c ea e jobs
in demand on he labou ma ke (Council o he Eu opean Union, 2020). Acco ding o
Cede op
24
2019, IVET s uden s in he EU co esponded o 48.4% o all uppe seconda y
s uden s and 39% in Po ugal. The employmen a e o ecen IVET g adua es (who ha e
ob ained a oca ional quali ica ion be ween 1-3 yea s be o e he su ey) be ween 20 and
34 yea s old was 76.1% in he EU and 73% in Po ugal, highe han o g adua es o gene al
educa ion by 7%, in he EU, and 3,9%, in Po ugal.
VET akes place ei he in a school-based en i onmen , a wo k-based se ing, such
as aining cen es and companies, o a combina ion o bo h, wi h a s ong ocus on c ea ing
a se ing in which s uden s can apply hei lea ning in p ac ice de eloped and amilia ize
hemsel es wi h he daily eali y o he oca ional a ea. Al hough i is o en associa ed wi h
ade/c a p o essions (such as a ca pen e , hai d esse , ga dene , elec ician), VET co e s
a wide ange o skilled p o essions which a e in demand in he labou ma ke , including
ields ela ed o se ices and adminis a ion (accoun ing, ma ke ing, ou ism, sales, e-
comme ce, heal h se ices, ou ism, and hospi ali y, among many o he s).
Due o his needs-o ien ed app oach o educa ion and aining and close links wi h
he job ma ke ha aims o add ess he skills-misma ch, he EU a gues VET has a
undamen al ole in equipping young “skills o wo k, pe sonal de elopmen and
ci izenship, which help hem o adap o and deli e on he win digi al and g een IVET
24
Da a om Cede op VET Moni o e ie ed om h ps://www.cede op.eu opa.eu/en/ ools/key-indica o s-
on- e /coun ies?coun y=PT&coun y2=#1
34
s uden s in he EU co esponded o 48.4% o all uppe seconda y s uden s and 39% in
Po ugal. The employmen a e o ecen IVET g adua es (who ha e ob ained a oca ional
quali ica ion be ween 1-3 yea s be o e he su ey) be ween 20 and 34 yea s old was 76.1%
in he EU and 73% in Po ugal, highe han o g adua es o gene al educa ion by 7%, in
he EU, and 3,9%, in Po ugal.
VET akes place ei he in a school-based en i onmen , a wo k-based se ing, such
as aining cen es and companies, o a combina ion o bo h, wi h a s ong ocus on c ea ing
a se ing in which s uden s can apply hei lea ning in p ac ice de eloped and amilia ize
hemsel es wi h he daily eali y o he oca ional a ea. Al hough i is o en associa ed wi h
ade/c a p o essions (such as a ca pen e , hai d esse , ga dene , elec ician), VET co e s
a wide ange o skilled p o essions which a e in demand in he labou ma ke , including
ields ela ed o se ices and adminis a ion (accoun ing, ma ke ing, ou ism, sales, e-
comme ce, heal h se ices, ou ism and hospi ali y, among many o he s).
Due o his needs-o ien ed app oach o educa ion and aining and close links wi h
he job ma ke ha aims o add ess he skills-misma ch, he EU a gues VET has a
undamen al ole in equipping young “skills o wo k, pe sonal de elopmen and
ci izenship, which help hem o adap o and deli e on he win digi al and g een
ansi ions, o cope wi h eme gencies and economic shocks, while also suppo ing
economic g ow h and social cohesion” (Council o he Eu opean Union, 2020). In 2017,
VET gained unp eceden ed policy momen um in Eu ope when he Eu opean Commission,
unde he New Skills Agenda o Eu ope encou aged people o conside VET as he i s
choice in hei ca ee pa h as one o i s en key ac ions (Pan ea, 2019). The Eu opean
Commission also iden i ied as a ocus a ea o coope a ion unde he Eu opean Educa ion
A ea ini ia i e o he pe iod 2021-2030, and, hus, he unding and ype o ac ions a ailable
unde he E asmus+ ha e widened. Addi ionally, he Council Recommenda ion on VET
se s he goal o ensu ing a leas 8 % o lea ne s in VET bene i om lea ning mobili y
ab oad (Council o he Eu opean Union, 2020).
Likewise, in line wi h he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen and
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 4 (“Ensu e inclusi e and equi able quali y educa ion
and p omo e li elong lea ning oppo uni ies o all”), UNESCO ecognises he po en ial o
VET in p omo ing inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h and compe i i eness, social
equi y and en i onmen al sus ainabili y by empowe ing indi iduals, o ganiza ions,

35
en e p ises and communi ies and os e ing employmen , decen wo k and li elong lea ning
in he Recommenda ion and he S a egy
25
o he sec o .
VET is also ecognised o “ os e ing inclusi eness and equal oppo uni ies and
con ibu es o achie ing esilience, social ai ness and p ospe i y o all” (Council o he
Eu opean Union, 2020). Some o he ypologies o VET a e shown as ways o comba ing
school d opou and, consequen ly, social exclusion due o lack o academic quali ica ions
and p o essional quali ica ions (Ba bosa e al., 2015). In ac , acco ding o a su ey
conduc ed in Cede op in 2016
26
, he wo main easons s uden s choose oca ional educa ion
a e he likelihood o inding a job (46%) and in e es in he subjec s (41%), in opposi ion
o gene al educa ion which does no lead o a quali ica ion o p o ides hem wi h a lea ning
oppo uni y in hei ield o in e es . In his way, VET can be seen as a acili a o o equi y,
jus ice and social inclusion (Ba bosa e al., 2015).
Acco ding o McG a h (2012 ci ed in Pan ea, 2019), such concep ualisa ions on
‘employabili y’, ‘skills misma ch’ o on ‘labou ma ke inclusion as social inclusion’ can
send a disempowe ing message on he pe cei ed alue o young people’s li es. VET calls
o a la ge deba e on you h exclusion, expanding om he ocus on employmen o o he
ansi ions and aspi a ions o young people, as gi ing he labou ma ke p io i y o e
indi idual’s g ow h makes VET ‘inconsis en wi h democ a ic p inciples’ (Thompson
1973:95, as ci ed in Pan ea, 2019).
And while high expec a ions, om po e y alle ia ion o economic g ow h and
a ac ion o in es men s a e placed in VET, “ he a gumen ha s a ing ha VET is
in a iably good is as pa ial and haza dous as s a ing ha i is always a bad idea” (Pan ea,
2019:12). Wol (2011: 116, as ci ed in Pan ea, 2019:2) b ough upon he isk ha some
schools, as has happened in he pas , e ec i ely w i e o some o hei leas academically
success ul s uden s o oca ional cou ses
27
. Pan ea (2019) also explains ha ha ing highe
educa ion as a s anda d, makes i di icul o o he s o see VET as a choice in i s own igh ;
and b ings up he p oblems associa ed wi h p omo ing IVET as he de aul ‘o e ’ o ‘less
academic’ pupils, explaining ha VET, o e he las wo decades has been conside ed by
esea che s as ‘mo he ’s las hope’, ‘a place o pa k’ young people belie ed o be
dys unc ional o ‘a g ea idea o o he people’s child en. “A p esen , in he sea ch o
25
S a egy o TVET (2016-2021) - e ie ed om
h p://unesdoc.unesco.o g/images/0024/002452/245239e.pd
26
Wha a e he easons o choosing VET as an educa ional pa h? - e ie ed om
h ps://www.cede op.eu opa.eu/da/news/wha -a e- easons-choosing- e -educa ional-pa h
36
inc easing he public (…) ‘appe i e o VET’, employe s and policymake s look o posi i e
me apho s, ye no always in a con ex ha is undamen ally di e en om he one ha
gene a ed he abo e c i iques” (Pan ea, 2019:39).
2.2. The Po uguese case
A he le el o each coun y, he challenges and policy esponses o VET, as well
as i s unc ioning, migh di e . In Po ugal, goals include u he educing ea ly lea ing
om educa ion and aining, upskilling ulne able g oups and p omo ing hei socio-
p o essional in eg a ion (DGERT, 2019). IVET akes place in public o p i a e uppe
seconda y le el schools (high school). P i a e VET schools, “P o essional School” we e
i s es ablished in 1989, and esul ed in he cu en de elopmen o VET (Ba bosa e al.,
2015). They a e gene ally open o he public and do no ha e a ee o ui ion and a e only
p i a e ega ding hei managemen (which is o en o med by di e en s akeholde s o he
egion), in opposi ion o public schools which a e, ul ima ely, managed by he S a e.
P o essional p og ammes (“cu sos p o issionais”) include gene al educa ion subjec s
(Po uguese, o eign languages) and subjec s connec ed o he oca ional a eas and a ge
you h wi h a mo e p ac ical and labou ma ke -o ien ed mindse . They las o h ee yea s
and o esee wo k-based lea ning in an ag eemen be ween he school and a p o essional
ins i u ion wi h ac i i y in he ield o s udies co esponding o he p og amme (company,
o ganisa ion, school, e c) (DGERT, 2019).
In addi ion o p o iding young people wi h a double ce i ica ion ha quali ies
lea ne s o en e he job ma ke o pu sue u he s udies (including in highe educa ion)
upon comple ion, acco ding o he dec ee-law (Dec e o-lei No 55/2018, June), VET should
equip hei g adua es wi h echnical-scien i ic and echnological knowledge and nine o he
compe encies including c i ical and c ea i e hinking; easoning and p oblem-sol ing;
in e pe sonal ela ionship; and pe sonal de elopmen and au onomy. These compe encies
a e pa o he “P o ile o s uden s lea ing compulso y educa ion”
28
, he Po uguese
amewo k o educa ion decision-make s and ac o s wi h a humanis ic basis. Schools a e
en us ed wi h designing how lea ne s could gain hese compe encies wi h he suppo o
documen s, aining and ools p o ided by he Minis y o Educa ion
29
and in e na ional
28
Es ablished in Po ugal by Despacho No 6478/2017, June 2017.
29
Pe il dos Alunos à Saída da Escola idade Ob iga ó ia – e ie ed om
h ps://www.dge.mec.p /si es/de aul / iles/Cu iculo/P oje o_Au onomia_e_Flexibilidade/pe il_dos_alunos
.pd
37
p ojec s ( i ual, ia eTwinning; and in-pe son, wi h E asmus+) ha e been gaining a special
ele ance as a pa o he schools’ s a egic and educa ional plans, suppo ed by a s ong
commi men o he eTwinning Na ional Suppo O ganisa ion and he E asmus+ Na ional
Agency Educa ion and T aining.
Despi e hese esul s, he p aise o VET by policymake s, and he mul iple
oppo uni ies o e ed o s uden s in he coun y, he ecogni ion and a ac i eness o i a e
limi ed by he social s igma associa ed wi h p o essional and echnological p og ammes in
Po ugal. OECD (2018: 146 ci ed in Ba bosa e al., 2015: 45) ale ed o a ‘his o ically
weak epu a ion’ o VET in Po ugal by demons a ing p o essional p og ammes a e o en
a ge ed a s uden s om socio-economically disad an aged backg ounds. A s udy
sys ema ising da a on IVET om 2015, Ba bosa e al., (2015) demons a ed his de oga o y
social ep esen a ion, and conclude he p ejudice associa ed wi h p o essional p og ammes
and i s de alua ion as a aining pa h is s ill associa ed wi h he o igin socio-economic
s a us o mos s uden s, who a e mainly coming om amilies wi h a low le el o educa ion,
and p o essions as wo ke s, a me s and unskilled wo ke s, in opposi ion as hose in gene al
educa ion, whose amilies a e p edominan ly om managemen and echnical p o essions
and ha e highe le els o educa ion. Fo example, while 32% o he s uden s in gene al
educa ion ha e pa en s who comple ed Highe Educa ion deg ees, o IVET ha pe cen age
is 9%. The da a also shows mo e p eca i y in he employmen o pa en s o IVET s uden s
and a la ge numbe o single-pa en amilies (Ba bosa e al., 2015).
3. The ‘in isibili y’ o VET lea ne s
In he longi udinal s udy o VET, Pan ea (2019) d aws a gene al p o ile o IVET
lea ne s
30
as young people ying o make sense o hei u u e li es while en olled in a
sho e educa ional ack ha comes as an al e na i e o high school educa ion and s a es
he ype o li es, hey alue a e a icula ed wi h he (a guably objec i e) p ospec s o
p eca ious wo k and p eca ious li es and a s ong componen ela ed o space (localism).
In o he wo ds, IVET g adua es o en do no imagine a u u e ou side hei ci ies o e en
neighbou hoods, and hey end o ela e hei jobs deeply and pe sonally — p eca ious as
30
The s udy ocuses on EU and Romania. Al hough EU p esen s se e al sys ems, hose p esen ed in he
in es iga ion la gely co espond o he Po uguese ones, hus we e conside ed impo an o his disse a ion.
Howe e , he p o iles o VET lea ne s a e mul iple, and no gene alisa ion o ypi ica ion is in ended.
38
hey may be — wi h happiness, as ha ing a sa is ac o y job si s a he co e o hei
aspi a ions.
As s a ed by Phillip B own (1987), hey a e “ he 'in isible majo i y o 'o dina y'
wo king-class pupils who nei he le hei names eng a ed on he school's honou s boa ds
no gouged hem in o he op o class oom desks”. Al hough hey ypically come (as he
case o Po ugal illus a es) om many imes a e expe iencing long- e m expe iences o
educa ional ailu e hey a e no a ge ed as a disad an aged g oup, as hey did no d op ou ,
o ins ance.
To a la ge ex en , young people in VET ha e been a a he in isible social g oup,
close o Robe s’ (2011) ‘in isible middle’: young people who all in be ween
ca ego ies ha a ac high public a en ion. In many ways, hey a e ‘o dina y
people’, a dis ance om he o e quali ied g adua es o om he excep ional
achie emen s a ibu ed o he eme ging young en ep eneu s, and, also, in a
di e en si ua ion han hose no in educa ion, employmen o aining (NEET).
(Pan ea, 2019:13)
Pan ea also explains ha while VET policies o en y o econcile in e es s and
compe ing legi imacies o employe s, policymake s, eache s, pa en s, young people and
socie y by la ge, young people’s pe spec i es on VET a e, a bes , assumed and o en no
sough a e when designing solu ions.
Pan ea (2019:10), h ough his s udy, demons a es ha young people in VET “exhibi
a (p obably) simila endency o expe imen wi h op ions, choices and ‘d eams’ as hei
pee s in high school and ha e ‘ easonable’ pe sonal/ p o essional aspi a ions, ye hey lack
he enabling s uc u al ci cums ances and he concep ual map (i.e. men o ship, guidance,
iendly ins i u ions o achie e hem”. The au ho a gues hey aspi e o a place ‘high’,
despi e a con o ming p essu e, which would equi e a need o social mobili y agains he
odds (ye wi hin he cons aining limi s o class), bu despi e ha , hey place he locus o
hei occupa ional expec a ions in p eca ious jobs as hey belie e indi idual agency akes
p io i y. The esul s o he s udy demons a e his, exposing young people’s low sense o
con ol o e hei ‘wo k des iny’, on hei weakened social awa eness, poo ly a icula ed
poli ical oice, and a gene al sense o esen men .
Th ough his desc ip ion, is possible o conclude ha , in gene al, IVET s uden s p esen
some o he cha ac e is ics, and maybe han one ca ego y, o he “you h wi h ewe
oppo uni ies”, as hey ha e a his o y o di icul ies in he lea ning sys em, a e no mally
middle-class o lowe , and migh be disc imina ed due o hei lea ning choices.
45
Chap e III – Planning, o ganisa ion and ca ac e isa ion o he
s udy
In oduc ion
In an e e -inc easingly globalised and echnological socie y, which has i e e sibly
changed he unc ioning o he job ma ke , he skillse equi ed o access di e en
oppo uni ies and he ela ions among cul u es, coun ies and people, new ac o s o
exclusion a ise, leading o u he inequali y among young people. As shown, a he
Eu opean le el, he E asmus+ P og amme is p esen ed as a ool o coun e ac hese, by
p o iding unding and a amewo k o he acquisi ion o new skills, expe iences, and
oppo uni ies o pe sonal and p o essional g ow h open o all ha , in u n, should inc ease
employabili y, engagemen , pa icipa ion and a sense o belonging among young
Eu opeans. Howe e , as demons a ed in he p e ious chap e s, he numbe o pa icipan s
(when compa ed o he o e all numbe o s uden s/g adua es) is s ill ela i ely low,
pa icula ly o pa icipan s de ined as “young people o ewe oppo uni ies” which a e he
a ge o inclusion in E asmus+.
Ha ing es ablished he backd op o he ela ion be ween E asmus+, VET and
inclusion/you h inequali ies and iden i ied VET, which explained why i was conside ed a
sui able sec o o conduc esea ch in, and ha i s s uden s p esen a high po en ial o
bene i ing om E asmus+ expe iences in Pa I, his chap e will now desc ibe he
me hodological choices and p ocedu es o he s udy ca ied ou , namely he choice o
me hods, he p ocess o cons uc ion o he esea ch ool, selec ion o pa icipan s, and da a
collec ion and analysis ools and p ocedu es.
1. Subjec , objec i es and me hodology
The easoning o his in es iga ion lies in acknowledging in e sec ionali y: ac o s o
exclusion a e mul iple, cumula i e, and o en embedded in young people by hei con ex ,
and he mo e inequali ies one aces, he mo e is bound o encoun e in he u u e.
Acknowledging ha E asmus+ has he po en ial o in e e e in his pa e n and ha i should
in ol e a mo e di e se p o ile o young people, especially hose who would no , on hei
own, ha e he oppo uni y, in o ma ion, o ini ia i e o ge in ol ed, he Eu opean Union’s
in en o a mo e inclusi e P og amme is welcomed. In his con ex , i ma e s o analyse

46
wha is de ined as “inclusion” and how i is ackled by E asmus+ and how hese ela e o
sociological and social/you h wo k app oaches and measu es pe cei ed as e ec i e by
esea che s, p ac i ione s, and he young people hey a ge .
This esea ch is ocused on he inclusion o young people in he con ex o he
E asmus+ P og amme. The empi ical s udy ocuses on Voca ional Educa ion and T aining
in Po ugal o limi he sec o o he P og amme and geog aphical scope o be app oached.
As explained in Pa I, VET has a s ong ele ance o VET in Eu ope and Po ugal (and
wo ldwide) because, in addi ion o he economic dimension, i is cha ac e ised by a s ong
social dimension and c ea es bene i s in bo h a eas, he e o e playing a ole in public and
educa ional policies and economic and social de elopmen objec i es (Ba bosa e al.,
2015). Pan ea (2019) p esen s solid a gumen s why VET s uden s should be mo e “ isible”
o policymake s and esea che s and desc ibe hei p o ile as co esponding o he a ge
g oup o E asmus+, as i was men ioned in he heo e ical amewo k.
Conside ing his, he ocus is gi en o he EU and o he E asmus+ P og amme o
VET; and he pa icula i ies o Po uguese case - E asmus+ is seen as a way o schools o
help s uden s achie e he equi ed skills; and wi h a p o ile o VET s uden s ma ching some
o he disad an ages ha E asmus+ p oposes o ackle; VET in Po ugal was chosen as he
case o be explo ed in his esea ch. Addi ionally, s udying VET lea ne s o e ed he
ad an age o being able o each hem h ough coope a ion wi h school (who a e
hemsel es managing E asmus+ p ojec s, allowing o mul i-le el esea ch).
While he e is a conside able numbe o esea ch p ojec s and impac epo s on he
E asmus+ P og amme, hey end o app oach ei he a mac o le el, measu ing numbe s o
pa icipan s le els, including c oss-na ional ends, aimed a policymake s o e alua ion
and moni o ing pu poses, which end o lack socio-demog aphic analyses; o a mic o-le el
ocused on pe sonal pe spec i es and speci ic issues o pa icipan s (Cai ns &
K zaklewska, 2019). Simila ly, he e a e meso le el app oaches, which s udy how mobili y
is managed. This s udy aims o con ibu e o new and mo e in eg a ing ep esen a ions o
he E asmus+ P og amme by add essing hese h ee le els simul aneously.
A he same ime, i s inno a i e po en ial lies in con adic ing a endency o adop
a a he uni o m app oach when ep esen ing E asmus pa icipan s, emphasising gene al
endencies and he majo i y a he han s essing di e se expe iences, and wha may be
ma ginal bu impo an expe iences (Cai ns & K zaklewska, 2019). This is achie ed by
in ol ing young people who ha e he oppo uni y o apply o a lea ning mobili y pe iod
47
unded by E asmus+ bu ha e no ye had access o one, a he han hose who al eady ook
pa in he P og amme and cha ac e ising hem acco ding o sociodemog aphic ac o s.
Rega ding me hodology, while he da a collec ion me hod used, he su ey
ques ionnai e is a quan i a i e esea ch ool, his s udy is non-expe imen al and has
explo a o y and desc ip i e aims, and, he e o e, does no in end o es he hypo hesis o
gene alise conclusions bu a he ga he and sys ema ize da a on he eali y ha can
con ibu e o u u e p ac ice and esea ch. In ha sense, despi e using a s uc u ed ool o
da a collec ion, he esea che posi ions he sel owa ds a socio-c i ical pa adigm, as his
s udy has been p og essi ely adap ed o he eali y o he ield and aims o p o ide a
con ibu ion o he eali y in he s udy and highligh s he need o bo om-up app oaches o
policymaking bu also p ojec implemen a ion and p o ide use ul e idence o E asmus+
p ac i ione s o each he so-called “young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies”.
The ques ionnai e su ey aims o desc ibe how he a ge audience pe cei es he
inclusi e measu es designed o help hem su pass he obs acles desc ibed by he
P og amme, assess how hei si ua ion i s (o no ) he c i e ia es ablished by E asmus+ o
be conside ed as ha ing “ ewe oppo uni ies” (which a e so wide ha become ha d o map
and ind someone who does no ha e any o hem), and maps how ac o s/ac i i ies weigh
on hei decision o pa icipa e on E asmus+.
I s goals a e o ga he insigh on he s uden s’ pe spec i e, and, o emos ,
demons a e how he non-pa icipa ion in E asmus+ o en esul s om “in isible” in e nal
and s uc u al issues ha canno be sol ed by inc easing unding o se ing up inclusion
mechanisms ha label young people and isk u he seg ega ing hem, a he han in ol e
hem and consul hem. The e o e, e en hough he new E asmus+ P og amme, which
began du ing he elabo a ion o his disse a ion, p oposes new measu es o inclusion and
p esen s se e al oppo uni ies, as desc ibed in Pa I, i was s ill conside ed ele an o
p oceed wi h he in es iga ion as i ocuses mos ly on how hese a ec he pa icipa ing
indi iduals and o ganisa ions, and i does no in end o be an e alua ion o he p og amme.
This in es iga ion sha es he a gumen o (Amado & and Viei a, 2017), ha neu ali y
is di icul due o he emo ional, social and cul u al closeness o he esea che wi h he
subjec o esea ch, bu conclusions should be based on he esul s ob ained, no on he p e-
judgemen s and p e-concep s o he esea che . So, o ensu e he c edibili y o he
in es iga ion, he e was a conce n o implemen a c edible, documen ed and logical p ocess
ha allows o con idence (consis ency) in he in en ions and me hodological p ocesses o
48
he esea che come om i s igou co ec ness and accu acy o he da a and in e p e a ions;
ans e abili y (applicabili y); and con i mabili y (neu ali y) (Amado & Viei a, 2017).
2. Design o he in es iga ion
This in es iga ion is a su ey design ha p esen ed se e al phases. Fi s , s a is ical da a
on he opic was ga he ed o assu e he alidi y and ele ance o discussing he pa icipa ion
o “young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies” in E asmus+. Secondly, a li e a u e e iew in
Po uguese and English on he opics o E asmus and social inclusion; social inclusion o
young people; VET and social inclusion; you h inequali ies; and he impac o E asmus+
was ca ied ou . Alongside, he desk esea ch p ocess led o an analysis o o e 50
poli ical/s a egical documen s on E asmus+, Inclusion and VET om Eu opean
Ins i u ions, and u he da a analysis and collec ion. These se he ounda ion o he
empi ical esea ch, a su ey in he o ma o an online ques ionnai e.
Acco ding o C eswell (2005, as ci ed in Cook & Cook, 2008) su eys a e used o
measu e he pe cep ions, a i udes, beha iou s, o cha ac e is ics o a g oup owa ds ce ain
opics. They a e conside ed desc ip i e esea ch, as hey aim o po ay a phenomenon bu
unlike quali a i e esea ch, hey do no in ol e a small numbe o indi iduals exp essing
hemsel es in-dep h bu ins ead in ol e la ge numbe s o pa icipan s, some imes who
p o ide inpu by esponding o p omp s o ques ions (Cook & Cook, 2008). Su eys
in ol e pa icipan s’ sel - epo ing esponses, which may no always accu a ely e lec
ac ual beha iou , bu can p o ide meaning ul in o ma ion ela ed o a my iad o issues ha
a e impossible o di icul o obse e di ec ly (such as ac o s o inclusion/exclusion)
(Cook & Cook, 2008).
Whe eas a su ey does no allow o canno be used o de e mine de ini i ely which
inclusion p ac ices wo k o s uden s and wha o he ac o s need o be ackled, i allows o
ga he a la ge numbe o pe cep ions, hus ep esen ing mo e di e si y o pe spec i es,
han indi idual in e iews, o example, which a e limi ed by he esou ces o he
esea che . Acco ding o (Albe ina L. Oli ei a e al.,2021) i is plausible o belie e ha
people pa icipa ing in an online su ey may p o ide mo e p i a e in o ma ion han hey
would sha e in a ace- o- ace si ua ion as well as issue mo e ep ehensible opinions (like
nega i ely e alua ing he wo k o he school, which hey would no do in pe son, o
ob ious easons). Thus, in he con ex o his in es iga ion, wi h a young popula ion, a
su ey design in he o ma o a ques ionnai e also p esen s he ad an age o no posing
49
obs acles o hei shyness o p i acy, highly alued by eenage s, and pa icula ly in a opic
o delica e na u e. The online en i onmen is mo e conduci e o disinhibi ion, due o he
sense o anonymi y and in isibili y, he lack o isual con ac and he absence o social
anxie y caused by di ec physical in e ac ions (Lapido -Le le & Ba ak, 2015, as ci ed in
Albe ina L. Oli ei a e al., 2021).
3. Popula ion and sampling me hod
Gi en his esea ch has explo a o y and desc ip i e pu poses and does no in end
o gene alise indings bu a he measu e he pe cep ions o indi iduals who ha e a
common se o cha ac e is ics and olun ee ed and ag eed o pa icipa e in he esea ch, a
nonp obabili y sampling was conside ed he mos adequa e (C eswell, 2012). As i was no
easible o s udy an adequa e sample om he o al popula ion o young people o he
Eu opean Union o e en in Po ugal, whe e he esea ch was conduc ed, he geog aphical
scope was ocused on he Me opoli an A ea o Po o, which p esen s a high concen a ion
o VET schools, is an u ban and in e na ionalised egion and has an ai po , which emo es
some cons ains o accessibili y (geog aphical loca ion and a ailabili y o se ices) o
E asmus+.
The pa icipan s o he su ey we e selec ed h ough a wo-s age pu posi e
sampling, which acco ding o Ba aglia (2008) is done by using subjec i e me hods o
decide which elemen s should be included in he sample. This ype o sampling is limi ed
because di e en esea che s a e likely o no es ablish he same cha ac e is ics and
elemen s o include, which will lead o di e en sampling uni s and, hus, is “mos
app op ia e o he selec ion o small samples o en om a limi ed geog aphic a ea o om
a es ic ed popula ion de ini ion, when in e ence o he popula ion is no he highes
p io i y” (Ba aglia, 2018:2) which applies o his in es iga ion. The i s s age o pu posing
sampling in ol es choosing i s -s age uni s ( he schools) selec ed o be included in he
s udy using “expe subjec ma e judgmen ” (Ba aglia, 2008) o decide which
cha ac e is ics needed o be ep esen ed in he sample and hen iden i ying schools ha me
such c i e ia. To ensu e ele an ins i u ions we e chosen, o ming a popula ion ha sha ed
he de ining cha ac e is ics ha his esea ch aims o iden i y and s udy (C eswell, 2012),
a se o c i e ia and cha ac e is ics was used o selec he schools o be in i ed. Namely:
• ag eeing o olun a ily pa icipa e in he s udy;
50
• ha ing a ecognised ack eco d in he ield o VET in Po ugal and a depa men /s a
dedica ed o in e na ionalisa ion ac i i ies (i.e., In e na ional Rela ions Depa men );
• add essing inclusion in hei educa ional alues/mission/plan;
• being loca ed in he cen e o u ban and highly popula ed ci ies he Po o Me opoli an
A ea wi h good access ia public anspo a ion;
• holding an E asmus+ Voca ional Educa ion and T aining Acc edi a ion (VET
Cha e
35
) om 2021 o 2027, demons a ing solid and ecognised pa icipa ion in he
E asmus+ p og amme and a success ul p ojec ack eco d, o ensu e all s uden s ha
would be ques ioned had he oppo uni y o go on E asmus+ in hei school;
• p omo ing mobili y oppo uni ies o s uden s in e e y school yea ;
• o e ing le el 4 (acco ding o he Eu opean Quali ica ions F amewo k) P o essional
P og ammes wi h in-wo kplace aining pe iods in he same ields o s udies – namely,
se ices (sales, digi al suppo ), comme ce and/o ou ism;
• be a school managed by p i a e g oups wi h open and public access, inanced by
Po uguese p og amme POCH (co- unded by he Eu opean Social Fund) – meaning
ha s uden s ecei e a small g an o a ending school;
• ha ing a a he homogeneous s uden popula ion – namely, wi h mos s uden s ha ing
ages be ween 14 and 20 yea s old, coming om u ban and subu ban a eas, planning o
en e he job ma ke a e high school ( a he han en olling in highe educa ion s udies),
ha ing a leas one ype o “ ewe oppo uni ies” (acco ding o he de ini ion o
E asmus+) and being mo i a ed by hands-on lea ning.
By consul ing he lis o schools holding he E asmus+ VET Cha e Acc edi a ion, and
hen, he websi es and s a egic documen s o schools i ing he p o ile, and inqui ing he
schools di ec ly, h ee ins i u ions we e iden i ied o collabo a e. They we e in i ed and
hei di ec o s accep ed and olun ee ed o suppo he s udy and eques he pa icipa ion
o he a ge popula ion in he su ey (s uden s). The sample, a subg oup o he a ge
popula ion, was hen o med by he young people who me all he ollowing cha ac e is ics:
• o e 18 yea s old – his c i e ion was chosen o ensu e only in ol e indi iduals who
a e legally conside ed adul s pa icipa ed, and hus, a e s uden s who do no ha e
35
“The E asmus+ VET Mobili y Cha e is in ended o encou age o ganisa ions ha ha e ack eco ds o
p o en quali y in o ganising VET mobili y o lea ne s and s a o u he de elop hei Eu opean
in e na ionalisa ion s a egies” ( e ie ed om CALL - EAC/A04/2018 -
d8 912_2e4e10c6c66d458d95c1e 4123 ac 72.pd )

51
hei pa icipa ion es ic ed by hei age (as some schools only allow pa icipa ion
a e majo i y age) and who we e able o ake esponsibili y o hei pa icipa ion;
• en olled in he 10 h, 11 h o 12 h g ade (acco ding o he Po uguese educa ional
sys em) o a P o essional P og amme o one o he VET schools selec ed o
pa icipa e in he s udy – o ensu e hey sha ed an educa ional, geog aphical, social
and cul u al backg ound;
• ha e ne e pa icipa ed in an E asmus+ mobili y – as he objec i e de ined was o
examine he in o ma ion p o ided by a g oup who has no ye been included in
E asmus+.
I was possible o es ima e ha , combined, he schools o e a ound 85 spo s o
pa icipan s. Bu since all schools ha e o he ypes o s udy p og ammes and no all o e
mobili y unde E asmus+ o all g ades i was no possible o calcula e nei he he o al
numbe o s uden s who we e eligible o E asmus+ mobili y no o hose who had no
pa icipa ed p e iously (as his is connec ed o he speci ics o p ojec s and di e s in e e y
school). Thus, he e was no a e e ence numbe o calcula e he sample size. Howe e ,
since his s udy does no in end o gene alise, i was no necessa y o ha e a ep esen a i e
sample and, he e o e, he sample was o med by he s uden s who, when asked o answe
he ques ionnai e, olun a ily accep ed o pa icipa e.
4. Resea ch ool o da a collec ion: a ionale o i s cons uc ion
As p e iously explained, a su ey in he o ma o an online ques ionnai e was used o
collec da a. I was based on he e iew o li e a u e and analysis o ele an documen s,
p esen ed h oughou chap e s I and II, and o he da a collec ed om he schools and a
benchma king o esea ch in ol ing cha ac e isa ion o “young people wi h ewe
oppo uni ies”. Ba ie s o In e na ional S uden Mobili y: E idence om he E asmus
P og am (Sou o-O e o, Huisman Bee kens e al., 2013) and "Finding a place in mode n
Eu ope" Mapping o Ba ie s o Social Inclusion o Young People in Vulne able Si ua ions
(Ma ko ic, Angel, Lopez e al., 2015) we e pa icula ly impo an documen s o map
limi a ions and expec a ions om s uden s. Fabb is & Boe i (2019) and Pan ea (2019)
con ibu ed o a be e unde s anding o he speci ici ies o he VET sec o . Finally, he
ope a ionalisa ion o he concep o ewe oppo uni ies was loosely adap ed om he
p oposals o indica o s sugges ed in Meye s e al., 2020.
52
The collec ion o da a om he schools was e y ele an o make his sec ion ailo ed
o he s uden s and was equally done ia an online ques ionnai e (Annex 2), o allow o
sys ema ised access o esponses and co e ed ques ions ela ed o how inclusion is
embedded (o no ) in hei E asmus+ p ojec s, how and gene al ques ions on s uden s’
p o ile and E asmus+ implemen a ion. The esul s ob ained led o conclude ha he
schools’ s uden popula ion sha e he socio-economic cha ac e is ics, gene ally
disad an aged, bu only wo had selec ion c i e ia o p omo e hei access, as well as
speci ic measu es o a ge hem, bu he h ee o hem se inclusion as a p io i y in hei
in e na ionalisa ion s a egy and ha e included pa icipan s wi h disad an ages in p ojec s.
As o he measu es de eloped, hey we e:
• selec ion o hos ins i u ions and e i ica ion o sui abili y o he needs and p o ile
o he pa icipan ;
• language, in e cul u al, social/ ela ional and/o p ac ical p epa a ion sessions;
• suppo o he s uden s and gua dians in he esolu ion o possible pe sonal, amily,
inancial, logis ical impedimen s, e c;
• momen s o con ac wi h he E asmus+ p og amme, he cha ac e is ics and
unc ioning o he EU, people om o he Eu opean cul u es and na ionali ies;
• eTwinning p ojec s and hos ing E asmus+ mobili ies;
• in o ma i e sessions o dissemina ion o in e na ional p ojec s;
• in e ac ions wi h eache s and colleagues who ha e al eady ca ied ou mobili y.
The ques ionnai e was di ided in o h ee sec ions: “E asmus and school”; “E asmus
and you” and “Abou you”, which co e ed di e en se s o a i ma ions o be selec ed o
e alua ed on a Like - ype scale (e.g., 1 = s ongly disag ee; 2 = disag ee; 3 =neu al; 4 =
ag ee; 5 = s ongly ag ee).
Fo he in oduc o y ques ions and sec ions one and wo, he a i ma ions we e di ided
in o la ge ca ego ies which aimed a co e ing di e en issues: Awa eness and p e e ences
ela ed o E asmus+; Pe cep ions on how schools de elop E asmus+; E alua ion o easons
o no apply; E alua ion o easons ha would inc ease mo i a ion/con idence o go on
E asmus+; E alua ion o easons ha would inc ease in e es in doing E asmus+.
Sec ion 3 was de o ed o he cha ac e isa ion o pa icipan s, as knowing i hey “ i ”
in he E asmus+ ca ego ies o ewe oppo uni ies was an impo an elemen o he s udy.
Conside ing ha i would be une hical o ask hem o check a box o in o m abou he
disad an ages hey ace, a less in asi e app oach, a se o a i ma ions pe each ype o
53
ca ego y o obs acles acco ding o he P og amme Guide o 2020 (excluding disabili y)
we e de eloped and hen amed in ou o se s o ques ions, one abou he whe e hey li e
in, one abou hei ela ionship wi h he school, one abou hemsel es, and a se o op ions
o be selec ed abou pe sonal expe iences in he o ma o “I ne e ” ( o no ask di ec ly
abou exclusion expe iences and, acciden ally, e oca e he “Ne e ha e I e e ” game). Two
o he se s: Pe cep ions abou hemsel es; Pe cep ions abou o he s we e included in he
inal sec ion.
Acco ding o C eswell (2012), e hical issues include p o iding explici and clea
in o ma ion o he pa icipan s abou he pu pose o he s udy, a oiding any decep i e
p ac ices, sha ing in o ma ion wi h pa icipan s (including he ole as a esea che ), being
espec ul o he esea ch si e, ecip oci y, main aining con iden iali y, and collabo a ing
wi h pa icipan s. This was done by c ea ing a ailo ed esea ch ins umen . A message was
displayed bo h a he beginning o he ques ionnai e explaining he pu pose o he
in es iga ion and in he end o hank pa icipan s, e eal he iden i y o he esea che o
anspa ency and p o ide con ac in o should pa icipan s wish o p o ide commen s o
pose ques ions. Addi ionally, he ques ionnai e was buil using inclusi e language
36
, all
ques ions we e c ea ed o a oid bias and heu is ics and allowed pa icipan s o op o no
answe ing, and hey also had he op ion o exp ess hemsel es (in an open box a he end
o each ele an pa and he ques ionnai e).
The p i acy o pa icipan s was gua an eed by using he speci ic op ion o Limesu ey
o anonymize all he pe sonal in o ma ion. The schools we e also in o med ho oughly o
he esea ch objec i es, phases, and pu poses, and consen ed o hei in o ma ion being
disclosed. As o he s uden s, e en hough his p e en ed a la ge pa o he s uden
popula ion om being in ol ed in he s udy, o espec he need o consen , i was decided
o only inqui e s uden s o e age (18 and abo e).
The e is no doub ha bo h he ques ions o a ques ionnai e may be in luenced by he
esea che who c ea es hem, despi e he e o s ha may be made o achie e he condi ions
o objec i i y and neu ali y in i s cons uc ion. Thus, besides consul ing se e al o he
ques ionnai es and s udies o benchma king, he ques ionnai e was buil based on
e idence, e iew o li e a u e and analysis o documen s, and also e iewed by a VET
36
Acco ding o “Guia pa a uma Linguagem P omo o a da Igualdade en e Mulhe es e Homens na
Adminis ação Pública” (a ailable a h ps://www.cig.go .p /wp-
con en /uploads/2015/11/Guia_ling_mulhe_homens_Admin_Publica.pd )
54
eache /E asmus+ coo dina o and he supe iso o his hesis, who p o ided eedback on
wha should be included/le ou . Then, o ensu e he ques ionnai e was adequa e o i s
audience, a cogni i e deb ie ing was ca ied ou wi h ou s uden s wi h he same p o ile
o he s uden s o be inqui ed (Geo ge e al., 2013). They we e asked o ill in he su ey
and hen we e asked ques ions abou di icul ies in unde s anding s a emen s/ques ions; he
wo ds used and hei meaning; he ele ance/adequacy o he s a emen s/ques ions gi en
he con ex and expe ience o / he pa icipan s and i any should be added. Mino changes
in ocabula y we e done based on his eedback. The pa icipan s no ed he ques ionnai e
was long bu conside ed all ques ions ele an .
The ques ionnai e was hen sen o he h ee pa icipa ing schools o app o al o he
Di ec o s. Once hei eedback was ecei ed, he ques ionnai e was conside ed app o ed
and dis ibu ed o pa icipan s.
5. P ocedu e o da a collec ion
The su ey, in he o ma o an online ques ionnai e, was hos ed in he online
pla o m Limesu ey, p o ided by he Facul y o Psychology and Educa ion Sciences o
he Uni e si y o Coimb a and hus, iden i ied wi h i s logo. An impo an ea u e o his
ool is i s adap abili y o mobile de ices, making he su ey isually o ganised bo h in
compu e s and mobile de ices, in which mos s uden s answe ed i .
As explained p e iously, he s udy was de eloped wi h he suppo o h ee schools,
h ough which he online ques ionnai e eached he s uden s. The link o he ques ionnai e
was sen ia email o he Di ec o s and E asmus+ Coo dina o s o he schools in ol ed in
he s udy, who no i ied i was well- ecei ed and commi ed go he link o he s uden s
h ough di e en me hods: email and in he class oom. In bo h hose cases,
eache s/ echnicians we e asked o s ess ha only s uden s who me he c i e ia de ined
should answe . A ex a he beginning o he su ey p esen ed his in o ma ion and,
addi ionally, a he beginning o he su ey, he e we e h ee ques ions co esponding o
each o he cha ac e is ics used as con ol answe s. In case esponden s did no mee he
c i e ia, Limesu ey au oma ically s opped hem om con inuing o answe . The
ques ionnai e was applied in schools in June 2021.
The da a collec ed was au oma ically s o ed by he pla o m, which also elimina ed
in alid answe s. Then, he answe s we e expo ed in a o ma compa ible wi h IBM®
SPSS® (S a is ics Package o he Social Science) and inse ed in a da abase ha will be
61
Conclusion
The me hodological choices, me hods and ools ha e been cla i ied in his chap e .
The usage o an online ques ionnai e al hough no allowing o indi idual ep esen a ions
on he issue will sugges a wide pic u e o he issue, which can be u he in es iga ed o
used in he in e en ion. I also ca e s o he sensi i i y o he opic and o he popula ion.
As p e iously explained in Pa I, he amewo k, guidelines, and suppo
mechanisms o inclusion in he P og amme a e de ined by he Eu opean Commission,
wi h he Na ional Agencies, and ope a ionalised by he bene icia ies (in his case, he
schools), in a op-down app oach ha does no equi e he in ol emen o young people.
Thus, in his in es iga ion, i was conside ed ele an o each he young people who s ill
ha e no had he chance o join E asmus+ and ga he da a ha migh p o ide some insigh s
on he easons why, ocusing on hei sel -pe cep ion, con ex and ole o he schools. This
inno a i e app oach (conside ing he e iew o li e a u e) by ha ing a ocus on he
cha ac e is ics o indi iduals and hei con ex and being o ien ed o p ac ical applicabili y
and u he de elopmen , embodying he in e disciplina i y o he Mas e in Social
In e en ion, Inno a ion and En ep eneu ship.
I ha e amily/ iends who a e in e es ed in E asmus+
o simila p og ammes.
Pe cep ion o
E asmus by o he s
My iends hink I should do E asmus+.
Pe cep ion o
E asmus by o he s
The people I know hink E asmus+ is a us wo hy
p og amme.
Pe cep ion o
E asmus by o he s
Figu e 9 - Ca ego isa ion o a i ma ions used in he ques ionnai e acco ding o sec ions and opics o
analysis

62
Chap e IV – P esen a ion, analysis and discussion o
esul s
1. Desc ip i e analysis
The da abase o he ques ionnai e was o med wi h he nominal and nume ical
a iables co esponding o he ques ions in SPSS.
The ques ionnai e had nominal a iables o allow o a sociodemog aphic
cha ac e isa ion o he pa icipan s, which we e hen chosen o be used o no o c ossed
analysis depending on hei ele ance: age, g ade, sex, awa eness o he possibili y o doing
E asmus+ in hei school and in e es in doing so. Plus, he e we e ques ions ela ed o hei
p e e ences in E asmus+: du a ion, objec i es, and coun ies.
The a i ma ions ha aimed o iden i y i s uden s ma ched c i e ia o ewe
oppo uni ies as de ined by E asmus+ we e g ouped in h ee sec ions and hen he da a
collec ed was analysed indi idually o c ea e a iables co esponding o each ca ego y o
be explo ed: Ba ie s linked o disc imina ion; Geog aphical ba ie s; Cul u al di e ences;
Economic ba ie s; Ba ie s linked o educa ion and aining sys ems and Social Ba ie s
(as de ined by he E asmus+ Guide o 2021). Ba ie s ela ed o heal h and disabili y we e
excluded as hey ela e o he indi idual a he han i s con ex , which was wha we aimed
o analyse. The a i ma ions and co esponding ca ego ies can be seen in Figu e 8 (p e ious
chap e ).
I pe ca ego y, s uden s had selec ed o a ed 1/3 o he o al numbe o s a emen s
in a way ha iden i ied hem as expe iencing he disad an age/obs acle in ques ion, hey
we e conside ed as i ing ha ca ego y. This app oach builds on he need o ins umen s
and he c i icism o he e m ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ p esen ed in chap e I, acknowledging
ha e en ha ing his in o ma ion, he e is no a way o measu e compa a i e disad an age.
Howe e , his exe cise allowed us o explo e he ope a ionalisa ion o his e m.
The a iables and da a c ea ed in Mic oso Excel we e hen en e ed in o he
da abase o SPSS o c oss- able analysis. Ano he a iable was c ea ed o es ablish i
pa icipan s we e conside ed ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ o c oss- able analysis, e en hough he
numbe s we e no p opo ional o hose who did no i he ca ego y.
63
2. P esen a ion and discussion o esul s
As p e iously s a ed, he analysis o he da a ga he ed does no in end o p oduce
gene alisa ions o in e ences bu o ansla e eali y and concep s in numbe s ha can be
compa able o p oduce insigh on s uden s’ pe spec i es and p o ide sugges ions o he
easoning behind he lack o pa icipa ion o young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies in
E asmus+.
2.1. A i ion
A o al o 89 s uden s en e ed he ques ionnai e, only 58 answe s we e eligible
acco ding o he c i e ia de ined o he sample and only 40 we e conside ed as comple e,
e ealing a i ion. A i ion is a e m used o “desc ibe he p ocess by which a sample
educes in size h oughou a su ey da a collec ion p ocess due o non esponses and/o due
o uni s ceasing o be eligible”(Lynn, 2004:43). Al hough disappoin ing, his numbe o
a i ion is unde s andable i we a end o he speci ic c i e ia ha had o be me o answe
he ques ionnai e (wi h au oma ed disca ds by Limesu ey o he answe s who did no ) and
i s leng h. Limesu ey allowed us o unde s and ha he 17 ‘d opou s’ occu ed on pages
2 and 3 o he ques ionnai e, co esponding o he sho es ques ions. This demons a es no
pa icipan s op ed ou o he ques ionnai e a e beginning he “ eal” ques ionnai e.
2.2. Cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s
Analysing he 40 pa icipan s, ega ding age, hey a e 18 (18 esponden s) including 19
(16) 20 (3), 21 (2) 22 (1) yea old s uden s. As o sex, 32,50% o hem a e male while
67,50% a e emale. These wo a iables we e dis ega ded o u he analysis as hey did
no p esen compa able p opo ions.
The dis ibu ion among school yea s was deemed an in e es ing a iable o c oss-
analysis because i was mo e e en, wi h 14 belonging o 10 h g ade, 15 om he 11 h and
11 om 12 h g ade. While 10 h g ade s would likely ha e ecen ly en e ed he school (as
he 10 h g ade co esponds o he i s yea o a P o essional P og amme), 11 h g ade s a e
al eady amilia wi h bo h he ins i u ion and 12 h g ade a e soon o be g adua es and en e
he job ma ke /highe educa ion. Despi e hese di e en educa ional s ages, 92% o he
64
pa icipan s ag eed o ag eed pa ially ha hey ha e well-de ined in e es s ( he o he s
emained neu al) and 70% ha hey know clea ly wha hey wan om he u u e.
Rega ding school, albei 72,5% ha e al eady ailed a yea (o mo e) in school, only
12,5% conside hey ha e di icul ies in school, which migh signal ha VET educa ion is
mo e sui able o hei needs. Addi ionally, 75% enjoy pa icipa ing in ac i i ies wi h hei
school.
Economically, 32,5% o he esponden s conside he mon hly expenses o hei
household a e in e io o he income.
Conside ing disad an ages, 82,5% o he pa icipan s o his su ey we e
conside ed, acco ding o an in e p e a ion o he e m sugges ed by he E asmus+ guide,
young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies. Using he me hod desc ibed p e iously ha
consis ed o clus e ing a i ma ions in ca ego ies o ‘ba ie s’ (see Figu e 10), i was
calcula ed ha 17,5% o he pa icipan s we e no in eg a ed in o any o he ca ego ies and
he same pe cen age belonged o only one ca ego y. 26 s uden s aced mo e han one ype
o ‘ba ie ’. 6 s uden s aced ou o hem and 3 we e conside ed o i he 5 ca ego ies
c ea ed. These esul s align wi h wha was desc ibed on he p o ile o VET s uden s as
accumula ing in e sec ing inequali ies.
Figu e 10 - Pa icipan s dis ibu ed acco ding o he numbe o ca ego ies o ' ewe oppo uni ies' hey we e
iden i ied wi h.
To be e unde s and wha kind o disad an ages hey ace, he o al numbe o
s uden s we e dis ibu ed among he di e en ca ego ies o ewe oppo uni ies. F om
Figu e 11, i can be d awn ha he mos common ype o ba ie s a e economic ones; and,
o en, hey in e sec wi h social ba ie s and ba ie s linked o educa ion and aining
65
sys ems. Geog aphical ba ie s accoun o he leas common ype, p eceded by ba ie s
linked o disc imina ion.
Numbe
Pe cen age
Geog aphical ba ie s
15
16,3%
Ba ie s linked o educa ion and aining
sys ems
17
18,5%
Ba ie s linked o disc imina ion
16
17,4%
Economic ba ie s
25
27,2%
Social ba ie s
19
20,7%
Figu e 11 – Numbe and pe cen age o pa icipan s wi h ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ pe ca ego y.
3. P e e ences ega ding E asmus+
In his sec ion, di ec ques ions wi h mul iple choice we e asked abou E asmus+ o
iden i y/ ule ou hei impo ance on he decision o go on E asmus+.
In esponse o he ques ion “Do you know how you can bene i om E asmus+ as a
VET?”, 80% (32) esponded yes. 10% o he s uden s said “no”. In e es ingly, in esponse
o he ollowing ques ion: “A e you in e es ed in doing E asmus+ a you cu en school?”
all he s uden s who esponded nega i ely showed in e es in E asmus+. 90% o he
s uden s answe ed a i ma i ely o he ques ion. O hese, 15% had al eady applied o go
on E asmus+, while 75% indica ed hey didn’ ye ha e he chance o do so, 5% o which
because hey we e no gi en pe mission, 32,5% o no ha ing ye had he chance o (due
o Co id-19 o school egula ions) and 37,5% o “o he easons”. Only 1 s uden indica ed
he eason in he open box o do so, s a ing “depends on who else is going”. While no
enough o p o ide a gene alisa ion, i is a gued ha his is an indica ion o he impo ance
o pee s in he decision o going on E asmus+.
The mos desi able ype o mobili y is o conduc an in e nship in a company ab oad
(47,5%); he second is pa icipa ing in a p ojec wi h s uden s om a di e en cul u e
(27,5%) and closely a e s udying in a school ab oad (25%), illus a ing openness o
di e en kind o ac i i ies.
Rega ding he p e e ed du a ion o mobili ies, only 12,5% show an in e es in long-
e m (E asmus P o, o e h ee mon hs). Among he sho e m mobili ies, he p e e ed is
66
wo mon hs (30%), ollowed closely by one mon h (27,5%) and wo weeks (22,5%). The
leas a ou ed du a ion is h ee mon hs, chosen by only 7,5%. This ein o ces he need o
inc ease he accessibili y o sho - e m mobili ies.
Rega ding hos coun ies, 67,5% a e sa is ied wi h he op ions o e ed by he school,
30% do no know wha hose a e and 2,5% do no like he coun ies a ailable. In he
checkbox o w i e he “ideal” des ina ion, he mos chosen we e I aly, he Uni ed Kingdom,
Spain, Ge many, and F ance. O he coun ies indica ed G eece, Czech Republic, Slo enia,
Angola, Mal a, Uni ed S a es, A gen ina, and Mexico. The choice o coun ies ou side he
Eu opean Union migh be an indica o o s uden s no knowing he limi a ions o E asmus+
o a ee in e p e a ion o he wo d “ideal”. The ac ha he mos chosen coun ies
co espond o some o he closes coun ies o Po ugal geog aphically which a e
simul aneously adi ional immig a ion coun ies o Po uguese and na ionali ies ha isi
Po ugal he mos (acco ding o “Es a ís icas do Tu ismo – 2020” by Ins i u o Nacional de
Es a ís ica, I. P.), e eals a endency o choose coun ies ha a e mo e ‘ amilia ’.
The high le els o awa eness o he possibili ies wi hin E asmus+ and in e es in
he p og amme sugges ha he pa icipan s nei he lack in o ma ion no mo i a ion
indica ed as possible de e en ac o s o pa icipa ion. The di e se answe s abou
p e e ences – du a ion, objec i e, and hos coun y - demons a es ha while s uden s ha e
mul iple in e es s ega ding mobili y, and, hus, o duly engaging wi h hem, schools
should consul hem and y o ca e o hei needs when c ea ing hei p ojec s, as sugges ed
by Sch oede (2014).
3.1. Sel -pe cep ion in ela ion o E asmus+
Rega ding hei sel -pe cei ed ai s ela ed o E asmus+, 62,5% belie e hey could be
selec ed i hey applied o E asmus+, while 35% disag eed o some ex en . A la ge
numbe , 67,5% conside hey ha e he needed knowledge o go on E asmus+, 10% disag ee
and he o he s s ay in a neu al posi ion. Bu when asked i hey conside ed hei inancial
s a us allowed hem o pa icipa e in E asmus+, a lowe pe cen age, 52,5% ag eed o
pa ially ag eed, 20% disag eed o some ex en and he emaining s ayed neu al. This
shows he e is some lack o knowledge on he P og amme o he VET sec o since g an s
co e all he expenses.
Albei only 50% s a e o ha e expe ience wi h a elling, a s iking 80% ag ee hey eel
en husias ic abou he idea o s udying/doing an in e nship ab oad, only 65% claim o eel

67
sa e when ha ing new expe iences and jus 55% eel calm abou spending a mon h away
om home. This migh be a symp om o he desi e o expe ience ad en u e despi e ha ing
con ex s and pe sonali ies ha migh no p o ide he s uc u e o i , suppo ing he
a gumen s o Pan ea p esen ed in chap e II.
While no conclusions could be d awn on he in e sec ion o ewe oppo uni ies
wi h hese choices, i was no ed, in each o hese analyses, ha pa icipan s no conside ed
as ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ ne e posi ioned hemsel es nega i ely, while hei pee s did so.
3.2. Ex e nal suppo in ela ion o E asmus+
Families and iends play a c ucial ole in young people’s li es, and, in ha sense, i
was impo an o y o map he con ex and suppo hey ha e ega ding possible
pa icipa ion in E asmus+. 80% conside hey can alk o someone who unde s ands hem
abou E asmus+ (and none disag ee) and 70% ha hey ha e amily o iends who ake an
in e es in E asmus+ o simila p og ammes. An also la ge numbe , 77,5% claim o know
people who a e equen a elle s and 60% know people who pa icipa ed in simila
ac i i ies. These numbe s demons a e ha hey would ha e suppo s uc u es in case hey
wished o go ab oad.
Rega ding hei gua dians, 70% o he s uden s indica e hey belie e doing E asmus
would be good o he pupil’s educa ional and p o essional pa h and 65% ag ee o some
ex en ha hey would pe mi hem o go on E asmus (wi h 7,5% disag eeing and o he s
emaining neu al).
72,5% ag eed ha e en hough a elling and un a e pa o E asmus+, hei amily
and iends see alue in i , and he same amoun conside s ha he people hey know ind
E asmus+ a us wo hy p og amme ( he emaining s ayed neu al). A smalle pe cen age,
62,5% claims hei amily hinks doing E asmus+ would be good o hem, and ha hei
pa en s/gua dians hink ha doing E asmus is a good hing o hei u u e (wi h 5%
comple ely disag eeing) and e en ewe s uden s, only 55% indica ed hei iends hink
hey should do lea ning mobili y.
These da a pain a a he op imis ic pic u e o he ex e nal suppo he s uden s
could ely on, bu also show he e is s ill qui e an unce ain y among iends and amily
su ounding E asmus+.
4. Pe cep ions on how schools de elop E asmus+
68
The li e a u e e iew p esen ed in pa I allowed us o iden i y ha schools, as
p ojec coo dina o s, play an essen ial ole in c ea ing accessibili y o he p og amme. So,
in his ca ego y pa icipan s we e asked o ank a se o a i ma ions abou he way hei
schools de eloped E asmus+.
Pa icipan s we e in o med ha he in o ma ion would no be sha ed wi h he school o
a oid “poli ically co ec ” answe s. Howe e , e en unde anonymi y, pa icipan s e alua e
he wo k o hei schools as e y good. Th ee main opics we e iden i ied in his sec ion:
in o ma ion, suppo and ecogni ion; all pa o he school’s ole.
The s a emen s linked wi h ecogni ion we e posi i ely e alua ed, and no pa icipan
disag eed ha hei wo k would be ecognised o ha E asmus+ would ha e a posi i e
impac on hei pe o mance. suppo and in o ma ion.
Those ela ed o suppo ga he a less homogeneous esponse, bu he se ing is s ill
qui e op imis ic. 87,5% conside s he school encou ages hem o pa icipa e in he
P og amme (wi h 2,5% disag eeing pa ially and 7,5% posi ioning neu ally). 92,5% o he
s uden s eel com o able wi h he idea o alking abou E asmus+ wi h coo dina o s,
eache s and/o psychologis s and 85% conside he school is a ailable o help hem
o e come obs acles hinde ing hei pa icipa ion ( he emaining posi ion neu ally).
Finally, conce ning in o ma ion, 92,5% o he s uden s conside ha he ocabula y
used o p esen E asmus+ is easy o unde s and ( he emaining s ayed neu al); 95% claim
hey unde s and e e y hing when gi en in o ma ion and he same amoun say hey know
how o cla i y doub s abou he P og amme in school (wi h he emaining 5% di ided
be ween ‘no ag ee, no disag ee’ and ‘pa ially disag ee’). Finally, when asked i hey
conside hei school wo ks o make su e all s uden s know E asmus+, he esponses a e
mo e dispe sed, wi h 80% ag eeing, 10% neu al and 2,5% pa ially disag eeing.
Jus like wi h hei social suppo s uc u es, he s uden s’ pe spec i es e lec an
in i ing en i onmen o engage on E asmus+.
5. E alua ion o easons o no apply ( o go on E asmus)+
Due o being s uden s a VET cha e schools, which p esen egula oppo uni ies o
s uden s o apply o go on E asmus+ mobili y. The e o e, i was conside ed ele an o
unde s and which ac o s, besides ha ing ‘ba ie s’ as desc ibed by he P og amme, could
p e en hem om doing so. The esul s we e analysed unde c oss- abula ion wi h he
a ian ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ o see i i had an impac .
69
Topics in his sec ion included: sel -pe cep ion, languages, pee s, pe cep ion o E asmus+
and socio-economic backg ound (on a pe cei ed le el).
5.1. Sel -pe cep ion
Analysing he impo ance a ibu ed o s a emen s clus e ed unde sel -pe cep ion
on “being enough o a good s uden ”, esponses a e dispe sed. 37,5% conside i is no
ele an o does no apply o hem, while he same amoun sees i as e y impo an o
impo an and 20% inds i somewha impo an . Rega ding ewe oppo uni ies, i was
obse ed ha equally dispe se esul s we e ound when analysing only he esponses o
s uden s who ha e ba ie s linked o educa ion, so his does no seem o ha e an impac .
Conside ing he p ocess o doing an applica ion on i s own can also pose a challenge
oo, s uden s we e asked o a e he s a emen “I lack he cou age o go h ough he
applica ion p ocess”. 55% conside ed i o li le impo ance o no impo an /no applicable
o hem, and only 27,5% conside ed i e y impo an o impo an , all o which we e
s uden s wi h ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’. The selec ion c i e ion also plays a ole in he decision
o apply and o en, like he ‘pis achio e ec ’ a gues (see chap e I - I 2.3.2), less complian
s uden s a e less a ou ed by hem. While 67,50% didn’ ind i impo an /applicable,
ha ing epo s o misbeha iou in school (such as suspensions) was gi en some deg ee o
impo ance by 25% o he s uden s.
Fo some young people, showing an in e es in p og ammes such as E asmus+ can be
a eason o shame/shyness, bu in he s udy, 47,5% conside ed i was no impo an o no
applicable. Only 15% anked i abo e ‘somewha impo an ’, and like in he p e ious
ques ion, we e s uden s wi h ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’. No eeling com o able asking o help
o go on E asmus+ was mos ly conside ed no ele an /no applicable (42,5%).
Ha ing o he p io i ies a ha momen di ided he answe s, wi h 52,50% conside ing
i no e y impo an o no impo an /no applicable, and he emaining gi ing i some
weigh on hei decision o apply o E asmus+.
5.2. Pee s
Resuming he impo ance o pee s, p e iously b ough upon, s uden s we e asked o
ank how “no knowing he o he people who will go on E asmus+” a ec ed hei decision.
Responses conside ing i ‘ e y impo an ’, ‘impo an ’ and ‘somewha impo an ’, we e
70
12,5% each, o alling 37,5% o esponses. ‘No e y impo an ” and ‘no impo an /no
applicable’ ga he 22,5% o s uden s each, o alling 45%. The dispe sion o esul s shows
how young people posi ion hemsel es di e en ly when acing he possibili y o li ing an
expe ience wi hou someone hey p e iously know. The 12,5% who ind i e y impo an
we e all pa icipan s wi h ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’.
5.3. Socio-economic ac o s
Al hough socio-economic ac o s a e al eady co e ed by he ca ego ies o E asmus+
‘ba ie s’, i was conside ed ele an o ask s uden s o a e wo a i ma ions unde his
ca ego y. As explained in pa I, E asmus can be seen as a ela i ely exclusi e ac i i y due
o aking he name o a p og amme o highe educa ion (in which g an s a e e y
“gene ous”). Thus, he s a emen “I am no able o buy he necessa y ma e ial goods o do
E asmus (e.g. clo hing, sui cases, e c)” was p esen ed and he ollowing esul s we e
ob ained (see Figu e 12). The di e ence be ween he esponses o pa icipan s wi h ‘ ewe
oppo uni ies’ and o he s is isible. Howe e , none o he s uden s ound his o be a ‘ e y
impo an ac o in hei decision o apply, In e es ingly, i was he only ques ion in which
no esponden selec ed ha op ion. One can p esume ha s uden s a e well in o med (as
he esponses in 2.4. sugges ) and hey a e awa e E asmus+ is ully unded and he g an s
p o ided o VET s uden s should be managed by he schools in such a way ha hey co e
no only he cos s o mobili y bu any addi ional expenses wi h p epa a ion, hence no
conside ing i an obs acle.
Figu e 12 - Ra ing o he s a emen "I am no able o buy he necessa y ma e ial goods o do E asmus (e.g.
clo hing, sui cases, e c")
77
A e concluding he analysis o he da a collec ed, explo ing some o he many
c oss-sec ions among a ian s and a emp ing o d aw signi icance o insigh s ou o hem,
one can a gue ha he esul s o he ques ionnai e auspice a posi i e u u e o he mobili y
o VET lea ne s. The igh s uc u es, suppo mechanisms and mindse s seem o be in place
o u he widen he access o hese oppo uni ies.
In he c oss-analysis on he e ec o ha ing ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ in he esponses
o s uden s, i was no ed he e we e no signi ica i e causal ela ions, and, a mos , i was
possible o see s uden s who did no i his ca ego y always ended o place hemsel es
mo e posi i ely (bu his didn’ mean he o me didn’ do he same). This ac calls o he
e lec ion on he di icul y o measu e ‘ ewe oppo uni ies and compa a i e disad an age
de eloped in chap e I.
While s uden s mos ly e ained hemsel es om using he open ques ions o
exp ess hemsel es di ec ly (excep o lis ing coun ies), hey demons a ed us and
commi men by answe ing all ques ions, including hose ela ed o pe sonal and sensi i e
issues, by no choosing he “I p e e no o answe ” op ions (excep one s uden who,
in e es ingly, co esponded o a s uden who me all i e ca ego ies o ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’
measu ed).
In conclusion, i can be said ha he measu es p oposed by he schools and he
E asmus+ p og amme o include ‘young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies’ a e conside ed
highly ele an (al hough no wi h he mos possible sco e).
While he esul s do no p esen any signi ica i e “ e ela ion” ega ding hei iews
o E asmus+ i sel , as he ques ionnai e only alida es a i ma ions p oposed by he
esea che , i is su p ising in he sense ha despi e he ac hey we e la gely young people
who, acco ding o he E asmus+ con ex , ace se e al disad an ages, hey show a posi i e
sel -pe cep ion owa ds E asmus+, as well as in e es and in en o ake pa in lea ning
mobili y.
Plus, he da a ga he ed on speci ic p e e ences and he good p ac ices men ioned in
he a i ma ions may se e as ools o VET s akeholde s o con inue pa ing a way o his
sec o in E asmus+.

78
79
Gene al conclusion
This s udy se i sel o ga he da a on how measu es o inclusion in he E asmus+
P og amme a e pe cei ed by he young people i a ge s ( hose wi h ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’)
bu ha e no ye aken pa in i s ac i i ies. In a sen ence, i can be said his e o is
app ecia ed and welcomed, bu he e is a clea p e e ence o measu es ha ake place in-
pe son and in p oximi y. The su ey ques ionnai e esul s ob ained in ou s udy showed
ha young people expe iencing disad an age show en husiasm, in e es and in en o
E asmus+ and ha he P og amme bene icia ies who implemen and design p ojec s can
play a c ucial ole in ‘ex ending en i lemen ’ and c ea ing accessibili y o hem.
The a gumen o expanding social policy p og ammes like E asmus+ beyond a
unc ionalis app oach ha asks young indi iduals wi h he ha sh, i no impossible, he
mission o o e coming ‘ba ie s’ linked o s uc u al p og ammes wi h he sole ool o a
lea ning mobili y expe ience, was made. Simul aneously, his in es iga ion made he case
o he need o uly in ol e young people, especially hose who end o be o e looked
because nei he he p oblem-sol e s no he oublemake s, p o essionals mus ac i ely
lis en and engage hem, unde s and hei con ex , needs, and goals, and hen design p ojec s
o hem (and no he o he way a ound). This is ue o policymake s and educa ion
p o essionals alike, who can pa ake o ools, me hods and a i udes embodied by non-
o mal educa ion and he you h sec o .
The da a collec ed can di ec ly be applied in an in e en ion p ojec , e en an
in e na ional pa ne ship, ha goes u he in o he opic o ‘popping he bubble’ by
engaging wi h ‘unusual suspec s’ in a mul ile el bo om-up app oach. I can also se he
easoning o new E asmus+ p ojec s co-cons uc ed wi h and o speci ic g oups o young
people, ailo ed o hei con ex (may i be one o exclusion o no ) which see mobili y as
means o (pa o ) an end, and no an end on i s own. The in e es o young people in gaining
u he in e na ional expe ience calls o a mo e s uc u al app oach o in e na ionalisa ion
by schools and eache s, which can be done by de eloping p ojec s on eTwinning.
In e na ionalisa ion is una oidable and educa ional sys ems should in eg a e i u he .
Ha ing es ablished in his hesis ha he You h sec o o E asmus+ has plen y o esou ces
and non- o mal educa ion me hods o sha e, social in e en ion p ojec s ha connec i o
o mal educa ion sys ems a e ecommended. Such in e en ions migh include men o ships
o eache s/p ojec coo dina o s by you h wo ke s, aining cou ses o c ea ing p ojec s
wi h young people h ough non- o mal educa ion o schools; se ices in eg a ed wi h local
80
go e nmen s on you h engagemen and pa icipa ion, and in e na ional p ojec s ha
ac i ely in ol e he communi y and i s o ganisa ions.
Mo eo e , he se o inclusi e p ac ices p esen ed bo h in he esul s sec ion and in
chap e one can be adop ed no only by o he VET ins i u ions bu by p ojec bene icia ies
ac oss he whole spec um o E asmus+, educa ion and you h/wo k, o ensu e mo e
accessibili y and a mo e equali a ian app oach o oppo uni ies by all young people. And
he indica o -based amewo k (Figu e 8) used in he ques ionnai e also migh p o ide hin s
o inspi a ions o hose implemen ing he P og amme o c ea e hei own o ensu e he
same c i e ion a e used o assess applican s as ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’ o no in e nally.
The me hodological limi a ions o using quan i a i e esea ch mus be add essed.
While he su ey ques ionnai e allowed o expand he in es iga ion o di e en schools and
an oppo uni y o de elop a new app oach o ackle he lack o indica o s o ‘ ewe
oppo uni ies', i does no exp ess he oices and hough s o young people on he issues.
On ano he hand, using a su ey wi hou ollowing quan i a i e pa adigm app oaches like
alida ion o hypo hesis o a sampling p ocess ha allowed o ep esen a i i y limi s he
applicabili y o he da a collec ed. Howe e , his esea ch in ended o se e as an example
o g ounds o o he in es iga ions o p ojec s ocused on unde s anding hose who a e on
he “ou side o he bubble”, using o he esea ch ools.
The in es iga ion p esen ed o he limi a ions, such as e hical ones, ha led o
o mula ing he s a emen s used o ca ego ise young people acco ding o ypes o ‘ ewe
oppo uni ies’ in a non-di ec i e and no de ini i e language, which di icul he
in e p e a ion o he answe s as ‘p oo ’ o disad an age. Likewise, acknowledging
si ua ions o inequali ies being changeable in space and ime, only allows us o quali y he
s uden s as a disad an age a he ime hey answe ed he ques ionnai e (and e en so, he e
a e he subjec i e elemen s discussed in chap e I which ques ion he possibili y o labelling
a young pe son acco ding o a ce ain si ua ion).
Ano he condi ional ac o ha should be acknowledged is he ac ha s uden s
we e asked o a e he pe o mance o schools while inside he walls o ha same school,
which may di ec o indi ec ly condi ion hei answe s, despi e he s udy being anonymous.
The ac ha he ques ionnai e was dis ibu ed in and h ough schools migh also ha e
impac ed he p o ile o s uden s who chose o answe he ques ionnai e, as s uden s who
al eady eel d awn o E asmus+ migh ha e in e p e ed he pa icipa ion in he s udy as a
way o show hei ini ia i e and in e es .
81
This s udy was ini ially designed as mixed me hods esea ch, in which he wo
ques ionnai es ( o he schools and he s uden s) would be ed in o ocus g oups wi h young
people ha aimed o gi e hem a pla o m o be hea d and o hei wo ds o be u ned in o
esea ch. Howe e , he eme gence o he Co id-19 pandemic p e en ed his esea ch plan
o mo e o wa d. As a sugges ion o u he in es iga ion on hese issues, adop ing such a
s uc u e ha add esses he di e en le els o E asmus+ (o o he you h/educa ion- ocused
p og amme o p ojec s), iangula ing in o ma ion h ough di e en me hods o esea ch.
The connec ion be ween E asmus+ and inclusion c ea es a ich and challenging
ield ha calls o in e disciplina y esea ch. One pa icula issue ha could bene i om a
u he and complemen a y in es iga ion is he concep o ‘ ewe oppo uni ies’, which was
bo n as an EU bu eauc a ical e m, ha could bene i om a e ision and, equally, a
me hodological amewo k o indica o s, owa ds a concep less open o in e p e a ion, and
hope ully, less excluding in i s na u e. This e m also calls o a b oade discussion on
inclusion, equali y and equi y wi hin E asmus+, and how appa en posi i e disc imina ion
o disad an aged young people may no esul in ac ual inclusion.
Ano he one is u he ing esea ch and es ablishing clea concep s and amewo ks
o e ms such as young people ‘in he missing middle’/ he ‘o dina y’ you h, ha can be
applied by policymake s and educa ion and p o essionals o ensu e all young people a e
isible.
This s udy also sugges s he need o u he da a collec ion, on a socio-
demog aphic le el, o who a e he ‘young people wi h ewe oppo uni ies and how hey
ela e o hei ‘ecosys ems’, and how he la e can a ec hei capaci y o agency and gain
ad an ages om P og ammes such as E asmus+. Quali a i e s udies wi h young people
who do no wish o pa icipa e in E asmus+, o unde s and he easons o mo i a ions
behind his choice, could also be an in e es ing con ibu ion om academia o coun e ac
o suppo he idea o disin e es o lack o engagemen o young people.
Mul iple o he a enues can be explo ed, and, namely ega ding he ‘social mission’
and ‘ esponsible highe educa ion' o E asmus+, especially in highe educa ion, whe e i is
mo e exclusi e, and s udies ha , like his one, map he pe spec i es o hose who a e s ill
no eached. A inal sugges ion conce ns assessing how he policy-based concep ion o
p omo ing social inclusion h ough E asmus+ ansla es in o eali y by conduc ing
longi udinal s udies in di e en sec o s o he p og amme as a o m o impac assessmen .
As a pe sonal no e, he au ho would like o hank he schools and he young people
who ag eed o ake pa in his s udy. This esea ch p o ided an oppo uni y o u he
82
unde s and, and om an academic poin o iew, a P og amme ha has p o oundly changed
he li e, in hopes o ind clues on how o make i ‘ o e e yone’. Mo e han ha , h ough
he one and a hal yea s, coun less a icles, books, websi es and, o emos , he ich
con e sa ions had in his p ocess, ha e en iched and widened he pe spec i e on how and
why mobili y ma e s, and he impo ance o no seeing i as a ‘one-size- i s all’ o ‘magic
bulle ’. While some young people do no show any in e es in E asmus+, and, om an
ex e nal poin o iew, i is clea hey would uly bene i om i , mobili y is only use ul i
meaning ul o an indi idual, and o achie e ha , much mo e han added unding is needed
and s uc u es need o be de eloped.
In conclusion, his disse a ion hopes o li e o he ambi ion o showcasing he need
o ou each young people who a e no a pa o he ‘bubble’ o oppo uni ies p o ided by
public p og ammes, o en wi hou ‘seeing’ i . Which can only be done by acknowledging
he ‘in isible’ s uc u al challenges and in e sec ing inequali ies h ough a bo om-up
pa icipa o y app oach o p omo ing access o occasions wi h as much po en ial o g ow h
as he lea ning mobili ies inanced by E asmus+.

83
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Annexe 2. Ques ionnai e o schools (E asmus+ coo dina o s) – adap ed om
Google Docs e sion
Inclusão social e o
P og ama E asmus
no Ensino
P o issional
Ca o/a Coo denado /a E asmus,
O meu nome é Joana F ei as e no âmbi o da minha disse ação do Mes ado em In e enção
Social, Ino ação e Emp eendedo ismo, um duplo g au da Faculdade de Economia e da
Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação da Uni e sidade de Coimb a, es ou a ealiza
uma in es igação sob e a p oblemá ica da inclusão social no E asmus+, nomeadamen e o KA1
VET.
A a és de um es udo mis o explo a ó io sob e a e e i idade a ibuída às medidas exis en es
pa a ga an i a inclusão de jo ens com menos opo unidades pelos jo ens a quem se des inam,
p e endo e i a conclusões sob e como o na o P og ama E asmus mais acessí el a ais
públicos.
Pa a al, um dos passos é ealiza um mapeamen o de medidas inclusi as desen ol idas jun o
das escolas com p oje os a i os, pelo que gos a ia de pedi a sua colabo ação. O ques ioná io
demo a en e 10 a 15 minu os a p eenche .
Toda a in o mação se á a ada exclusi amen e pa a esse im, sendo ga an ida a
con idencialidade e anonima o dos coo denado es/ins i uições, sendo pedido o ende eço de
email apenas pa a pe mi i ollow-up se necessá io.
Ag adeço desde já o seu empo e a enção. Pode con ac a -me com qualque dú ida ou suges ão.
Melho es cump imen os,
Joana F ei as (joana. ei as_96@ho mail.com)
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*Ob iga ó io
Email pa a con ac o u u o *:
Dados ge ais
1. Tipo de público-al o (pe il ge al do aluno da sua ins i uição - pode coloca o campo
co esponden e da Ac edi ação E asmus). *
2. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos que en ia em mobilidade po ano le i o no o al? *
3. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos com di iculdades educa i os de aco do com o
p og ama E asmus* azem mobilidade na sua ins i uição po ano le i o? Se possí el,
especi ique qual a si uação.
*Di iculdades educa i as: jo ens com di iculdades de ap endizagem; jo ens que abandonam a escola; indi íduos
com poucas quali icações; jo ens com aco desempenho escola .
4. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos en en am obs áculos sociais de aco do com o
p og ama E asmus* azem mobilidade na sua ins i uição po ano le i o? Se possí el,
especi ique qual a si uação. [Ex. 1 po ano - disc iminado po géne o; 1 em odo o
deco e do p og ama E asmus e a um ex- ecluso, e c; no caso de nenhum, coloque
0] *
*Obs áculos sociais: jo ens que são disc iminados po causa do géne o, da e nia, da eligião, da o ien ação sexual,
de incapacidade ou de iciência, e c.; jo ens com compe ências sociais limi adas ou com compo amen os
sexuais de isco ou an i-sociais; jo ens em si uação p ecá ia; (ex-) eclusos, (ex-)consumido es de d ogas ou
de álcool; pais jo ens e/ou sol ei os; ó ãos; jo ens de amílias dis uncionais.
5. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos com obs áculos económicos de aco do com o
p og ama E asmus* azem mobilidade na sua ins i uição po ano le i o? Se possí el,
especi ique qual a si uação. *
*Obs áculos económicos: jo ens com um baixo pad ão de ida, baixos endimen os, dependen es do sis ema de
segu ança social; em si uação de desemp ego de longa du ação ou pob eza; jo ens sem-ab igo, com dí idas
ou p oblemas inancei os.
6. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos que en ia em mobilidade po ano são alunos com
di e enças cul u ais de aco do com o p og ama E asmus* azem mobilidade na sua
ins i uição po ano le i o? Se possí el, especi ique qual a si uação. *
*Di e enças cul u ais: jo ens imig an es ou e ugiados ou descenden es de imig an es ou de amílias de
e ugiados; jo ens que pe encem a uma mino ia nacional ou é nica; jo ens com p oblemas de adap ação
linguís ica e de in eg ação cul u al.

99
7. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos com p oblemas de saúde de aco do com o
p og ama E asmus* azem mobilidade na sua ins i uição po ano le i o? Se possí el,
especi ique qual a si uação. *
*P oblemas de saúde: jo ens com p oblemas de saúde c ónicos, doenças g a es ou condições psiquiá icas; jo ens
com p oblemas de saúde men al.
8. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos com obs áculos geog á icos de aco do com o
p og ama E asmus* azem mobilidade na sua ins i uição po ano le i o? Se possí el
especi ique qual a si uação. *
*Obs áculos geog á icos: jo ens de á eas emo as ou u ais; jo ens que i em em ilhas pequenas ou egiões
pe i é icas; jo ens de zonas u banas p oblemá icas; jo ens de á eas mais limi adas a ní el de se iços
( anspo es públicos limi ados, de icien es condições, aldeias abandonadas).
9. Que núme o ap oximado de alunos com de iciência de aco do com o p og ama
E asmus* azem mobilidade na sua ins i uição po ano le i o? Se possí el especi ique
qual a si uação. *
*De iciência: jo ens com de iciências men ais (a ní el in elec ual, cogni i o, de ap endizagem), ísicas,
senso iais ou ou as.
Es a égias
10. Qual o g au de impo ância a ibuído à inclusão social no(s) seu(s) p oje os
E asmus KA102? [selecione odas as que se aplicam}
 É um dos ópicos p incipais (selecionado em candida u a)
 É um obje i o explíci o ou implíci o no Plano de Desen ol imen o Eu opeu
 De ini um núme o de pa icipan es com menos opo unidades e o seu pe il no meu
p oje o
 De ini p ocedimen os especí icos pa a a p epa ação e mobilidade de pa icipan es
com menos opo unidades
 Tenho c i é ios de seleção que acili am a pa icipação de jo ens com menos
opo unidades
 Tenho agas especí icas pa a jo ens com menos opo unidades
 Desen ol o a i idades na minha escola pa a chega jo ens com menos
opo unidades
Ou a:
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11. No caso de indica um núme o de pa icipan es com menos opo unidades nos
seus p oje os, indique qual e desc e a o seu pe il.
12. No caso de e p ocedimen os especí icos pa a a p epa ação e mobilidade de
pa icipan es com menos opo unidades, po a o explique quais são.
13. Se i e c i é ios de seleção que acili am a pa icipação de jo ens com menos
opo unidades, indique quais são.
14. Caso enha agas especí icas pa a jo ens com menos opo unidades, explique de
que modo essas agas se adequam a esses pa icipan es.
15. Se desen ol e a i idades na sua escola pa a aze chega o E asmus a jo ens com
menos opo unidades, explique quais.
16. Se i e selecionado a opção "ou a" ou se desen ol e ou as es a égias de
inclusão na sua ins i uição no âmbi o do E asmus, po a o desc e a.
Ob igada pela sua colabo ação!