In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11365-024-01015-y
Abs ac
In ap eneu s in spo s o ganisa ions can de ec ea ly signs o new oppo uni ies
and h ea s and in oduce ea ly changes o adap o he cons an changes in he
spo s sec o . In addi ion, in ap eneu s a e conside ed a undamen al pilla in he
g ow h and de elopmen o inno a ion in spo s o ganisa ions. Thus, he objec i e
o his wo k is o design and alida e an ins umen o de ec employees wi h in a-
p eneu ial beha iou s in spo s o ganisa ions. Based on he dimensions o in ap e-
neu ship iden i ied in he scien i ic li e a u e and ela ed ques ionnai es, a ool— he
COINDE—composed o 46 i ems dis ibu ed in i e dimensions was cons uc ed
and subjec ed o expe judgmen and a pilo s udy and subsequen ly educed o 26
i ems and i e s a is ically alida ed dimensions. Explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA)
yielded wo alid and eliable models o de ec employees wi h in ap eneu ial be-
ha iou s in spo s o ganisa ions, wi h 5 and 6 dimensions and 25 and 26 i ems,
espec i ely. The 5- ac o model is p oposed and jus i ied. The dimensions a e: c e-
a i i y/inno a ion, isk- aking, p oac i i y, ecogni ion o oppo uni ies and p io i y
o he in e nal p ojec . The COINDE is a alid and eliable ins umen ep esen ing
an impo an ad ance o e he exis ing ins umen s by p o iding speci ici y o he
measu e in he spo s con ex , he wo k p o ile o he employees o hese o ganisa-
ions, and allowing di ec e alua ion o in ap eneu ial beha iou .
Keywo ds Spo in ap eneu ship · Assessmen · Psychome ic p ope ies · Spo
managemen · Ques ionnai e
Accep ed: 21 Sep embe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Design, alida ion and psychome ic p ope ies o a
ques ionnai e o assess in ap eneu ial beha iou s in
spo s o ganisa ions
Alejand oLa a-Bocaneg a1· M. RocíoBohó quez3· Je ónimoGa cía-
Fe nández2· VanessaRa en4· PabloGál ez-Ruiz5
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
In oduc ion
Acco ding o Ra en and Tajeddini (2019), esea ch on spo s en ep eneu ship
should ocus on di e en con ex s and ypes o spo s ha allow hei compa ison.
Thus, as La a-Bocaneg a (2023) s a es, he s udy o in ap eneu ship in spo s should
mee he guidelines o hese au ho s. To his mus be added he impo ance ha in a-
p eneu ship is acqui ing in he spo s sec o (La a-Bocaneg a, 2023), whose closes
exempla could be ound in he c isis de i ed om COVID-19 (Nicolás-Ma ínez &
Rubio-Bañón, 2020). In ha si ua ion, o ganisa ions had o ein en hemsel es o
ace he unce ain y, in which in ap eneu ial indi iduals played a c ucial ole in he
inno a ion and compe i i e p ocesses (Blanka, 2019) igge ed in spo s o ganisa-
ions. Ga zón (2005) indica es ha hese indi iduals, called in ap eneu s, can de ec
ea ly signs o new oppo uni ies and h ea s, seeking such oppo uni ies and ying o
u n h ea s in o oppo uni ies o in oduce ea ly change in o ganisa ions.
In ap eneu ship, as a sub- heme o en ep eneu ship, is inc easing i s impo ance
and ele ance in he esea ch ield (Blanka, 2019; Fa ukh & Ghazzawi, 2024; La a-
Bocaneg a e al., 2024a). Howe e , in he li e a u e, he e is no clea classi ica ion o
he concep s ela ed o his e m, so o ganisa ional en ep eneu ship, en ep eneu ial
o ien a ion and in ap eneu ship a e used as synonyms om di e en pe spec i es
o oles, all e e ing o he c ea ion o some hing new in an exis ing o ganisa ion
(Blanka, 2019; K aus e al., 2019). In ap eneu ship becomes pa icula ly impo an
in business de elopmen , p o iding compe i i e posi ions, g ow h and de elopmen ,
and using inno a ion as he main suppo o g ow h (Gal án-Vela e al., 2021; Ghu a
e al., 2022; He nández-Pe lines e al., 2022). Boga y e a e al. (2022) s ess he
need o expand esea ch on he consequences o in ap eneu ship a he indi idual
le el, as he li e a u e is p ima ily ocused on he bene i s ha hese subjec s b ing o
o ganisa ions.
While i is ue ha en ep eneu ship—and in ap eneu ship—sha e some cha -
ac e is ics ac oss sec o s, some salien di e ences wa an hei speci ic s udy in
he spo s con ex (Pelleg ini e al., 2020; Ra en, 2010). Fo Ball (2005), he spo s
indus y is cha ac e ised by cons an ly e ol ing consume needs and desi es and
equi es a pa icula ly salien inno a ion e o o mee and/o exceed hose expec-
a ions. In line wi h his assessmen , Jones e al. (2017) indica ed ha he cons an
ques o inno a ion ha cha ac e ises he spo s sec o o en mo i a es indi iduals
o engage in en ep eneu ship. Fu he mo e, Ra en and Fe ei a (2017) a gue ha
unde s anding en ep eneu ship in spo s is key o os e ing i s g ow h and de el-
opmen . Despi e his, in he ield o spo s, in ap eneu ship is no a widely de el-
oped concep , as i is app oached dispa a ely and unspeci ically (La a-Bocaneg a e
al., 2021), al hough he e has been a boom in ecen yea s (González-Se ano e al.,
2023; La a-Bocaneg a e al., 2022, 2023, 2024a, b; Mazzei & Ki kpa ick, 2024).
O iginally, he e m in ap eneu ship was coined by Pincho (1985) and e e s o
employees ac ing as en ep eneu s wi hin o ganisa ions, seeking o ganisa ional ben-
e i . I is also a concep linked o employee ini ia i es o de elop new p ojec s wi hin
he bounda ies o hei o ganisa ion (Blackbu n e al., 2014). Pincho and Sol ani a
(2021) p esen in ap eneu s as mo i a ed, p oac i e and ac ion-o ien ed employees,
capable o assuming he esponsibili y o u ning an idea in o a p o i able business
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal…
eali y o hei o ganisa ion. González-Se ano (2019), o his pa , p esen s in a-
p eneu ship as a special ype o en ep eneu ship, which has di e en p o o ypical
cha ac e is ics, such as aking he ini ia i e, ecognising oppo uni ies, gene a ing
no el elemen s and some deg ee o isk- aking. Likewise, in ap eneu ship posi i ely
impac s o ganisa ions’ pe o mance and compe i i eness, bo h in he sho and long
e m, so in ap eneu ial compe encies should be enhanced in he uni e si y en i on-
men (González-Se ano e al., 2019). Thus, se e al au ho s ha e ocused hei e o s
on exposing he bene i s o in ap eneu ship in he uni e si y en i onmen , exposing
a cu en o de elopmen and esea ch on his line o esea ch (Engzell e al., 2024;
Flo es e al., 2024; Hen y & Lahikainen, 2024; Kanısoy e al., 2024; Klo s en e al.,
2024; U bano e al., 2024).
La a-Bocaneg a e al. (2021) p esen ed in ap eneu ship in spo s as a esea ch
niche, gi en he need o del e in o he p ecu so s/ acili a o s o in en ions and subse-
quen in ap eneu ial beha iou s, as well as he need o c ea e ins umen s o de ec
indi iduals wi h hese beha iou s in o ganisa ions. In his line, in he spo s ield,
al hough he e is a ool o measu e in ap eneu ial in en ions in Spo s Science s u-
den s (González-Se ano e al., 2019) ha is no ela ed o he p o essional sec o ,
he e is no speci ic ins umen o assess he in ap eneu ial beha iou s o employees
o spo s o ganisa ions. The e o e, he main objec i e o his wo k is o design and
alida e an assessmen ins umen o de ec employees wi h in ap eneu ial beha -
iou s in spo s o ganisa ions.
The wo k is s uc u ed in six sec ions: i begins wi h an in oduc ion, ollowed by
a heo e ical ounda ion sec ion ha add esses he amewo k and cu en si ua ion
om which his esea ch emana es. The hi d sec ion p esen s he me hodology used,
he pa icipan s, he da a collec ion p ocedu e, and da a analysis. The ou h sec ion
shows he esul s o he esea ch. The i h sec ion con ains he discussion, while he
six h sec ion p esen s he conclusions eached.
Theo e ical amewo k
In e ms o he main concep s ha make up in ap eneu ial beha iou in he scien i ic
li e a u e, he ollowing can be ound: a endency o isk, inno a ion, p oac i i y,
au onomy and achie emen o ien a ion (An oncic & His ich, 2001; Co in & Sle in,
1991; K auss e al., 2005; Lumpkin & Dess, 1996; S ull & Singh, 2005). Among
hem, wo concep s a e conside ed undamen al: inno a ion and isk- aking (Mo i-
ano e al., 2009). Inno a ion is unde s ood as implemen ing o iginal and app op ia e
ideas de eloped h ough c ea i i y (Amabile, 1997), so inno a ion and c ea i i y a e
closely linked concep s (Mo is & Ku a ko, 2002). Risk- aking can be de ined as he
p e e ence o si ua ions ha can bene i he o ganisa ion i hey a e success ul, bu
also impo an consequences in case o wo ke e o (B ockhaus, 1990). P oac i i y
is ano he closely ela ed concep . The li e a u e ex ends he idea o p oac i i y as a
s a egy ha pe mi s compe ing, c ea ing new oppo uni ies, and a oiding imi a ing
compe i o s. Hence, p oac i i y implies a s ong leade ship ole o ake he ini ia i e
in inding and exploi ing oppo uni ies (Co in & Sle in, 1991; K aus e al., 2019;
Lumpkin & Dess, 1996). Howe e , o he concep s ha e also been linked o in ap e-
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
neu ship in he li e a u e, such as oppo uni y ecogni ion and p io i ising in e nal
p ojec s (Ga zón, 2005; González-Se ano, 2019; K auss e al., 2005; Mo iano e al.,
2009). Thus, oppo uni y ecogni ion is conside ed necessa y o he in ap eneu ’s
de elopmen because, o ake ad an age o an oppo uni y, i mus i s be ecognised
(Mo iano e al., 2009). In his sense, o Mo iano e al. (2009), oppo uni y ecogni-
ion is one o he mos cha ac e is ic dimensions o in ap eneu ial beha iou , which
is becoming inc easingly impo an . In ap eneu s can explo e and ecognise he i s
signs o changes in he ma ke , ei he new oppo uni ies and/o h ea s, in oduc-
ing he changes ha a e app op ia e o he o ganisa ion’s bene i (Ga zón, 2005;
Mo iano e al., 2009). Las ly, he dimension o p io i ising he in e nal p ojec is
add essed. In ap eneu s a e highly commi ed o hei o ganisa ions and hei wo k
and a e a ac ed o con inuous lea ning wi hin he bounda ies o hei o ganisa ion
(González-Se ano, 2019; Go inda ajan & Desai, 2013; Ku a ko & Hodge s, 2001).
Based on he abo e and a e analysing he di e en de ini ions and scien i ic con-
ibu ions, an in ap eneu could be de ined as an employee wi h ex ensi e expe i-
ence and/o knowledge in a gi en sec o , which allows hem o de ec new business
oppo uni ies and/o ma ke niches o c ea e and/o edesign ideas/p oduc s/se ices/
businesses wi hin he limi s and secu i y p o ided by an exis ing o ganisa ion (La a-
Bocaneg a, 2023).
The de elopmen o wo ke s’ in ap eneu ial beha iou s depends on a ious ac-
o s, well in e connec ed h ough Ajzen’s (1991) heo y o planned beha iou , which
has become he mos widely used heo y o explain and p edic human beha iou
(Chouchane e al., 2023; González-Se ano, 2019; Kanısoy e al., 2024). Addi ion-
ally, González-Se ano (2019) and Naia e al. (2017) s a e ha much o human beha -
iou can be planned, so i is p eceded by an in en ion. Acco ding o Ajzen (1991),
in en ions a e in luenced by di e en a iables such as a i ude owa ds he beha -
iou , subjec i e no m, and pe cei ed con ol (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Theo y o planned beha iou (Ajzen, 1991)
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal…
In e ms o a i ude owa ds beha iou , Ajzen (1991) explains ha i e e s o he
posi i e and/o nega i e e alua ions owa ds he beha iou , which can be in luenced
by di e en belie s o he subjec (González-Se ano, 2019). In o he wo ds, a i ude
is de e mined by each o an indi idual’s belie s owa ds he objec ( hing, pe son,
o ins i u ion) and he posi i e/nega i e e alua ion associa ed wi h he belie s abou
each o hose objec s (Ca pi-Balles e & B e a-Asensio, 2001). Subjec i e no m
e e s o he social p essu e pe cei ed o pe o m o no pe o m a beha iou , com-
p ising no ma i e belie s and he mo i a ion o comply wi h hese belie s (Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980; Ca pi-Balles e & B e a-Asensio, 2001). Las ly, pe cei ed beha -
iou al con ol e e s o pe sonal belie s abou con ol o he ac o s ela ed o he
beha iou (Ajzen, 1991; González-Se ano, 2019; Naia e al., 2017). The pe cep ion
o con ol is o med by bo h in e nal (pe cep ion o abili y) and ex e nal a iables
(oppo uni y o ac ion, obs acles, ime, coope a ion, e c.) (Ca pi-Balles e & B e a-
Asensio, 2001). A Ajzen (1991) model, pe cei ed con ol di e s om he iabil-
i y o he En ep eneu ial E en Model (Shape o & Sokol, 1982) in ha i no only
add esses capaci y belie s bu also includes he abili y o con ol ac o s ela ed o
beha iou (González-Se ano, 2019).
Fo Naia e al. (2017), he a i ude owa ds a beha iou plays a undamen al ole in
mani es ing in en ions and, subsequen ly, he beha iou , whe eas he subjec i e no m
is less p edic i e o indi iduals wi h a high deg ee o pe cei ed con ol. Simila ly,
González-Se ano e al. (2018) s a e ha in en ion has mo e weigh in he a i ude
owa ds a beha iou han he subjec i e no m and pe cei ed beha iou al con ol.
Building on he heo y o planned beha iou (Ajzen, 1991), which, as men-
ioned, is in ima ely connec ed o en ep eneu ship in spo s, i is sugges ed ha
his model be adop ed o p edic in ap eneu ial beha iou s in spo s o ganisa ions
h ough i s a ious cons uc s. This app oach has al eady been es ed in he spo s
a ea (González-Se ano e al., 2023), p o ing o be an adequa e heo e ical model o
p edic ing in en ions.
In ap eneu ship in spo and ools
Fo some au ho s, in ap eneu ial beha iou s occu in employees o he lowe -middle
le el in he o ganisa ion’s hie a chical scale, who, due o hei lowe s a us and eel-
ings o dissa is ac ion, ha e a s ong u ge o c ea e some hing new ha will help hem
o ad ance in hei p o essional ca ee s (Ba ilana, 2006; Howa d-G en ille, 2007;
K aus e al., 2019; Meye son & Scully, 1995). Mo eo e , when hese employees ha e
high educa ional le els and/o expe ience in he sec o and high job sa is ac ion, hey
p esen s ong in en ions o in ap eneu ship in he spo s sec o (La a-Bocaneg a e
al., 2022). Howe e , he scien i ic li e a u e clea ly shows ha he cha ac e is ics o
in ap eneu s mus be enhanced by hei immedia e supe io s in he o ganisa ion o
hem o lou ish, highligh ing he impo ance o suppo and us ing ha in ap e-
neu ial beha iou will appea (Dep ez e al., 2021; Gup a e al., 2004; Ho nsby e
al., 2002; Ku a ko e al., 2005; Ling e al., 2008; Ribei o & Comeche, 2007; Wakkee
e al., 2008). Mo eo e , hanks o he de elopmen o a leade ship s yle ha os e s
c ea i i y and en ep eneu ship by supe io s—manage s and middle manage s— hey
can p o ide in ap eneu s wi h esou ces, knowledge, ne wo ks, e c., so hey will eel
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
alued and s imula ed owa d in ap eneu ial beha iou (Mo iano e al., 2014). In
his sense, Mo iano e al. (2014) epo ha ansac ional leade ship nega i ely in lu-
ences in ap eneu ship, whe eas ans o ma ional leade ship posi i ely in luences
i s eme gence. These au ho s indica e ha o ganisa ional iden i ica ion signi ican ly
and s ongly impac s in ap eneu ial beha iou . The e o e, senio manage s should
be esponsible o ac ing as in ap eneu s, acili a ing and suppo ing hei subo -
dina es o de elop hei ideas wi hou ea ing ha hey will be igno ed o e en p e-
en ed om unde aking hem on hei own (Ku a ko e al., 2005). In his sense, he
company’s en ep eneu ial o ien a ion may acili a e ce ain beha iou s, in his case,
in ap eneu ship (Badoiu e al., 2020). Thus, en ep eneu ial o ien a ion is linked o
in ap eneu ship, as e lec ed in he academic li e a u e (Bani-Mus a a e al., 2021;
Boucha d & Basso, 2011; K aus e al., 2019; Raza i & Ab Aziz, 2017). En ep e-
neu ial o ien a ion is ela ed o highe in ap eneu ial po en ial (Bani-Mus a a e al.,
2021; K aus e al., 2019; Raza i & Ab Aziz, 2017). Fo hei pa , Boucha d and
Basso (2011) indica ed ha en ep eneu ial o ien a ion does no always co ela e wi h
high le els o in ap eneu ship because o ganisa ions may p esen a double model:
one in which he owne gene a es a high en ep eneu ial o ien a ion and encou ages
in ap eneu ship and one in which he owne nei he encou ages no gene a es in a-
p eneu ship. Bo h models can achie e p o essional success. Howe e , i is clea ha
in o ganisa ions wi h a posi i e endency owa ds en ep eneu ial o ien a ion, a c e-
a i e spi al will be gene a ed linked o he eme gence o in ap eneu ial in en ions
and beha iou s.
Thus, o ganisa ional en ep eneu ial o ien a ion has ecen ly eme ged as a ield
o wo k (Kauppinen & Escamilla-Faja do, 2020; K aus e al., 2019). As de ined by
Escamilla-Faja do e al. (2018), i can be unde s ood as “ he in en ions and ac ions
o manage s ac ing in a dynamic gene a i e p ocess aimed a c ea ing new o ganisa-
ions o oppo uni ies”, and whe e manage s ac as ep esen a i es o he o ganisa ion
(K aus e al., 2019). This cons uc has e ol ed because an o ganisa ion is no com-
posed solely and exclusi ely o he Chie Execu i e O ice so ha any indi idual
can p opose inno a i e ac ions (Hughes e al., 2018). Hence, he cons uc o indi-
idual en ep eneu ial o ien a ion eme ges (Bol on & Lane, 2012; Co in e al., 2020;
K aus e al., 2019), de ined as employees’ endency owa d inno a i e, p oac i e
and isk- aking beha iou s in he wo kplace (Co in e al., 2020). Thus, indi idual
en ep eneu ial o ien a ion is g ounded in and mo i a ed by he ac ions o supe io s,
whe eas in ap eneu ship emana es om he employees hemsel es and is os e ed
by a acili a ing con ex ha enables i s de elopmen . A g ea e deg ee o in e p e a-
ion and de ini ion is needed so hey a e no used as synonyms, as can occu in he
cu en li e a u e (Blanka, 2019; K aus e al., 2019; La a-Bocaneg a, 2023).
In ano he sense, he e alua ion o oppo uni ies is a e y impo an pa o in a-
p eneu ship. The in ap eneu ial p ocess is composed o wo phases: he explo a ion
o ecogni ion o oppo uni ies and he exploi a ion o implemen a ion o he oppo -
uni y, and bo h a e essen ial o he p ocess o be success ul (Eckha d & Shane,
2003; Heinze & Webe , 2016; K aus e al., 2019; Sa as a hy, 2001). The c ea ion
o a new p oduc , se ice, o p ocess can be enhanced by engaging in explo a o y
ac i i ies, and indi iduals who engage in mo e explo a o y wo k a e mo e likely o
de ec a g ea e numbe o oppo uni ies, especially new ones (K aus e al., 2019).
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal…
Mo eo e , he ela ionship be ween c ea ion and exploi a ion is e iden in in ap e-
neu ship (Heinze & Webe , 2016) o he ex en ha , in some o ganisa ions, he pe son
who explo es and disco e s he oppo uni y is he same pe son who de elops and
implemen s i , hus achie ing a comple e in ap eneu ial p ocess (Heinze & Webe ,
2016; K aus e al., 2019).
La a-Bocaneg a e al. (2021) concluded he need o alid and eliable ins umen s
o de ec indi iduals wi h in ap eneu ial beha iou in spo s because his a ea is a
g owing sec o and one o he mos impo an na ionally and in e na ionally. In addi-
ion, he li e a u e indica es a g ea simila i y be ween spo s and en ep eneu ship,
e ealing a g ea e occu ence o his ype o beha iou in people linked o he sec-
o due o i s in insic cha ac e is ics (Holienka e al., 2018). S ull and Singh (2005)
c ea ed a ques ionnai e o de ec in ap eneu ial beha iou in employees o non-
p o i o ganisa ions, based on he cons uc s o inno a ion (4 i ems) and isk- aking
(3 i ems). Mo iano e al. (2009) used his ins umen in a ious o ganisa ions (e.g.,
se ice companies, anspo a ion and logis ics companies, and educa ional cen es,
among o he s) bu ne e in spo s o ganisa ions. They ob ained a C onbach’s alpha
o 0.845 as he scale’s eliabili y. Gawke e al. (2019) de eloped ins umen s linked
o s a egic enewal beha iou (4 i ems) and isk beha iou (4 i ems) in indi iduals
ela ed o he spo s ield, wi h C onbach’s alpha alues o 0.94 in bo h dimensions.
Based on he ins umen p oposed by S ull and Singh (2005) and o b ing i close
o he spo s ield, González-Se ano e al. (2018, 2019) p esen ed a alid and eliable
ool o de ec in ap eneu ship in en ion in Spo s Science uni e si y s uden s. These
au ho s used he same dimensions and numbe o i ems employed by he p e iously
men ioned au ho s (Mo iano e al., 2009; S ull & Singh, 2005). In his case, he eli-
abili y o he o e all scale in i s English e sion p esen ed a C onbach’s alpha alue
o 0.90 (0.90 o he inno a ion dimension and 0.84 o isk- aking), whe eas, in i s
Spanish e sion, i p esen ed an o e all alue o 0.89 (0.90 o inno a ion and 0.83
o isk- aking).
Despi e ha ing p oposed di e en assessmen ins umen s, hei di e se limi-
a ions encou age he de elopmen o a new and speci ic ool o spo s o ganisa-
ions. Fo example, he exis ing ins umen s do no include all he dimensions ha
he scien i ic li e a u e conside s ele an ; he e is no alida ed ool in spo s o gan-
isa ions o de ec indi iduals wi h in ap eneu ial beha iou s; and inally, as Holi-
enka e al. (2018) s a ed, he simila i ies be ween spo s and en ep eneu ship a ou
a hle es’ g ea e endency owa d his ype o beha iou , and pe haps also owa d
in ap eneu ship.
All o he abo e co obo a es he need o esea ch ocused on in ap eneu ship
bo h in indi iduals and in he o ganisa ions hemsel es, which, o some ex en ,
ollows he indica ions and sugges ions o a ious au ho s (Blanka, 2019; La a-
Bocaneg a e al., 2021; Ra en & Tajeddini, 2019). Hence, he p esen wo k aims o
design, c ea e and alida e an ins umen o de ec employees wi h in ap eneu ial
beha iou s in spo s o ganisa ions.
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
Me hodology
Sample selec ion
The sample comp ised 411 pa icipan s (57.2% male and 42.8% emale) wi h an
a e age age o 32.68 yea s (± 7.95), wo ke s o spo s o ganisa ions. Conce ning he
spo o which he o ganisa ion is dedica ed, 66% (n = 271) has o do wi h he i ness
indus y, 12.4% (n = 51) wi h acke spo s, and he emaining 21.6% (n = 89) a e
wi hin he “mul ispo ” ca ego y (gene a ed o all hose spo s modali ies ha did
no p esen a leas 25 pa icipan s), which includes oo ball, ia hlon, swimming,
wa e polo, ska ing and climbing. Rega ding he posi ion held in he o ganisa ion,
64.5% (n = 265) a e spo s echnicians, 13.6% (n = 56) belong o he adminis a ion/
ecep ion/cus ome se ice, 7.5% (n = 31) a e spo s manage s/coo dina o s, 7.3%
(n = 30) a e di ec o s/manage s o he spo s o ganisa ion, 2.2% (n = 9) a e pa o
main enance/cleaning s a , 0.7% (n = 3) a e adminis a ion/ ecep ion/cus ome se -
ice manage s, 0.7% (n = 3) a e main enance/cleaning manage s, and he emaining
3.4% (n = 14) a e engaged in o he asks. Finally, conce ning he size o he o ganisa-
ion, 9.2% (n = 38) a e mic o companies (less han 10 wo ke s), 19.7% (n = 81) a e
small companies (be ween 10 and 49 wo ke s), 16.1% (n = 66) a e medium com-
panies (be ween 50 and 249 wo ke s), and he emaining 55.0% (n = 226) a e la ge
companies (mo e han 250 wo ke s).
P ocedu e
Phase 1. De elopmen o he ins umen
The de elopmen o he ins umen “In ap eneu ial Beha iou in Spo s O ganiza-
ions” (COINDE, an ac onym in Spanish o “In ap eneu ial Beha io s in Spo s
O ganiza ions” ) ollowed he phases p oposed by Muñiz and Fonseca-Ped e o
(2019). Thus, a e con ex ualising and de eloping he de ini ion o he cons uc o
be in es iga ed (in ap eneu ship), we c ea ed a bank o i ems based on he analysis
o ins umen s a ailable in he li e a u e and hei dimensions (see Table 1). No i em
was ans e ed di ec ly om ano he scale o he p esen scale because (i) we a e
no analysing/seeking o analyse in ap eneu ial in en ion bu a he in ap eneu ial
beha iou and (ii) many o he i ems we e cons uc ed based on he coincidence in
he “ hemes” e lec ed in he di e en ques ionnai es on in ap eneu ial in en ion. Fo
example, he ques ionnai e by S ull and Singh (2005) s a es, “I ake calcula ed isks
despi e he possibili y o ailu e”. The same ques ion appea s in he ques ionnai e
by Mo iano e al. (2009), bu in Spanish, “Asumo iesgos calculados a pesa de la
posibilidad de acasa ”, and in he ques ionnai e by González-Se ano e al. (2019),
“Asumi ía iesgos calculados a pesa de la posibilidad de acasa ”. F om hei usion
a ises ou í em, “Es udio y asumo de e minados iesgos pa a pode desa olla nue-
as ideas”, a ending o beha iou s ins ead o in en ions. Thus, he ool used in his
esea ch was ini ially composed o 46 i ems di ided in o i e dimensions: c ea i i y/
inno a ion, isk- aking, p oac i i y, ecogni ion o oppo uni ies, and p io i y o he
in e nal p ojec .
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal…
Dimension Ins umen s o
o igin
I ems 1s e sion Pos alida ion phase i ems
C ea i i y /
Inno a ion
(Engelen, 2010;
Engelen e al.,
2015; Ku a ko
e al., 1990;
Lee & Sukoco,
2007; Liñán,
2008; Hill,
2003; Mo iano
e al., 2009;
Pa edes &
De la He án,
2011; Pa a,
2003; S ull &
Singh, 2005)
1. I b ing di e en poin s o
iew o acili a e inno a ion
in he o ganiza ion.
1. I con ibu e di e en poin s
o iew o acili a e he
imp o emen o c ea ion o
new p oduc s o se ices in he
o ganiza ion.
2. When he wo kload is
manageable, I in es ime in
gene a ing new ideas.
3. I end o gene a e new
ideas ha a e use ul o my
o ganiza ion.
2. I end o gene a e new ideas
use ul o my o ganiza ion.
4. I app oach my asks wi h
c ea i i y.
5. I de elop new p oduc s,
p ojec s and se ices.
3. I de elop new p oduc s/
p ojec s/se ices.
6. C ea i i y is undamen al
in my daily wo k.
7. I sol e p oblems in a
c ea i e way.
4. I end o sol e p oblems in a
no el way.
8. I come up wi h new ways
o doing o de eloping my
wo k.
5. I usually p opose new and
mo e e icien ways o de elop
my wo k.
9. I am able o es ablish new
ela ionships in he ace o
e en s o si ua ions.
10. I come up wi h new ways
o doing asks ha ha e
always been done in he
same way.
6. I come up wi h new ways o
doing asks ha ha e always
been done in he same way.
Risk aking (Engelen,
2010; Engelen
e al., 2015;
González-
Se ano e al.,
2019; Ku a ko
e al., 1990;
Lee & Sukoco,
2007; Liñán,
2008; Hill,
2003; Mo iano
e al., 2009;
S ull & Singh,
2005)
11. I some imes pu my job
on he line o de end a new
idea.
Table 1 E olu ion in he design o he ques ionnai e i ems
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
As shown in Table 3, all he cons uc s’ composi e eliabili y (CR) alues we e
highe han he ecommended h eshold o 0.70, and he eliabili y o he measu e-
men dimensions was also e i ied using C onbach’s alpha coe icien , ob aining al-
ues highe han he ecommended le el o 0.70 (Hu & Ben le , 1999).
Finally, con e gen alidi y was e alua ed using he c i e ion es ablished by
Hensele e al. (2009): he s anda dised ac o loadings and a e age a iance ex ac ed
(AVE). The esul s showed ha all he i ems had loadings g ea e han 0.50, as wi h
he AVE alues in all he dimensions (AVE ≥ 0.50; Fo nell & La cke , 1981), indica -
ing good con e gen alidi y. In he case o disc iminan alidi y, he squa e oo o
he AVE o each dimension was highe han he co ela ions be ween hem (Fo nell
& La cke , 1981) (Table 4).
The wo models p esen ed adequa e alues in hei eliabili y and he AVE, so
bo h could be alid o de ec ing in ap eneu ial beha iou s. Howe e , his s udy
ad oca es Model 1 because o i s smalle numbe o i ems and because i s uc u -
ally main ains he i e dimensions mos widely used and p esen ed by he scien i ic
li e a u e on in en ion and in ap eneu ial beha iou s.
Discussion and conclusions
In ap eneu ship is a p i ileged ool o spo s o ganisa ions aiming o adap o he
changes and equi emen s o a ola ile and changing ma ke (Gal án-Vela e al.,
2021; He nández-Pe lines e al., 2022; La a-Bocaneg a e al., 2024b). This ac ,
added o he main cha ac e is ics o in ap eneu s and hei con ibu ion o o gan-
isa ions, means ha hese indi iduals play a leading ole in gene a ing inno a ion,
compe i i e ad an ages and good pe o mance o o ganisa ions in bo h he sho
and medium e m (Blanka, 2019; Boga y e a e al., 2022; González-Se ano e al.,
2019; La a-Bocaneg a e al., 2024a). The e o e, s udies on in ap eneu ship in spo s
ha e been inc easing in ecen yea s, al hough along dispa a e lines and some imes
a om he essence o in ap eneu ship: he wo ke s (González-Se ano e al., 2019,
2023; La a-Bocaneg a e al., 2021, 2022).
The main objec i e o his wo k was o design, c ea e and alida e an ins umen o
assess he in ap eneu ial beha iou s o wo ke s in spo s o ganisa ions.
The exis ing gene alis ins umen s ha assess in ap eneu ial beha iou (see, o
example, Gawke e al., 2019; Mo iano e al., 2009; S ull & Singh, 2005) add ess di -
e en dimensions om hose p esen ed in he li e a u e, which di e om each o he .
In he cons uc ion o he COINDE, we in eg a ed he o al numbe o dimensions
o in ap eneu ship e lec ed in he li e a u e o which he e is scien i ic consensus
(An oncic & His ich, 2001; Co in & Sle in, 1991; Ga zón, 2005; González-Se ano,
2019; K auss e al., 2005; Lumpkin & Dess, 1996; Mo iano e al., 2009; S ull &
Singh, 2005): c ea i i y/inno a ion, isk- aking, p oac i i y, ecogni ion o oppo u-
ni ies and p io i y o he in e nal p ojec . A e he EFA, he da a sugges ed a six-
dimensional model, wi h only modi ica ions o he o iginal in e nal p ojec p io i y
dimension, which was di ided in o wo (in ol emen and belonging). Bo h models
we e es ed wi h he CFA and equi ed adjus men s, wi h he six-dimension model
showing a sligh ly be e i and a o al o 26 i ems. Model 1, on he o he hand, main-
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7 Page 16 o 26
In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal…
Abb . Dimensions and i ems Fac o loadings
(λ)
EFA CFA
M1
CFA
M2
C ea i i y / Inno a ion (α = 0.89)
M1: CR = 0.90; AVE = 0.59; M2: CR = 0.90; AVE = 0.59
CRI1 I b ing di e en poin s o iew o acili a e he imp o emen o c ea ion
o new p oduc s o se ices in he o ganiza ion.
0.84 0.75 0.75
CRI2 I end o gene a e new ideas use ul o my o ganiza ion. 0.87 0.83 0.83
CRI3 I de elop new p oduc s/p ojec s/se ices. 0.80 0.76 0.76
CRI4 I end o sol e p oblems in a no el way. 0.63 0.77 0.76
CRI5 I usually p opose new and mo e e icien ways o de elop my wo k. 0.65 0.78 0.78
CRI6 I come up wi h new ways o doing asks ha ha e always been done in
he same way.
0.69 0.73 0.74
Risk aking (α = 0.87)
M1: CR = 0.87; AVE = 0.57; M2: CR = 0.87; AVE = 0.58
RT1 I s udy and ake ce ain isks in o de o de elop new ideas. 0.79 0.79 0.80
RT2 I some imes push small p ojec s in he o ganiza ion e en hough hey
may ail.
0.82 0.77 0.77
RT3 I ake esponsibili y o he asks and ideas I de elop. 0.68 0.74 0.74
RT4 I end o y new hings e en i he e is a chance ha hey will no wo k. 0.62 0.75 0.75
RT5 I allow mysel o ake isky decisions when I belie e hey may be bene i-
cial o he o ganiza ion.
0.82 0.73 0.74
P oac i i y (α = 0.81)
M1: CR = 0.81; AVE = 0.52; M2: CR = 0.82; AVE = 0.53
PRO1 When I ha e an idea ha I hink is good, I sha e i wi h he whole wo k
eam.
0.76 0.73 0.74
PRO2 I he e is a new ask o p ojec , I ge in ol ed in i olun a ily. 0.68 0.75 0.76
PRO3 When I spo an oppo uni y, I ake he ini ia i e wi hou being asked o
ake ad an age o i .
0.86 0.71 0.71
PRO4 I like o be a en i e o changes and mo emen s in he ma ke o p opose
new ideas o imp o emen s o he o ganiza ion.
0.94 0.70 0.70
Oppo uni y ecogni ion (α = 0.89)
M1: CR = 0.89; AVE = 0.61; M2: CR = 0.89; AVE = 0.61
REC1 I am con iden in my abili y o look o new and inno a i e ways o ad-
d ess he demands o he Ma ke .
0.73 0.79 0.80
REC2 Some imes, while doing my job, I come up wi h new ideas abou asks o
se ices o de elop o o e .
0.76 0.82 0.82
REC3 I easily de ec oppo uni ies and changes in he ma ke . 0.80 0.77 0.77
REC4 I am in e es ed in he no el ies and changes in he ma ke . 0.95 0.70 0.70
REC5 I ind ways o imp o e ou p oduc s o se ices o a ac new cus ome
p o iles.
0.71 0.81 0.81
P io i y o in e nal P ojec : Le el o in ol emen (α = 0.77)
M1 (unidimensional): CR = 0.89; AVE = 0.61; M2: CR = 0.76; AVE = 0.62
PIP1 I ge in ol ed in ac i i ies ha can b ing bene i s o my o ganiza ion. 0.74 0.82 0.78
PIP2 I like o de elop new ideas/p oduc s/se ices o my o ganiza ion. 0.80 0.79 0.79
P io i y o in e nal P ojec : Le el o membe ship (α = 0.86)
M2: CR = 0.87; AVE = 0.63
PIP3 I s i e o achie e he goals se o he o ganiza ion. 0.84 0.81 0.87
Table 3 Goodness o i indexes o models 1 (M1) and 2 (M2)
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
ained he o iginal i e dimensions and educed i s i ems o 25, dele ing i em PRI6
(“Thanks o my o ganisa ion, I can de elop he ideas ha occu o me”). Bo h models
p esen ed adequa e alues o eliabili y and AVE, making hem bo h alid and el-
e an o de ec ing in ap eneu ial beha iou s in employees o spo s o ganisa ions.
Howe e , he de ini i e e sion o Model 1 (5 dimensions and 25 i ems) is ad o-
ca ed because, despi e ob aining a sligh ly lowe i han Model 2, i ai h ully e lec s
he i e mos equen ly used, in es iga ed and p oposed dimensions in esea ch on
in ap eneu ial in en ion and beha iou s (An oncic & His ich, 2001; Co in & Sle in,
1991; Ga zón, 2005; González-Se ano, 2019; K auss e al., 2005; Lumpkin & Dess,
1996; Mo iano e al., 2009; S ull & Singh, 2005). I is also sho e han Model 2. In
addi ion, i was conside ed ha di iding he o iginal Model 2 dimension, p io i y o
he in e nal p ojec , in o in ol emen and belonging could gene a e con usion abou
hei in e p e a ion as hey could be linked o p ecu so s o in ap eneu ial beha iou ,
such as o ganisa ional iden i ica ion (Mo iano e al., 2009).
The alida ion o he COINDE is consis en wi h p e ious heo e ical de elop-
men s ega ding in ap eneu ship in gene al and wi hin he spo s con ex in pa icu-
la . The endo sed i e-dimensional model e lec s dimensions ound in esea ch on
in ap eneu ial beha iou s, wi h he consensus o he scien i ic li e a u e. This e eals
he obus ness o he heo e ical model o in ap eneu ship (S ull & Singh, 2005) and
Table 4 Disc iminan alidi y (AVE alues o each dimension in he diagonal and squa ed co ela ions
be ween he espec i e dimension)
Model 1 1 2 3 4 5
(1) CRI 0.59
(2) RT 0.38 0.57
(3) PRO 0.27 0.35 0.52
(4) REC 0.23 0.13 0.42 0.61
(5) PIP 0.43 0.35 0.46 0.37 0.61
Model 2 1 2 3 4 56
(1) CRI 0.59
(2) RT 0.45 0.58
(3) PRO 0.32 0.29 0.53
(4) REC 0.26 0.16 0.46 0.61
(5) PIP 0.49 0.38 0.53 0.46 0.62
(6) PIP_2 0.35 0.37 0.49 0.43 0.30 0.63
Below he diagonal—es ima ed co ela ion be ween he ac o s; diagonal—AVE
Abb . Dimensions and i ems Fac o loadings
(λ)
EFA CFA
M1
CFA
M2
PIP4 I like wo king o my o ganiza ion. 0.89 0.72 0.81
PIP5 I wan his o ganiza ion o succeed, and me wi h i . 0.90 0.76 0.84
PIP6 Thanks o my o ganiza ion I can de elop he ideas I come up wi h. 0.67 *0.64
Abb . Abb e ia u e, λ i em ac o loadings, α C onbach’s alpha, CR Composi e Reliabili y, AVE A e age
Va iance Ex ac ed, * i em dele e
Table 3 (con inued)
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7 Page 18 o 26
In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal…
acili a es i s associa ion wi h he heo y o planned beha iou (Ajzen, 1991). The
heo y o planned beha iou , he e o e, becomes easie o use hanks o he COINDE,
because we can now no only assess in ap eneu ial in en ions bu also he ac ual
in ap eneu ial beha iou pe o med.
The COINDE is a alid and eliable ins umen o de ec ing indi iduals wi h in a-
p eneu ial beha iou in spo s o ganisa ions. This ep esen s an impo an ad ance
o e he exis ing ins umen s by p o iding measu e speci ici y in he spo s con ex ,
he wo k p o ile o he employees o hese o ganisa ions, and he di ec e alua ion o
in ap eneu ial beha iou . In addi ion, he ool allows o di ec ly linking he heo e i-
cal concep o i s e alua ion h ough he speci ic ela ed dimensions.
A he esea ch le el, a eliable in ap eneu ial beha iou assessmen ool will
allow o he p oposi ion and alida ion o a u u e gene al heo e ical model o
in ap eneu ship in spo s, including all i s la en a iables, om he p ecu so s o
in en ions o he subsequen gene a ion o beha iou s. A simila case has been made
o en ep eneu ship in spo s h ough he wo mos widely used heo e ical mod-
els in his ield: he en ep eneu ial e en model (Shape o & Sokol, 1982) and he
heo y o planned beha iou (Ajzen, 1991). In addi ion, we emphasise he need o
c ea e aining p og ams o employees o spo s o ganisa ions linked no only o he
gene a ion o beha iou s—es ablishing hei p ecu so s/ acili a o s—bu also o so
skills, en ep eneu ial skills and he enhancemen o a ious compe encies (including
digi al ones).
In e ms o p ac ical and manage ial implica ions, he COINDE allows connec ing
he a ious dimensions exposed in he li e a u e ha o bi a ound he cons uc o
in ap eneu ship, deepening and connec ing hem unde he p esc ip i e amewo k
o logic in ela ion o he Theo y o Planned Beha io (Ajzen, 1991). In his way,
he ins umen will allow a di ec e alua ion o he in a-en ep eneu ial beha io o
employees o spo s o ganiza ions, b inging bene i s a he managemen le el o he
spo s manage s hemsel es and he o ganiza ions. This will allow o ganiza ions o
be able o de ec indi iduals wi h in a-en ep eneu ial beha io s, which will help o
con inue p omo ing hei beha io s and, a he same ime, o de ec indi iduals who
do no show hem and be able o empowe hem and p omo e imp o emen ac ions
linked o in a-en ep eneu ial beha io .
6. P ac ical implica ions, limi a ions and u u e esea ch
A he heo e ical and p ac ical le el (spo managemen ), implemen ing he i e-
dimension model o assessing in ap eneu ial beha iou s in spo s o ganisa ions
p o ides a mo e accu a e and e ec i e iden i ica ion o employees wi h in ap eneu -
ial po en ial. This is c ucial o de eloping speci ic aining p og ams ha p omo e
so skills, en ep eneu ial compe encies, and digi al abili ies, which a e essen ial in
he mode n spo s con ex . Addi ionally, he alida ed ool acili a es he c ea ion o
o ganisa ional in e en ions o enhance he in ap eneu ial clima e and p omo e a cul-
u e o inno a ion and p oac i i y. The COINDE could also acili a e mo e de ailed
and sys ema ic moni o ing o in ap eneu ial de elopmen wi hin spo s o ganisa-
ions. O ganisa ions could ailo hei p o essional de elopmen s a egies o os e
1 3
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In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal (2025) 21:7
hese quali ies among hei employees by iden i ying he dimensions and ac o s wi h
he mos impac on in ap eneu ship. This would inc ease in e nal inno a ion capac-
i y and imp o e alen e en ion by p o iding employees wi h clea g ow h and de el-
opmen oppo uni ies aligned wi h hei in ap eneu ial capabili ies. Addi ionally, i
could acili a e collabo a ion be ween di e en a eas o he o ganisa ion, p omo ing
a mo e dynamic and in eg a ed cul u e.
Adap ing he COINDE could also be an essen ial s ep in de eloping alen man-
agemen s a egies in he spo s sec o , iden i ying and enhancing indi iduals who
can signi ican ly con ibu e o o ganisa ional inno a ion and g ow h. Using his
ins umen could also help measu e he impac o implemen ed in ap eneu ial poli-
cies and adjus hem as necessa y, ensu ing ha spo s o ganisa ions emain compe i-
i e and become leade s in an in ap eneu ial app oach o he indus y.
This s udy has some limi a ions, which can be conside ed possibili ies o imp o e-
men and g ow h in he scien i ic ield. One o he mos complex limi a ions was sam-
ple collec ion due o he limi a ions du ing he Co id lockdown, which led o a delay
in he esea ch. In his sense, his wo k could be ca ied ou hanks o he suppo o
a ious spo s o ganisa ions. In u n, his s udy e eals po en ial u u e esea ch. A
s udy could ocus on assessing he e ec i eness o aining p og ams speci ically
designed o os e in ap eneu ial skills in he employees o spo s o ganisa ions. This
s udy could measu e how hese p og ams impac he employees’ inno a ion capac-
i y and p oac i i y and o wha ex en hey con ibu e o o e all o ganisa ional suc-
cess. I would be in e es ing o compa e di e en aining me hodologies and hei
ela ionship wi h he dimensions iden i ied by he i e dimensions o he COINDE.
A longi udinal s udy could be conduc ed ollowing he in ap eneu ial de elopmen
o employees wi hin spo s o ganisa ions. This s udy could iden i y key ac o s ha
in luence he e olu ion o in ap eneu ship and how o ganisa ional policies and p ac-
ices con ibu e o o inhibi his de elopmen . Finally, as he COINDE has iden i-
ied speci ic dimensions o in ap eneu ial beha iou s, a u u e line o esea ch could
explo e in g ea e dep h he p ecu so s o hese beha iou s. In es iga ing how ac o s
such as o ganisa ional iden i ica ion, pe cei ed suppo , and alen managemen poli-
cies in luence he in ensi y and equency o in ap eneu ial beha iou s could p o ide
aluable da a o imp o e managemen s a egies in spo s o ganisa ions.
Thus, his s udy ocuses on he impo ance o employees’ de elopmen and
in ol emen o spo s o ganisa ions. In addi ion, hanks o his ool, in ap eneu -
ial indi iduals could be de ec ed, bu a e o ganisa ions willing o gene a e he ideal
condi ions o hei de elopmen ? Pe haps he answe o his ques ion is wha will
de e mine he immedia e u u e o in ap eneu s in a spo s o ganisa ion and/o i s
change in sea ch o ideal condi ions o hei p o essional and pe sonal de elopmen .
This highligh s a clea pa h o u u e wo k and esea ch in he c ea ion o benign
ecosys ems o he de elopmen o in ap eneu s in spo s o ganisa ions, as well as
he gene a ion o aining p og ams on in ap eneu ship and hei possible e alua ion.
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h p s : / / d o i .
o g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 1 3 6 5 - 0 2 4 - 0 1 0 1 5 - y .
Funding Funding o open access publishing: Uni e sidad de Se illa/CBUA.
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