Chap e 8
DEVELOPMENT AND THE UNIFORM
SCHOOL
126
DEVELOPMENT AND THE UNIFORM
SCHOOL
Anne Ryan
Anne Ryan is a lec u e a he Depa men o Adul and Communi y Educa ion, NUI
Maynoo h since 1991. Be o e joining he depa men she wo ked in Aus alia o
se en yea s, China o one yea and Zambia o h ee yea s. She con inues o engage
in consul ancy wo k in A ica and in Asia.
In oduc ion
De elopmen is, in he Foucauldian sense, a pa icula discou se which does no e lec
bu ac ually cons uc s eali y. In doing so, i closes o al e na i e ways o hinking and so
cons i u es a o m o powe (Kiely 1999: 31).
Wha do schools and McDonalds ha e in common? Bo h a e powe ul symbols o
mode ni y… Each has a global p o ile… You will ecognise hem no ma e whe e in he
wo ld you ind hem because hey each ollow a se o ma … Bo h a e de ined mo e by
his o mulaic sameness han by hei geog aphic loca ion… Should we be eassu ed by
his sameness o ala med? This chap e has no hing o say abou hambu ge s bu aises
se ious conce ns abou he endency o ep oduce he same school design i espec i e o
he p e ailing local condi ions.
This chap e case s udies he educa ional ini ia i e o a la ge indigenous NGO in
Bangladesh (BRAC1) ha b eaks he mould by making he school i he child en a he han
he child en i he school. The ini ia i e is no ewo hy in i s own igh bu pe haps o mos
signi icance he e is he lukewa m esponse i has gene a ed among hose whose business
is de elopmen . The chap e a gues ha in line wi h he quo a ion abo e, he dominan
discou se on educa ion wi hin he de elopmen a ena is such ha ini ia i es o his na u e
a e no welcome because hey do no i he cons uc ed eali y embedded in an
unques ioning allegiance o con en ional schooling. By neglec ing o ha ness he
undamen al p inciples ha in o m his ini ia i e he wes e n dono s and he go e nmen
o Bangladesh a e exe cising hei powe o e ec i ely silence an al e na i e way o
app oaching p ima y educa ion. In global e ms e e y silencing makes he McDonalds/
school analogy mo e eal.
1Bangladesh Ru al Ad ancemen Co-ope a i e
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The cu en eali y wo ldwide
Fo mal educa ion in he de eloping wo ld is in c isis. Despi e imp o emen s he e is ample
e idence ha he cu en le el and quali y o p o ision con inues o exclude he leas
ad an aged o he wo ld’s popula ion ei he by denying hem access o schooling o by
o e ing hem a wholly inadequa e se ice. Al hough much is unde s ood abou he bla an
and sub le ways educa ional sys ems exclude sec o s o he popula ion, he goal o p ima y
educa ion o all, se in 19902, con inues o emain a om ealised in ei he quan i a i e
o quali a i e e ms. I is es ima ed ha wo ldwide a leas 130 million child en o school-
going age, wo hi ds o whom a e gi ls, ha e ne e gone o school and an addi ional 150
million child en who s a p ima y school, d op ou be o e hey inish. Gi en ha he link
be ween educa ional quali ica ions and economic and social well-being is well es ablished
(Youngman, 2000) he ailu e o p o ide basic educa ional oppo uni ies o hese child en
has se ious implica ions o he quali y o hei li es.
To da e he esponse o de elopmen agencies and go e nmen s has ocused almos
exclusi ely on he cul u al and economic ba ie s ha mi iga e agains boys and gi ls
a endance a school. In so doing he child en and he ci cums ances in which hey ind
hemsel es a e de ined as he main p oblem o be o e come. Fundamen al sho comings
wi hin he sys em ha esul in i s ailu e o se e he needs o so many child en, a e la gely
igno ed. The e is an implici assump ion ha he sys em is inhe en ly app op ia e o all.
Fu he mo e his esponse implies ha con en ional schooling p ac ices ha e he po en ial
o comba inequali y hus belying he o e whelming e idence ha he dominan
de elopmen model in educa ion is g ossly ine ec i e. The scale o in es men in
‘al e na i e models’ signi ies li le o only g udging suppo o ini ia i es ha ha e p o en
hei capaci y o ackle inequali y.
The cu en eali y in Bangladesh
In Bangladesh ou o a popula ion o 125 million, 56 million li e below he na ional po e y
line and o hese 38 million li e on less han a $1 pe day3(UNDP, 2000: 170-227). A
ecen epo pu s li e acy le els in Bangladesh a 41%, wi h pocke s o signi ican ly lowe
le els such as 19% in u ban slums and 10% among he 45 e hnic mino i y g oups
(CAMPE, 2003). These daun ing s a is ics a e compounded by es ima es o he numbe o
child en, a ying om 6 million o jus below 13 million (GoB, 2002: 25), who emain
ou side he o mal sys em ei he because hey ne e en e school o because hey d op
ou .
2The 1990 UN Educa ion Fo All summi decla ed educa ion o be a undamen al human igh and se a a ge o
basic p ima y educa ion o all by 2000.
3Many local commen a o s deem hese s a is ics o be o e ly conse a i e.
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These s a is ics clea ly indica e ha he e a e subs an ial inadequacies in he cu en
p o ision and ha he e is an u gen need o p ima y educa ion ha can each hose
sec o s o he popula ion mos likely o be illi e a e and ou side he school sys em.
All o he discou ses on de elopmen accep ha ci cums ances such as hese ha pe ain
in Bangladesh call o an in eg a ed and mul i- ace ed esponse ha inco po a es:
■Sha ed esponsibili y be ween de eloped and de eloping coun ies;
■De eloping coun y owne ship, pa icipa ion and ci il socie y engagemen ;
■Cohe ence: aid mus be linked o economic, inancial and o he measu es in a ou
o he de eloping coun ies;
■Dono coo dina ion;
■Poli ical will and c edibili y (The Reali y o Aid, 1998: 3).
Many o he ea u es desc ibed abo e a e e iden in he BRAC app oach. As an indigenous
agency BRAC is a o ally Bangladeshi ini ia i e. Apa om i s educa ion p og amme BRAC
p o ides a ange o communi y de elopmen and heal h p og ammes all o which a ge
poo gi ls and women and a e conce ned wi h s eng hening he economic, social and
poli ical posi ion o women in socie y h ough po e y educ ion and social empowe men .
BRAC’s p og ammes a e suppo ed by a g oup o dono s who coo dina e hei inpu s
h ough a dono liaison o ice4. The one ea u e om he abo e lis ha is in ques ion is he
poli ical will on he pa o dono s and go e nmen o build on and emula e he BRAC
app oach, pa icula ly i s wo k in he ield o educa ion.
The BRAC Educa ion P og amme (BEP)
Since i s incep ion in 1985 BRAC’s Educa ion P og amme (BEP) has g own apidly. I now
has a ne wo k o 34,000 p ima y schools in u al and u ban a eas.
“BRAC’s educa ion p og amme has a ac ed a en ion because o i s capaci y o each
ela i ely la ge numbe s o child en (in excess o wo million ha e bene i ed), main ain
an e en s anda d o p o ision ac oss he coun y in a a ie y o se ings, and pe haps
mos signi ican ly i is no ed o i s capaci y o en ol and e ain a high p opo ion o gi ls”
(Ryan and Taylo , 1999: 17).
4In 1993 he p esen dono conso ium was o med. The membe s a e he Aga Khan Founda ion, CIDA (Canada),
DFID (B i ain), he Eu opean Commission, he Royal Ne he lands Embassy (RNE), NOVIB, and UNICEF.
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The p og amme acknowledges he di ec ela ionship be ween economic and powe
inequali ies in socie y and he di e ing capaci y o sec o s o he popula ion o a end
school and a ain quali ica ions. In pa icula i is conce ned wi h how hese cons ain s
impac on women and gi ls. Wi hin he BEP he emphasis is on mee ing he academic and
pe sonal de elopmen needs o gi ls while accommoda ing he cul u al, eligious,
economic and social eali ies o hei li es. Fo ins ance in acknowledgemen o he
cons ain s ha impede gi ls’ mobili y, he school is b ough o he gi ls. Be o e he school
is opened he e is an in ense pe iod o communi y consul a ion. Du ing ha ime a
ela ionship is es ablished wi h he pa en s. Thei commi men is seen as a key ac o o
ensu e he school is i mly embedded in he locali y. The e a e no pu pose buil schools. A
oom is en ed close o whe e he gi ls li e. The class o app oxima ely hi y child en s ays
oge he wi h he same eache o ou yea s. By dispensing wi h ixed and cos ly
in as uc u e he school can mo e o a new loca ion a he end o a cycle. As is he case
o poo child en ac oss he de eloping wo ld, BRAC school goe s ha e o wo k in he
home, in he ields, in ac o ies o as pe y ade s. To accommoda e hei busy ou -o -
school schedule, he BEP school day and holidays a e ag eed be ween pa en s and eache .
Teache s a e ec ui ed locally and gi en a wo week p e-se ice aining cou se. Fo he es
o hei eaching ca ee hey a end one day a mon h in-se ice aining. Dispensing wi h
leng hy p e-se ice eache aining makes i possible o ec ui la ge numbe s o women
eache s who migh o he wise no be able o spend one o wo yea s away om home in
a eache aining college. Rec ui ing women is impo an in a se ing whe e mos o he
child en a e gi ls. The con inuous and egula in-se ice eache aining has many
ad an ages. I makes i possible o implemen imp o emen s quickly wi hou ex ensi e
lead-in p epa a ion pe iods, i p o ides oppo uni ies o ein o ce desi ed class oom
app oaches, and c ea es a o um whe eby he eache s can de elop collegial p o essional
ela ionships. An unan icipa ed impac o he p og amme has been he posi i e impac s on
he li es o he eache s. As eache s hese women a e a o ded a high s a us in he
communi y and as wage ea ne s hey command g ea e espec wi hin hei homes. Many
o hese women a e now going on o gain o mal academic quali ica ions h ough open
lea ning cou ses. Al hough he women who become eache s ha e all comple ed a leas
g ade 9 and a e he e o e a ely om he poo es echelons o socie y hei wo k and hei
s udies p o ide powe ul ole models o women and gi ls in communi ies whe e women
a e no usually p ominen in he public sphe e.

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A key ea u e o he BEP is he emphasis on es ablishing a espec ul ela ionship5be ween
eache and child and be ween eache and pa en . These ela ionships a e seen o be o
pa amoun impo ance o build he child’s sel -con idence, and o enable he eme gence
o a sense o mu ual owne ship, esponsibili y and accoun abili y on he pa o he eache ,
child en and pa en s. This in u n leads o high e en ion a es wi hin he school6and a
capaci y on he pa o he school o espond o changing ci cums ances wi hin a speci ic
amily o wi hin he communi y. Fo ins ance in imes o eme gency due o lood o ood
sca ci y he esou ces o he school, howe e meag e, ha e been edeployed o mee he
basic need o su i al. Because he school is i mly embedded in he communi y i is also
p o ec ed om hose who migh oppose his deg ee o pa icipa ion in he public sphe e
on he pa o he school gi ls and women eache s.
The educa ion p o ided has clea economic and social pu poses. Gi ls who a e li e a e and
nume a e ha e oppo uni ies o employmen . As wage ea ne s hey con ibu e o he
amily income and a e less likely o be ma ied o a a e y young age. When hey do ma y,
hei s a us wi hin hei in-laws’ household is g ea ly enhanced by hei po en ial ea ning
capaci y. Gi ls who a end BEP schools also ha e oppo uni ies o p og ess o seconda y
school and/o pa icipa e in o he BRAC communi y de elopmen p og ammes. I could be
a gued ha hese bene i s apply o hose who a end o mal p ima y school also. The majo
di e ence is ha he BEP school speci ically a ge s gi ls om poo amilies who would
o he wise no go o school a all and who a e he mos ulne able o abuse and ea ly ma iage.
Ini ia i es such as he BEP ha a ge he mos ma ginalised sec o s o socie y a e o en in
u n ma ginalised by being pe cei ed as p o iding a se ice ha is in e io . Thei success in
eaching hose whom he con en ional sys ems ail o se e is in e p e ed as possible only
because hey lowe s anda ds. Whe he he lea ne s a e child en o adul s, his is a
esponse encoun e ed by educa o s who wo k wi h disad an aged g oups wo ldwide.
Mains eam p o ide s display a ma ked eluc ance o accep ha he p oblem o
educa ional exclusion is a unc ion o he sys em and no a e lec ion on he capaci y o
hese indi iduals o lea n. Comba ing his pe cep ion o ces he p o ide s o inclusi e
educa ional oppo uni ies such as he BEP o expend ene gy p o ing ha hei ini ia i es
a e o equal wo h o mains eam se ices. Wha e e he pe cep ion o he mains eam
educa ion p o ide s, he po en ial use s o he BEP ha e s ongly endo sed he p og amme.
This is e idenced in he ac ha he le el o demand is such ha igo ous selec ion
p ocedu es ha e o be en o ced o ensu e ha p io i y is gi en o he mos disad an aged.
I would appea ha a he han being pe cei ed as in e io , his ini ia i e is seen by pa en s
as a mo e a ac i e and cos e ec i e op ion han o mal p ima y school.
5As pa o his espec ul ela ionship co po al punishmen is no used in he BEP schools.
6O e 90% o he child en who en ol in BRAC schools s ay o he ull cycle.
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Responses o he BEP
To da e, dono s wo ldwide ha e indica ed a s ong p e e ence o a con en ional wes e n
model o schooling. The o e whelming bulk o dono in es men in educa ion is in suppo
o adi ional p ima y schools. This is also he case in Bangladesh. Na ional go e nmen s, in
hea ily aid-dependen coun ies such as Bangladesh, a e unlikely o op o new ways o
p o iding basic educa ion unless such a shi is ini ia ed and suppo ed by dono agencies.
The dominan discou ses on p ima y educa ion ocus on ways o sho e up o mal
educa ional sys ems ha may be ba ely ope a ional pa icula ly in he mos disad an aged
communi ies in de eloping coun ies. The p e e ed solu ion appea s o be o pe sis wi h
con en ional deli e y sys ems while dec ying bu eauc a ic inep i ude, co up ion and poo
in as uc u e as he easons o hei nea collapse. High le els o d op ou a e a ibu ed
o a lack o mo i a ion on he pa o pa en s and he poo quali y o he educa ion
a ailable. Poo quali y is in u n a ibu ed o o e c owding and he poo pe o mance o
eache s. Teache incompe ence is blamed on inadequa e aining, lack o suppo ,
una ailabili y o esou ces and lack o incen i e. The la e is mainly due o eaching sala ies
no being paid egula ly i a all, which akes us back o bu eauc a ic inep i ude. All o hese
p oblems a e e iden in Bangladesh. In e en ions o b eak his icious ci cle ha e
gene a ed elabo a e na ional educa ion plans ac oss he de eloping coun ies and esul ed
in some posi i e ou comes bu hey ha e made li le impac on he li es o he poo es
especially hose li ing in emo e u al a eas o u ban slums.
By con as he BEP has demons a ed a capaci y o main ain e en s anda ds ac oss i s
34,000 schools, o supe ise class oom in e ac ion, o e con inuous and egula in-se ice
aining, deli e supplies on ime o e en he mos emo e schools, ec ui and e ain
women eache s and achie e ela i ely high le els o li e acy and nume acy. These
accomplishmen s a e all he mo e as onishing conside ing he BEP’s a ge popula ion.
Many o he gi ls come om amilies wi h li le i any expe ience o educa ion and wi h a
s ong p e e ence o in es ing any esou ces hey migh ha e in boys schooling. Despi e
i s many achie emen s he BEP is p ima ily alued as a empo a y gap- illing solu ion o be
used un il ‘ eal p ima y schools’ can be p o ided endo sing he global end o a ou
adi ional p ima y schooling. In a iably he con en ional model o schooling is used as bo h
a s anda d agains which he BEP is measu ed and as a lens h ough which i is unde s ood.
The ways in which i di e s om uni e sally accep ed educa ional app oaches is gene ally
cons ued as de ia ion om a uni e sal schooling ‘no m’.
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Al hough he e is alk o he need o co-ope a ion be ween he o mal and non o mal
p o ision he e is li le e idence o sugges ha he BEP o i s like is pe cei ed as a iable
and inno a i e complemen a y o ma o ha i s p o en eco d in p omo ing ela i ely high
quali y, cos e ec i e, communi y-based schooling o a no o iously ha d o each sec o o
he wo ld’s popula ion, namely poo gi ls, is ecognised o alued wi hin Bangladesh. This
is i onic gi en ha BRAC has engaged in Sou h-Sou h coope a ion o a numbe o yea s
p o iding ad ice and aining o coun ies such as Sie a Leone, Sudan, E hiopia, India,
Pakis an, and mos ecen ly, A ghanis an – all o whom wan o adap he BRAC model o
hei espec i e con ex s.
To da e, he Go e nmen o Bangladesh has ended o iew he ole o all he NGOs
including BRAC as “sub-con ac o s” a he han “pa ne s” (Kassam e al, 2003: 59). The
Na ional Plan o Ac ion exp esses he in en ion o “de elop a sys em o ensu ing
in ol emen , pa icipa ion, coo dina ion and sha ing o esponsibili y be ween he
go e nmen , NGOs and o he s in planning, managing and unding o NFE (non- o mal
educa ion) p og ammes” (GoB, 2002: 116). Howe e , he go e nmen has no aken any
decisi e ac ion o achie e his goal.
Bo h dono s and go e nmen use language ha indica es a desi e o me ge he o mal and
non- o mal “sys ems” in o a “uni ied” sys em (Kassam e al, 2003: 59). Howe e , me ging
he wo sys ems gene ally implies subsuming he BEP wi hin a monoli hic con en ional
model. Kassam e al (2003) poin ou ha wha would be mo e use ul is o de elop a
pa ne ship be ween NGO p o ide s and go e nmen so ha he o mal and non- o mal
app oaches could oge he p o ide a cohesi e sec o -wide esponse ope a ing wi hin a se
o common s anda ds co e ing he p o ision o p ima y educa ion, while p ese ing a
di e si y o se ice p o ide s and deli e y modes.
Pa o he di icul y in p omo ing his kind o app oach appea s o be he use o he e m
non o mal o desc ibe he BEP ini ia i e. Kassam e al (2003) a gued ha his e minology,
in oduced in he mid 1970’s in o de o desc ibe he wide ange o mo e lexible
educa ional ac i i ies unde aken ou side he go e nmen ’s educa ion sys em, has in he
in e ening hi y yea s become misleading. Non o mal was ne e in ended o imply
di e ence in e ms o quali y. Howe e , he e now appea s o be a widesp ead assump ion
ha non- o mal is synonymous wi h:
■in o mal;
■ad-hoc;
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■uno ganised;
■uns uc u ed;
■in e io o second class (Kassam e al, 2003: 60).
Such wo ds obscu e he ac s ha BRAC schools ollow a cu iculum ha is in keeping wi h
ha o he go e nmen p ima y schools, uses ex books ha e lec he basic compe encies
se by go e nmen , has ained eache s, a ime able, a endance egis e s, moni o ing and
supe ision, pa en s’ mee ings, and school managemen commi ees. I is i onical o no e
ha many o hese ea u es a e lacking in he o mal p ima y educa ion sys em. The
di e ences be ween he BRAC sys em and he o mal sys em hinges on he inhe en
lexibili y and esponsi eness o he BRAC schools and he di ec in ol emen o pa en s in
he managemen o he schools. Consul an s’ epo s ha e cons an ly e e ed o hese
di e ences as he key o he success o he BEP ini ia i e. Kassam e al (2003) a gued ha
he e m non o mal should be d opped so ha decision-make s in go e nmen and
among he dono agencies can mo e eadily ecognise and alue hese schools o wha
hey a e – p o ide s o p ima y educa ion. I may also be app op ia e o e ase he e m
om he educa ion lexicon globally so ha o he ini ia i es simila o he BEP can also be
a o ded due conside a ion as alid esponses o o he wise in ac able p oblems o
exclusion.
Conclusion
The e is no doub ha wha is essen ial o he BEP is no simply he o m he BRAC school
akes bu he in eg a ed esponsi eness o p oblems o exclusion ha hese schools
embody. E e y de ail o wha has o happen o make he school unc ion and be ele an
has been ca e ully a icula ed so ha he model can be eplica ed wi h he minimum o e-
in en ion while e aining he lexibili y needed o espond o local condi ions. The
appa en ly hie a chical na u e o he agency and he o mulaic pa e ns e iden in he
eache aining and class oom ins uc ion conceal he in insic c ea i i y ha gi es he BEP
a capaci y o cons an enewal in esponse o a con inually changing economic and
poli ical en i onmen .
The endency o dono s o a ou measu ing quan i iable and angible ou pu s when
assessing de elopmen p ojec s means ha scan , i any, knowledge o he p ocesses o
inno a ion and expe imen a ion e e su aces. In he case o he BEP he emphasis on
ou pu s places an onus on BRAC o ca alogue i s achie emen s and o jus i y hem as