Environmental and closure costs in strategic mine planning, models, regulations, and policies

Academic Edi o : Jun Liu
Recei ed: 23 Janua y 2025
Re ised: 19 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 25 Feb ua y 2025
Published: 27 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Oli e os-Sepúl eda, D.;
Bascomp a-Massanés, M.;
F anco-Sepúl eda, G. En i onmen al
and Closu e Cos s in S a egic Mine
Planning, Models, Regula ions, and
Policies. Resou ces 2025,14, 41.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
esou ces14030041
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Re iew
En i onmen al and Closu e Cos s in S a egic Mine Planning,
Models, Regula ions, and Policies
Da id Oli e os-Sepúl eda 1,* , Ma c Bascomp a-Massanés 1and Gio anni F anco-Sepúl eda 2
1Escola Poli ècnica Supe io d’Enginye ia de Man esa, Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca alunya, 08242 Man esa,
Spain; [email p o ec ed]
2G upo de In es igación en Planeamien o Mine o–GIPLAMIN, Facul ad de Minas, Uni e sidad Nacional de
Colombia, Medellín 050034, Colombia; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: doli e [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-667521713
Abs ac : This s udy explo es he e olu ion o mine planning, wi h pa icula emphasis
on he in eg a ion o en i onmen al and social ac o s in alignmen wi h he sus ainable
de elopmen . T adi ionally, mine planning emphasized echnical and economic a iables,
o en o e looking en i onmen al and social impac s. Howe e , he inc easing need o align
wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) has p omp ed a shi owa d b oade
de ini ions ha inco po a e hese ac o s in o esou ce planning. This pa adigm change
is c ucial o managing isks ela ed o p ojec p o i abili y, which now include en i on-
men al conside a ions. The a icle also examines how go e nmen policies and co po a e
s a egies, including Co po a e Social Responsibili y (CSR) and En i onmen al, Social, and
Go e nance (ESG) amewo ks ha e e ol ed o add ess hese impac s. A e iew o he
li e a u e published o e he las 25 yea s iden i ies ou main hema ic a eas: (1) inclusion
o en i onmen al cos s in mine planning, (2) quan i a i e models o calcula ing en i on-
men al and closu e cos s, (3) legal amewo ks in mining, and (4) inno a ions in public
policies. This s udy unde sco es he need o a comp ehensi e app oach in mine planning
ha balances economic, social, and en i onmen al conside a ions o ensu e sus ainabili y
and mi iga e isks associa ed wi h mine closu e and en i onmen al emedia ion.
Keywo ds: en i onmen al cos s; mine planning; public policy o mining
1. In oduc ion
Mine planning, like he mining indus y as a whole, has unde gone signi ican e olu-
ion o e he pas decades. I is now e iden ha he e is a pa adigm shi in he concep ion
o a mine al deposi , aligning wi h SDGs es ablished a he Rio de Janei o Summi [
1
]
and ea i med in he 2030 Agenda o he Uni ed Na ions [
2
]. T adi ionally, he classical
de ini ion o a mine al deposi ocused on maximizing economic p o i abili y by conside -
ing a limi ed se o echnical a iables ha di ec ly in luenced inancial indica o s. These
a iables p ima ily add essed geological ac o s such as he genesis and mo phology o
mine aliza ion, geomechanics, concen a ions, and he dis ibu ion o he o e body, among
o he s [
3
]. Howe e , en i onmen al and social ac o s we e o en o e looked o ea ed as
ex e nali ies.
The necessi y o mee ing he SDGs (as shown in Figu e 1) and o e coming en i on-
men al and social challenges has led o new de ini ions ha be e e lec he eali ies
o ex ac i e and mining p ojec s [
4
]. These de ini ions encompass no only he p e i-
ously men ioned a iables bu also he en i onmen al, ecological, and socio-economic
ac o s aced by mining p ojec s. Consequen ly, mine al esou ces and ese es a e
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ esou ces14030041
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 2 o 29
now di ec ly in luenced by hese ac o s, which we e his o ically conside ed ex e nal o
echnical planning.
Resou ces 2025, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 o 30
men ioned a iables bu also he en i onmen al, ecological, and socio-economic ac o s aced
by mining p ojec s. Consequen ly, mine al esou ces and ese es a e now di ec ly in luenced
by hese ac o s, which we e his o ically conside ed ex e nal o echnical planning.
Figu e 1. SDGs. Sou ce: Modi ied o UN [2].
S a egic mine planning plays a c i ical ole in managing unce ain ies associa ed
wi h p ojec s o mi iga e isks in he calcula ions o Ne P esen Value (NPV) and In e nal
Ra e o Re u n (IRR) [5,6]. En i onmen al ac o s ca y associa ed isks ha mus be
add essed in alignmen wi h he in e es s and needs o he s a e, he mining company,
and local communi ies [7]. P ema u e p ojec e mina ion poses a signi ican isk o
sus ainabili y, o en esul ing in highe closu e cos s compa ed o well-planned o
ongoing closu e effo s [8]. This unde sco es he impo ance o conside ing and
adequa ely planning hese ac i i ies om he p ojec ’s incep ion o ea ly s ages [9].
Mining companies mus comply wi h en i onmen al and social s anda ds dic a ed
by he legal amewo ks o he ju isdic ions whe e hei p ojec s a e loca ed. Go e nmen s
ha e app oached he challenge o sus ainable ex ac i e indus y de elopmen h ough
a ious s a egies ailo ed o hei his o ical, economic, and en i onmen al con ex s [10].
These s a egies include axa ion, cen alized mining au ho i ies, and egula o y measu es
o o e see he indus y.
Examples o such egula ions include mine ehabili a ion and eco e y obliga ions,
en i onmen al compensa ion paymen s, and he p ocu emen o mining–en i onmen al
insu ance policies o co e unan icipa ed impac s [11]. Despi e hese measu es, many
p ojec s encoun e en i onmen al and social challenges, necessi a ing he implemen a ion
o enhancemen o Co po a e Social Responsibili y (CSR) campaigns and En i onmen ,
Social, and Go e nance (ESG) amewo ks [12,13].
S a egic planning, pa icula ly co po a e policies adop ed by mining companies, has
e ol ed alongside he ex ac i e sec o [14]. In esponse o ope a ional challenges,
companies ha e in oduced sus ainabili y and co po a e social de elopmen policies
d i en by co po a e alues and olun a y ini ia i es [15,16]. While in e na ional and
na ional egula ions manda e en i onmen al and mine closu e s anda ds, many
companies s i e o exceed hese equi emen s [17]. These ini ia i es help p e en
nega i e impac s and po en ial con lic s among s akeholde s (company, s a e, and
communi ies) [18] o alle ia e exis ing ensions in ongoing p ojec s, such as dispu es o e
land, mine al, o wa e use.
Al hough en i onmen al and social ac o s ha e been conside ed in ope a ional
planning, hey ha e no been in eg a ed di ec ly in o block models and a e ea ed as
ex e nali ies o accoun ing liabili ies incu ed a he end o a mine’s li e. This app oach o en
leads o cos o e uns, as emedia ion e o s a e gene ally mo e expensi e han ea ly
Figu e 1. SDGs. Sou ce: Modi ied o UN [2].
S a egic mine planning plays a c i ical ole in managing unce ain ies associa ed wi h
p ojec s o mi iga e isks in he calcula ions o Ne P esen Value (NPV) and In e nal Ra e
o Re u n (IRR) [
5
,
6
]. En i onmen al ac o s ca y associa ed isks ha mus be add essed
in alignmen wi h he in e es s and needs o he s a e, he mining company, and local com-
muni ies [
7
]. P ema u e p ojec e mina ion poses a signi ican isk o sus ainabili y, o en
esul ing in highe closu e cos s compa ed o well-planned o ongoing closu e e o s [
8
].
This unde sco es he impo ance o conside ing and adequa ely planning hese ac i i ies
om he p ojec ’s incep ion o ea ly s ages [9].
Mining companies mus comply wi h en i onmen al and social s anda ds dic a ed by
he legal amewo ks o he ju isdic ions whe e hei p ojec s a e loca ed. Go e nmen s
ha e app oached he challenge o sus ainable ex ac i e indus y de elopmen h ough
a ious s a egies ailo ed o hei his o ical, economic, and en i onmen al con ex s [
10
].
These s a egies include axa ion, cen alized mining au ho i ies, and egula o y measu es
o o e see he indus y.
Examples o such egula ions include mine ehabili a ion and eco e y obliga ions,
en i onmen al compensa ion paymen s, and he p ocu emen o mining–en i onmen al
insu ance policies o co e unan icipa ed impac s [
11
]. Despi e hese measu es, many
p ojec s encoun e en i onmen al and social challenges, necessi a ing he implemen a ion
o enhancemen o Co po a e Social Responsibili y (CSR) campaigns and En i onmen ,
Social, and Go e nance (ESG) amewo ks [12,13].
S a egic planning, pa icula ly co po a e policies adop ed by mining companies,
has e ol ed alongside he ex ac i e sec o [
14
]. In esponse o ope a ional challenges,
companies ha e in oduced sus ainabili y and co po a e social de elopmen policies d i en
by co po a e alues and olun a y ini ia i es [
15
,
16
]. While in e na ional and na ional
egula ions manda e en i onmen al and mine closu e s anda ds, many companies s i e
o exceed hese equi emen s [
17
]. These ini ia i es help p e en nega i e impac s and
po en ial con lic s among s akeholde s (company, s a e, and communi ies) [
18
] o alle ia e
exis ing ensions in ongoing p ojec s, such as dispu es o e land, mine al, o wa e use.
Al hough en i onmen al and social ac o s ha e been conside ed in ope a ional plan-
ning, hey ha e no been in eg a ed di ec ly in o block models and a e ea ed as ex-
e nali ies o accoun ing liabili ies incu ed a he end o a mine’s li e. This app oach
o en leads o cos o e uns, as emedia ion e o s a e gene ally mo e expensi e han
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 3 o 29
ea ly mi iga ion [
19
,
20
]. E alua ing, quan i ying, and inco po a ing impac s enables com-
panies o an icipa e he cos s o epai and mi iga ion and p o ides a ounda ion o
economically compa ing he en i onmen al and social ad an ages and disad an ages o
mining p ojec s [21,22].
En i onmen al impac assessmen s a e manda o y o any p ojec . Howe e , when
complemen ed wi h addi ional me hodologies and mining designs, hey can se e as
essen ial ools o achie ing a social, en i onmen al, and economic balance. These me hod-
ologies sugges mechanisms ha acili a e he implemen a ion o con ol and p e en i e
measu es [
23
,
24
]. Iden i ying po en ial impac s in ad ance allows o in o med decision-
making ega ding in e en ion s a egies and opens oppo uni ies o e alua e al e na i e
mining me hods [25,26].
Despi e he manda o y na u e o en i onmen al conside a ions, holis ic p ojec plan-
ning emains inadequa e [
27
]. While many s udies ha e explo ed global and egional
economic analyses ela ed o mine al deple ion, de ailed enginee ing and designs o sus-
ainable esou ce managemen equi e u he de elopmen [
28
,
29
]. Inco po a ing hese
a iables could no only imp o e en i onmen al and social pe o mance [
30
] bu also yield
economic and comme cial bene i s o companies, wa an ing g ea e a en ion.
This s udy aims o e iew he mos ele an esea ch and con ibu ions in his a ea,
allowing eade s o iden i y p omising ends o s a egies ha can be in eg a ed and
imp o ed by companies o go e nmen s o enhance he en i onmen al pe o mance o
he mining sec o and i s ope a ions. Using he ScienceDi ec and Sp inge da abases, key
wo ks published be ween 2000 and la e 2024 we e iden i ied h ough sea ches using e ms
such as “en i onmen al cos s in mining”, “quan i ica ion o en i onmen al cos s in mining”,
“mine planning and en i onmen ”, “mine planning and mine closu e”, “public policies in
mining”, “mine closu e legisla ion”, and “public policies and ex ac i e indus y.” Finally,
we used he Cha GPT-4 ool o imp o e he w i ing s yle and ansla ion o he ex . The
analysis iden i ied ou main hemes o a comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew: (1) inclusion
o en i onmen al cos s in mine planning, (2) quan i a i e models o me hodologies o
calcula ing en i onmen al and closu e cos s, (3) legal amewo ks o mining in selec ed
coun ies, and (4) inno a ion in public policies adop ed by speci ic adminis a ions.
The exis ing li e a u e includes nume ous s udies examining he en i onmen al o
social impac s o mining ac i i ies wo ldwide, desc ibing and quan i ying liabili ies and
p oposing s a egies o imp o e en i onmen al pe o mance in speci ic p ocesses. Exam-
ples include subs i u ing chemical compounds wi h o ganic subs ances in me allu gical
p ocesses and using echnologies o educe CO
2
emissions. Howe e , such s udies a e
ou side he scope o his e iew, which ocuses on he inclusion o en i onmen al and mine
closu e a iables. Addi ionally, his s udy does no add ess he quali ica ion o iden i i-
ca ion o nega i e mining impac s, de ailed mine closu e p ojec s, o CSR ini ia i es in
speci ic cases.
2. Inclusion o En i onmen al Cos s in Mine Planning
As p e iously men ioned, he mine planning p ocess has also e ol ed o op imize
en i onmen ally iendly p ac ices. Al hough esea ch in his a ea is no as ex ensi e as
s udies on cu -o g ade op imiza ion, he inclusion o geomechanical a iables, me allu gi-
cal op imiza ion, isk managemen associa ed wi h mine al p ices, o geological unce ain y,
among o he s [
6
,
31
–
39
], he e is a g owing body o wo k ocusing on inco po a ing en i-
onmen al, mine closu e, o social ac o s in o mine planning.
Gi en ha a signi ican po ion o en i onmen al cos s s em di ec ly om was e
gene a ed du ing mine al exploi a ion and p ocessing, Osanloo e al. [
40
] p oposed a
me hodology o educe such was e by op imizing he cu -o g ade o po phy y deposi s.
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 4 o 29
Ad ien Rimélé e al. [
41
] op imized he Ne P esen Value (NPV) and Li e o Mine (LoM),
inco po a ing a iables aimed a minimizing ailings in a coppe ope a ion. Thei ma h-
ema ical o mula ion in eg a ed geological unce ain y and aimed o de ine he op imal
sequence o block ex ac ion, ca ego izing blocks as ese es o was e o disposal.
Kum al [
42
] u ilized Simula ed Annealing o minimize he amoun o ailings and
was e gene a ed in mine p oduc ion plans. This ma hema ical model in oduced lexi-
bili y in ex ac ion a es, le e aging eedback om mined blocks o es ima e was e om
u u e blocks, enabling sho - e m p o i abili y p ojec ions while mee ing p oduc ion e-
qui emen s. Se edkin e al. [
43
] e o mula ed mine al p ocessing echniques o ce ain
deposi s, d awing om he success o in si u eco e y in u anium ex ac ion. Acco ding
o he au ho s, his me hod enhances bo h en i onmen al and economic pe o mance by
elimina ing he need o ma e ial emo al, p ocessing, and was e disposal, hus a oiding
many con en ional cos s. O he s udies add essed en i onmen al conce ns h ough un-
con en ional planning algo i hms: Adiansyah e al. [
44
] ackled ailing managemen and
ea men , while [
45
–
47
] ocused on minimizing CO
2
emissions o ai pollu an s. These
e o s used mul i-objec i e op imiza ion unc ions o decision-making in block sequenc-
ing ope a ions. Li e al., Ullah e al., Ande son & Razaie [
48
–
50
] explo ed al e na i es o
op imize p ojec s by minimizing he p oduc ion o acid mine d ainage. Howe e , hese
s udies ypically add essed speci ic pa ame e s a he han p o iding a comp ehensi e
in eg a ion o en i onmen al a iables.
Holis ic app oaches o en i onmen al ac o s in mining include X. C. Xu e al. [
51
],
who p oposed a de ailed me hodology o calcula ing ecological cos s—accoun ing o
o e 40 pa ame e s—associa ed wi h a polyme allic p ojec . These cos s we e in e nalized
wi hin a 2D op imiza ion algo i hm ha conduc ed i e a i e simula ions o c ea e a inal 3D
en elope. Adibi e al. [
26
] calcula ed ul ima e pi limi s (UPLs) and quali a i ely e alua ed
en i onmen al, social, and mine closu e ac o s o selec he pi wi h he bes pe o mance
and economic ela ionship using mul i-a ibu e decision-making echniques. Simila ly,
Mo adi and Osanloo [
52
] add essed 77 sus ainabili y indica o s p esen in mining p ojec s,
p o iding a quali a i e assessmen ha quan i ied and weigh ed each c i e ion. Na ei
and Osanloo [
53
] op imized he cu -o g ade using Lane’s adi ional algo i hm [
54
] while
inco po a ing mine closu e cos s and po en ial u u e income om p oduc i e ac i i ies in
he p ojec a ea. Rahimi and Ghasemzadeh [
55
] employed he same algo i hm bu included
en i onmen al cos s om a ious me allu gical me hods. In bo h cases, cos s we e assumed
a he han calcula ed.
Assuming i is mo e bene icial o a company o ex end he ope a ional li e o a
p ojec by ex ac ing and p ocessing low-g ade o e, Neh ing and Cheng [
56
] selec ed a
2D op imal pi wi h he highes NPV among calcula ed pushbacks. They p oposed se en
scena ios ex ending he mine li e om 10 o 17 yea s while espec ing mining and p ocessing
cons ain s. Closu e cos s we e calcula ed o each scena io using Aus alia’s “Asse
Re i emen Obliga ion Es ima es” me hodology [
57
]. The s udy concluded ha ex ending
LoM by ou yea s inc eased mine al eco e y, o se closu e cos s, and enhanced NPV.
Pa icheh and Osanloo [
58
] modi ied Hu chison’s [
59
] app oach o es ima e mine
closu e cos s, using Mon e Ca lo simula ion and decision ee analysis o p obabilis ically
es ima e closu e cos s and LoM. They gene a ed 2D block models and inal pi s wi h a 100%
p ice occu ence p obabili y, c ea ing addi ional pi s o posi i e p ice scena ios. Closu e
cos s o hese pi s we e calcula ed ollowing X. C. Xu e al. [51].
Rahmanpou and Osanloo [
60
] de e mined se e al inal pi s and calcula ed hei asso-
cia ed NPVs. En i onmen al pe o mance was measu ed using Impac Fac o s (IFs)—e.g.,
land use, mine al eco e y, alignmen wi h local de elopmen plans—and En i onmen al
Componen s (ECs)—e.g., sa e y, communi y ela ions, ai and wa e quali y. These ac-
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 5 o 29
o s we e analyzed h ough ma ix me hods. Howe e , he me hodology elied on expe
judgmen , in oducing subjec i i y in de e mining indica o magni udes. X. Xu e al. [
61
]
applied a case s udy whe e he selec ed op imal pi was associa ed wi h highe en i on-
men al cos s compa ed o pushbacks. Fac o ing in es o a ion cos s and he economic alue
o ecosys em se ices—such as land oppo uni y cos s and ca bon emissions— e ealed
o he scena ios wi h supe io economic ou comes.
Expanding on hese indings, X. Chuan Xu e al. [
62
] applied hei me hodology o a
eal polyme allic mine. They demons a ed ha in eg a ing calcula ed cos s in o he block
model p oduced a scena io wi h 2.5% highe NPV, despi e ini ially appea ing less a o able.
No ably, his esea ch ocused on block sequencing a he han ul ima e pi s.
Ja a pou and Kha ami [
63
] employed expe alua ion sys ems o weigh en i onmen-
al cos s in mining p ojec s. These alua ions we e adjus ed h ough coe icien s ac oss
se en scena ios sequenced using dynamic sys em-based so wa e. Howe e , his s udy
did no quan i y en i onmen al cos s. Meanwhile, Badakhshan e al. [
64
] de eloped a
mixed-in ege p og amming model o maximize NPV by inco po a ing mi iga ion, p e-
en ion, and compensa ion cos s o ansi ioning om open-pi o block-ca ing mining.
These cos s we e de i ed om expe inpu and in e na ional guidelines bu lacked speci ic
calcula ion me hodologies.
Liu e al. [
65
] p esen ed an inno a i e pe spec i e by inco po a ing mine closu e
planning om ea ly p ojec s ages. They p oposed designing a UPL ha includes u u e
e enues om building a small hyd opowe plan (SHP) wi hin he mined-ou pi . Al-
hough challenging o eplica e due o unique case s udy cha ac e is ics, his app oach
o e s p omising al e na i es o planning sus ainable and p oduc i e mine closu es.
Table 1summa izes he e iewed s udies, ca ego izing hem by publica ion yea ,
included a iables (en i onmen al o closu e), and p ojec ype.
Table 1. Summa y able o en i onmen al o mine closu e cos esea ch in mine planning.
Re e ence
Yea Mine als Pa ial o To al
Inclusion o Va iables
Pa ame e s Included Applica ion
En i onmen al
Cos s
Closu e
Cos s
Open-Pi
P ojec
Unde g ound
P ojec
[40] 2008 Coppe Pa ial
(acid d ainage) ✓ ✓
[42] 2013 Gold Pa ial
( ailings) ✓ ✓
[44] 2014 Polyme allic Pa ial
( ailings) ✓ ✓
[45] 2014 Coal Pa ial
(CO2)✓ ✓
[51] 2014 Polyme allic To al ✓ ✓ ✓
[26] 2015 Coppe To al ✓ ✓
[52] 2015 - To al ✓ ✓
[53] 2015 I on Pa ial
( ailings) ✓ ✓
[55] 2015 Coppe To al ✓ ✓
[43] 2016 U anium Pa ial
(p ocess) ✓ ✓
[56] 2016 Coppe To al ✓ ✓
[46] 2016 Coal Pa ial
(CO2)✓ ✓

Resou ces 2025,14, 41 6 o 29
Table 1. Con .
Re e ence
Yea Mine als Pa ial o To al
Inclusion o Va iables
Pa ame e s Included Applica ion
En i onmen al
Cos s
Closu e
Cos s
Open-Pi
P ojec
Unde g ound
P ojec
[58] 2017 Coppe To al ✓ ✓
[60] 2017 Coppe To al ✓ ✓
[61] 2017 No speci ied To al ✓ ✓
[41] 2018 No speci ied Pa ial
(was e) ✓ ✓
[62] 2018 Polyme allic To al ✓ ✓ ✓
[49] 2020 Polyme allic Pa ial
(acid d ainage) ✓ ✓
[63] 2021 Coppe Pa ial ✓ ✓ ✓
[50] 2023 Coppe Pa ial
(ESG) ✓ ✓
[64] 2024 Coppe To al ✓ ✓ ✓
[65] 2024 I on To al ✓ ✓ ✓
[47] 2024 Coal Pa ial
(CO2)✓ ✓
The s udies analyzed in his sec ion sha e a common need o quan i y en i onmen al
o mine closu e aspec s. Some employ quali a i e me hods, subsequen ly e alua ed o
es ablish indices, o he s use me hodologies o equa ions o quan i y cos s, and some simply
assume economic alues o in eg a e hem in o sequencing, scheduling, o ul ima e pi
calcula ions. I is no ewo hy ha ew s udies ocus on unde g ound mining p ojec s, and
no esea ch speci ically add essing mining clus e s o dis ic s in his a ea was iden i ied.
In he ollowing Sec ion 3, he mos p ominen wo ks aimed a quan i ying cos s associa ed
wi h en i onmen al a iables in mining p ojec s a e discussed.
3. Quan i a i e App oaches o he E alua ion o En i onmen al and
Mine Closu e Cos s
In he li e a u e on quan i a i e models o me hodologies o calcula ing en i onmen-
al and mine closu e cos s, h ee signi ican subg oups can be iden i ied. The i s subg oup
comp ises s udies ha p opose equa ions o calcula ing en i onmen al cos s (p ima ily
academic o esea ch wo ks). The second subg oup in ol es me hodologies o calcula ing
closu e cos s, pa icula ly egula o y amewo ks om a ious coun ies and s a egies
de eloped by p i a e companies. The hi d subg oup includes me hodologies ha , while
no di ec ly quan i ying cos s, p opose quan i a i e models o e alua e he en i onmen al
pe o mance o mining p ojec s h ough he c ea ion o indices. Fo b e i y and cla i y, we
will highligh he mos ele an wo ks and explain he mos comp ehensi e me hodology
om each o hese g oups.
The economic alua ion o en i onmen al a iables has been ex ensi ely s udied
in enginee ing p ojec s. Va ious me hodologies exis ha allow he quan i ica ion o
hese a iables in mone a y e ms. F om a legisla i e pe spec i e, some coun ies ha e
implemen ed egula ions equi ing a ho ough and guided alua ion o cos s associa ed
wi h closu e and abandonmen ac i i ies, as is he case in Chile, ce ain U.S. s a es, and
Aus alia. Howe e , conside ing he na u e and magni ude o he impac s caused by
mining p ojec s, he e emains a gap in esea ch and in o ma ion on he quan i ica ion
o en i onmen al cos s speci ic o his ield. P ope alua ion o hese aspec s would no
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 7 o 29
only help de e mine he in es men s equi ed o mi iga e, p e en , and emedia e po en ial
impac s [
66
] bu could also o e new app oaches o comp ehensi e economic e alua ion
and p ojec easibili y analyses [
67
] and assess he p o i abili y o a na ion in pu suing
p ojec s o his na u e [68].
Ex-pos e alua ions o case s udies sugges ha he closu e cos s calcula ed a he end
o ope a ions a e gene ally highe han hose incu ed h ough p og essi e closu es [
69
].
En i onmen al impac assessmen s mus be in eg a ed wi h hese closu e plans, which
should also be included in mine planning h oughou he en i e li e o he mine [
70
,
71
] [
72
].
Resea ch has p oposed me hodologies o calcula ing ehabili a ion cos s in a eas a ec ed
by illegal o i egula mining ac i i ies. These s udies a e based on he cos s o indi idual
asks equi ed o he p ope eco e y o such a eas [
73
–
75
] and he in ended u u e use
o he eco e ed land. Howe e , hese me hodologies all sho o an icipa ing impac s
and ad oca ing o p og essi e closu es ha enhance bo h en i onmen al and economic
pe o mance.
Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GISs) p o ide a aluable al e na i e o unde -
s anding and moni o ing he ou comes o p og essi e closu es. These sys ems supply
in o ma ion on he condi ion o a ec ed a eas and se e as ools o mine planning by
p o iding a ea-based da a ha can be in eg a ed in o he planning p ocess [
76
,
77
]. Fu -
he mo e, he cos s associa ed wi h hese sys ems a e ypically ela ed o p oduc ion a es,
ex ac ion scales, and he dimensions and a eas o ope a ions [78].
F om a sus ainable de elopmen pe spec i e, i is c ucial o conduc economic e alua-
ions o p oduc i e p ojec s planned o pos -closu e ope a ions and o ou line he necessa y
ansi ions [79,80]. Documen ed cases in some s udies e eal ha pos -closu e p oduc i e
ac i i ies o open-pi coal mining p ojec s o en include ag icul u e (o e 50% o cases),
o es y p ojec s (17% o 96%), and aqua ic ec ea ion (9% o 26%) [
81
]. Addi ionally, some
esea che s sugges ha he highes cos s a e associa ed wi h open-pi ope a ions, ollowed
by was e dumps and indus ial acili ies. The lowes cos s, albei no insigni ican , a e hose
nea was e dumps and pi s ha a e indi ec ly a ec ed [82].
Among he no ewo hy wo ks, Kosinskiy e al. [
83
] p oposed a me hodology o
en i onmen al economic analysis based on he loss o G oss Regional P oduc (GRP),
including labo ime los due o nega i e en i onmen al impac s. Delgado and Rome o [
84
]
analyzed en i onmen al con lic s using an in eg a ed me hod o g ay clus e ing and en opy
weigh ing ( he IGCEW me hod). Field da a, ga he ed h ough in e iews, indica ed ha
con lic s a e mo e likely o a ise om issues such as access o po able wa e , po e y, GDP
pe capi a, and employmen . The IGCEW me hod employs weigh ing unc ions o ank
obse a ion indices pe cei ed by di e en s akeholde s, making i highly applicable o
he analysis o en i onmen al con lic s. Gulley [
85
] add essed cos s ela ed o me cu y
discha ge in a ious coun ies, caused ei he indi ec ly (e.g., me cu y sul ide emissions om
mine al deposi s) o di ec ly (e.g., illegal o small-scale me allu gical eco e y me hods),
and calcula ed cos s pe on o each scena io.
Na ei and A aee-pou [
86
] p oposed he choice expe imen me hod (based on s a ed
p e e ence app oaches), which was used o su ey indi iduals a ec ed by mining ope a-
ions abou hei pe cep ions o he p ojec and he mon hly cos s hey would be willing
o bea o achie e high, medium, o low en i onmen al, social, and economic ou comes.
Fi e possible scena ios we e p esen ed, om which esponden s had o choose one based
on hei pe cep ions. The esul s indica ed ha a ec ed indi iduals belie e he company
should pay an addi ional USD 11.3 pe ex ac ed on. Ve ga a e al. & Ki ula [
87
,
88
] em-
ployed he con ingen alua ion me hod (CVM) o es ima e he cos s ha hose impac ed by
mining p ojec s el hey should ecei e annually as compensa ion o los en i onmen al
se ices. This me hod es ima es he alue o non-ma ke goods by simula ing a ma ke
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 8 o 29
h ough consume su eys—in his case, he popula ion a ec ed by mining ope a ions [
89
].
Ve ga a Tamayo e al. [
87
] ound ha esiden s we e willing o ecei e app oxima ely
USD 1,500 annually o he implemen a ion o he p ojec .
Acco ding o Badakhshan e al. [
64
], six ac o s in luence he en i onmen al cos s o
mining: he Human De elopmen Index (HDI), mining scale, p oximi y o popula ed a eas,
mining ype, mine al ype, and he ecosys em whe e he p ojec is loca ed. By consul ing
expe s and d awing om he au ho s’ expe iences, hey es ablished cos s pe on o
open-pi and block-ca ing p ojec s. Simila ly, Rod íguez-Zapa a e al. [
90
] conduc ed a
con ingen alua ion using su eys among esiden s o a mining dis ic wi h i e open-
pi coal p ojec s. Al hough his s udy aligns wi h esea ch using con ingen alua ion o
de e mine en i onmen al cos s, i s ands ou o ocusing on a mining dis ic o clus e
a he han a single p ojec .
Gu e al. [
91
] p oposed a me hodology o calcula ing o al en i onmen al and ecologi-
cal cos s h ough simple summa ions. They a gued ha en i onmen al cos s esul om he
combined damages o an ecosys em’s unc ions and he es o a ion alue o hese unc ions.
Thei i s measu emen , he ecological oo p in , links local esou ce demand (in his case,
mine al esou ces) o he egene a i e capaci y o he soils whe e mining ac i i ies occu .
Conside ing he a ie y o soil ypes and en i onmen al impac s wi hin a mining p ojec ,
hei app oach inco po a es impac ypes, soil ypes, and con amina ion le els in each a ea.
While he a o emen ioned wo ks p o ide aluable app oaches o es ima ing en i on-
men al and mine closu e cos s, he mos p ecise and de e minis ic me hodologies a e hose
p oposed by X. C. Xu e al. [
51
] and by Chile’s Na ional Geology and Mining Se ice [
92
].
These me hodologies will be discussed in Sec ions 3.1 and 3.2, espec i ely.
3.1. Quan i ica ion Me hodology o En i onmen al and Ecological Cos s in Mining
Al hough his me hodology has no been expanded o modi ied by o he esea che s,
i has been widely used by a ious au ho s o de elop wo ks ela ed o mine planning
and he economic quan i ica ion o en i onmen al a iables. The me hodology p oposed
by X. C. Xu e al. [
51
] in ol es op imizing he design o he inal pi while conside ing
he quan i ica ion o ecological cos s. The calcula ions used o de ine hese cos s include
ou main componen s ela ed o he ype and a ea o soil impac ed by mining. These
componen s a e he ollowing: (i) loss o he ecological alue o di ec se ices, (ii) loss o
he ecological alue o indi ec se ices, (iii) p e en ion and epai cos s, and (i ) ecological
cos s o ca bon emissions due o ene gy consump ion.
The pa ame e s sugges ed by X. C. Xu e al. o es ima ing en i onmen al and ecologi-
cal cos s ake he ollowing in o accoun : alue los om di ec eco-se ices,
Cd
; alue los
om indi ec eco-se ices,
Ci
; and CO
2
emission cos s,
Cp
. These equa ions a e p esen ed
in de ail below, om Equa ion (1) o Equa ion (7):
Vs=s
104ρshm
(1)
whe e
s
is he soil e en ion capaci y,
ρs
is he soil densi y,
hm
is he soil hickness minimum
o cul i a ion, and is he annual ne income om local c op cul i a ion.
Va=1.62 q
c
cC+yscs+ydcd(2)
whe e
q
is he ne p ima y p oduc i i y,
c
is he ca bon (C) o (CO
2
) mass con e sion ac o ,
cC
is he cos o ca bon cap u e and s o age,
ys
is he o es capaci y o abso b SO
2
,
cs
is he
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 9 o 29
SO
2
emo al and con ol cos ,
yd
is he o es capaci y o abso b dus , and
cd
is he dus
emo al and con ol cos .
Vo=1.2 q co(3)
whe e
q
is he ne p ima y p oduc i i y,
co
is he cos oxygen p oduc ion, and 1,2 co e-
sponds o he oxygen elease ac o .
V =10 p k c (4)
whe e
p
is he a e age p ecipi a ion,
k
is he p opo ion o ain causing uno ,
is he
uno educ ion coe icien caused by he o es , and
c
is he cos o s o ing wa e in a
ese oi .
Vn=qkNPN+ pkpPp+kKPK(5)
whe e
q
is he ne p ima y p oduc i i y,
kN
is he ni ogen con en in he soil,
PN
is he
ni ogen e ilize cos ,
p
is he phospho us mass con e sion ac o o P
2
O
5
,
kp
is he
phospho us con en in he soil,
Pp
is he phospho us e ilize cos ,
kK
is he po assium
con en in he soil, and PKis he po assium e ilize cos .
The alue o he o al los indi ec ecological se ices (
Ci
) is calcula ed by conside ing
he ime pe iod om soil and ege a ion emo al o comple e es o a ion:
Ci=Qo
Po
+N(Vs+Va+Vo+Vn+V )(6)
whe e
Qo
is he o e in he pi ,
Po
is he annual o e ex ac ed, and
N
is he pe iod om
emo al o soil eco e y.
Cp =ed d+eg g+eebac ccC
1000 (7)
whe e
ed
is he a e age diesel consump ion pe on o ma e ial emo ed,
d
is he ca bon
emission ac o o diesel,
eg
is he a e age gasoline consump ion pe on o ma e ial
emo ed,
g
is he ca bon emission ac o o gasoline,
ee
is he a e age elec ici y consump-
ion pe uni mass o ex ac ed ma e ial,
b
is he p opo ion o o al elec ici y gene a ed
om coal,
ac
is he amoun o he mal coal equi ed o gene a e one uni o elec ici y,
c
is
he ca bon emission ac o o coal, and cCis he cos o ca bon cap u e and s o age.
To de e mine he o al ecological cos s, a simple summa ion o
Cd
,
Ci
, and
Cp
is
de eloped, which ep esen s wha a company should in es as compensa ion o di ec
and indi ec ecosys em se ices and CO
2
emissions o he a mosphe e. In his example,
he
Cd
a iable is no p esen ed because i is exclusi ely dependen on he yields ha a
p oduc i e p ojec o ano he ype (e.g., li es ock, ag icul u e, aquacul u e, e c.) can ha e
in he a ea whe e he p ojec is loca ed. This me hodology does no calcula e closu e and
abandonmen cos s, and he e o e, he nex sec ion will p esen his in o ma ion.
3.2. Me hodology o Calcula ing Mine Closu e Cos s (Se icio Nacional de Geología y
Mine ía Se nageomin)
This egula ion allows o add essing mining egula ion wi h a s a egic planning
app oach, sus ainabili y, and inancial gua an ees ha do no exis in o he coun ies, and
i also p o ides a poin o compa ison and e e ence o o he legisla ions ha s ill lack
a de ailed amewo k o calcula ing hese gua an ees. Law 20.551 [
92
] egula es mine
closu e and he associa ed cos s. This me hodology p oposes a se ies o calcula ions o
de e mine an exac alue ha mining p ojec s mus alloca e o mine abandonmen in Chile.
The me hodology includes he ollowing: (i) di ec closu e cos s, (ii) indi ec closu e cos s,
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 16 o 29
As o oyal ies and axes, i is impo an o cla i y ha axes can each up o 37.5% o
he o al p o i s eco ded om he p ojec s, plus a maximum o 5% o he o al eco ded
income [133].
4.5. Canada
While he e is a legal amewo k go e ning he en i e coun y, as in all ede al o
simila models, he Canadian p o inces ha e mo e eedom o de ine hei own mining and
axa ion policies. The Canadian Mining Ce i ica ion P og am es ablishes an in eg a ed
app oach o mine closu e, which in ol es ac i e pa icipa ion om social g oups. I also
equi es concessionai es o p esen a inancial gua an ee ensu ing unds a e a ailable o
ca y ou closu e asks once a p ojec is inished [133].
Tax a es in Canada depend on he p o ince whe e he p ojec akes place. Fo ins ance,
in B i ish Columbia, he o al ax a e only eaches 23% based on he company’s income,
he e a e no oyal ies, and e e y hing is axed unde he income ax model [127,128].
4.6. Spain
Di ec i e 2006/21/EC [
134
] es ablishes c i e ia o he closu e and abandonmen o
haza dous mine was e deposi s wi hin he Eu opean Union. I equi es mining conces-
sionai es o submi echnical epo s and closu e plans de ailing in es men s o be made.
Na ional s a e en i ies app o e o disapp o e hese plans o each ag eemen s wi h com-
panies [
135
]. I is wo h no ing ha Au onomous Communi ies in each egion ha e he
au ho i y o moni o and supe ise mining p ojec s. In Ca alonia, o example, he Di ec-
o a e Gene al o Ene gy, Mines, and Indus ial Sa e y [
136
] se s he alue o he bonds
co e ing mine closu e and ehabili a ion o a eas a ec ed by mining [137].
In e ms o axa ion, Spain does no ha e a oyal y paymen policy. All mining
companies mus pay he Co po a e Tax, which axes company p o i s a 25%, and a VAT
(21%). Addi ionally, Au onomous Communi ies can decide whe he o cha ge an ex a ax
on mining ac i i ies. In Ca alonia, o ins ance, his su cha ge is be ween 1% and 3% o he
mine al sales, making he o al ax bu den app oxima ely 48% [138].
4.7. Sweden
In Sweden, he Mine al O dinance [
139
] ocuses on isk managemen and a igo ous
ollow-up o ensu e compliance wi h equi emen s o mine es o a ion and closu e. Mining
companies mus make a bond paymen a he s a o he p ojec , which is ag eed upon
be ween he company, he s a e, and impac ed communi ies. This bond mus co e he
o al cos o emedia ion and mine closu e asks. I is impo an o men ion ha he s a e
ecei es and manages hese esou ces.
Rega ding he iscal bu den o mining p ojec s, i is necessa y o cla i y ha he e
a e no oyal ies, and om a ax pe spec i e, mining is conside ed jus ano he business.
Howe e , ax a es in Scandina ian coun ies a e among he highes in he OECD [
140
],
wi h Sweden’s ax a e a 29%. The only addi ional ee mining companies pay is 0.02% o
o al sales, which is alloca ed o a und o mining esea ch, inno a ion, and compensa ion
o landowne s a ec ed by he p ojec [141].
4.8. Aus alia
As in he Uni ed S a es, Aus alia delega es he esponsibili y o legisla ing and
egula ing mine closu e o each o i s s a es. Two p ominen egula o y amewo ks a e
hose o Wes e n Aus alia (WA) [
142
] and Queensland [
143
]. In WA, a cos calcula o is
used o es ima e he esponsibili y and annual le y payable in o he WA Mine Rehabili a ion
Fund. In Queensland, ano he cos calcula o was de eloped o de e mine he basis o he

Resou ces 2025,14, 41 17 o 29
inancial gua an ee o be paid. The li e a u e includes s udies using bo h calcula o s o he
same case, inding simila calcula ed amoun s [80].
Likewise, he o al ax bu dens o mining p ojec s depend on he s a e whe e he
p ojec akes place. In No he n Te i o y, o example, a cons an a e o 18% is paid as
oyal y, while in o he s a es, i a ies depending on commodi y alue, ype, and amoun
ex ac ed. In Wes e n Aus alia, i can each a maximum o 52% o o al income [127,128].
As men ioned, while he e is common conce n o mine ehabili a ion and closu e,
some egula o y amewo ks a e mo e igo ous in de e mining cos s ela ed o his p ocess.
This no only inc eases he en i onmen al isks associa ed wi h he p ojec s bu also sugges s
ha social p essu es may inc ease in he u u e due o lax egula ions ha do no p omo e
ea ly o co ec in es men in en i onmen al impac con ol [
144
]. On he o he hand,
ha ing legal me hodologies o calcula ing en i onmen al cos s helps educe he app o al
o denial imes o pe mi s o he implemen a ion o p ojec s. When clea and concise
guidelines a e es ablished o e alua ing closu e plans and hei cos s, i is possible o
elimina e bu eauc a ic nego ia ion p ocesses be ween s a e en i ies and companies.
Table 2below summa izes he iscal bu den, closu e cos me hodologies used in each
coun y, and whe he oyal ies a e paid as a esul o mine al exploi a ion. I also men ions
he le el o go e nmen al cen aliza ion in he mining sec o in each coun y.
Table 2. Compa a i e able o me hodologies o calcula e closu e cos s, ax bu den, oyal y paymen s,
and le el o cen aliza ion o he mining sec o .
Coun y Law Me hodology o
Calcula ing Closu e Cos s
Maximum Tax
Bu den
Royal ies
Paymen
Managemen
Le el
Chile Ley 20.551, 2014 ✓47% ✓Cen al
Pe u Ley N◦28090, 2003 ex imes 35% ✓Cen al
Colombia Ley 685, 2001 ex imes 70% ✓Cen al
Boli ia Ley Mine ía y
Me alu gia, 2014 ex imes 43% ✓Cen al
Canada (BC) * RSBC, 1996 ex imes 23% ex imes Fede al
Spain (Ca ) * Dec e Legisla iu
14/1994 ex imes 48% ex imes Au onomous **
Sweden
Mine al O dinance,
1992 ex imes 29% ex imes S a e domain
Aus alia (WA) * Mining Ac , 978 ✓52% ✓S a e domain
* BC: B i ish Columbia; Ca : Ca alonia; WA: Wes e n Aus alia; ** Au onomous co esponds o Au onomous
Communi y (CCAA), equi alen a he s a e le el.
5. Inno a ion in Public Policies Adop ed by Some Go e nmen s
In ecen yea s, he ex ac i e sec o has posed one o he g ea es challenges in
e ms o public policy o coun ies ha gene a e pa o hei iscal e enue om he
de elopmen o his ac i i y. The g owing demand o mine al esou ces, d i en by he
ansi ion o enewable ene gy, echnological de elopmen , and demog aphic g ow h, has
in ensi ied he need o inno a i e public policies ha in eg a e sus ainabili y in o mining
p ac ices [145,146].
Beyond he commi men s made by companies o achie e en i onmen ally iendly
and socially sus ainable p ojec s, he esponsibili y o ensu ing a sus ainable mining sec o
alls on he s a es, as hey a e he ones esponsible o se ing he ules o he game [
147
].
Many o he objec i es es ablished in in e na ional clima e ag eemen s (signed by coun ies)
aim a s ic e indus ial ac i i y egula ions, including he mining sec o [
148
]. Al hough
coun ies a e pa o hese ea ies, i is common o hem no o modi y hei egula ions,
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 18 o 29
o en main aining a mo e ex ac i e app oach ha mo es away om sus ainabili y [
149
,
150
].
As a esul , esea ch e o s ha e ocused on he de elopmen o subna ional o local policies
ha allow o he design o ailo ed s a egies depending on he cha ac e is ics and needs
o each e i o y [
151
]. Some coun ies ha e op ed o es ic mining p ojec s in speci ic
a eas o p ese e and conse e ecosys ems, such as he cases o A gen ina and Chile wi h
glacie s o Colombia wi h pá amos [
152
]. Howe e , such decisions a e some imes d i en
mo e by poli ical mo i a ions han by echnical o scien i ic ounda ions.
T adi ional egula o y app oaches ha e o en been insu icien o add ess he complex-
i y o cu en challenges, leading o a sea ch o adap i e and pa icipa o y models [
68
].
The implemen a ion o clean echnologies and he adop ion o esponsible mining p ac ices
equi e egula o y amewo ks ha in eg a e en i onmen al and social c i e ia om plan-
ning o execu ion [
153
]. Inno a ion in public policies can p o ide mo e lexible egula o y
amewo ks ha acili a e he implemen a ion o hese echnologies and p ac ices necessa y
o achie e be e economic, social, and en i onmen al ou comes.
Based on he de ini ion o sus ainable de elopmen , i is essen ial o ha e ac i e com-
muni y pa icipa ion in decision-making o economic g ow h in hei e i o ies [
154
]. This
may p esen challenges due o he lack o echnical knowledge in ce ain a eas, especially
in u al a eas wi h condi ions such as limi ed access o educa ion, heal hca e, and employ-
men oppo uni ies [
146
,
155
]. Despi e his, as [
156
] sugges in hei case s udy in Poland,
u ban o u al zoning ools and planning ins umen s can se e as a s a ing poin o
esiden s o di ec ly in luence u u e land use be o e and a e mining p ojec s. In hese
cases, achie ing collabo a i e de elopmen among all s akeholde s equi es s a ing om
p inciples o ecip oci y [13].
One o he mos success ul cases documen ed is in no he n Finland, whe e, as a
solu ion o he ques ion o socially esponsible mining, social managemen plans (SIMPs)
ha e been p oposed, in which communi ies ac i ely pa icipa e in decision-making and
collabo a i e planning o he mining p ojec . In ol ed companies can lea n o unde s and
he issues ha may gene a e social con lic s i no add essed, local adminis a ions can use
hem o plan se ices and in as uc u e, and local esiden s can use hem as a channel
o exp ess hei in e es s and ideas [
157
]. The SIMP was success ul in Finland and was
es ablished as a public policy o mining ac i i ies ha a e in he easibili y s ages in
he coun y. Howe e , in o he pa s o he wo ld, new en i onmen al con lic s pe sis ,
whe e he e a e no ag eemen s be ween communi ies and companies on how o achie e
sus ainable p ojec de elopmen [158].
Pa o he s a egies employed by public adminis a ions ocus on incen i es and
disincen i es o he de elopmen o mining p ojec s. This can be a double-edged swo d,
as inc easing he iscal bu den could de e in es men in he sec o (especially ha m ul
o commodi y-dependen coun ies) [
159
], while dec easing i may esul in diminished
go e nance c edibili y and inc eased isks o en i onmen al and communi y p essu es in
case p oduc ion le els ise and audi ing ins i u ions a e unp epa ed [
155
]. The ax issue
emains complex, no only due o he e enue models (whe he a oyal y model exis s,
axes a e le ied on income o p o i s, e c.) [
160
], bu also because o i s edis ibu ion ac oss
di e en le els o public adminis a ion and socie y. In China, o example, a iscal policy
change was implemen ed in 2017, which, in addi ion o gi ing local adminis a ions g ea e
in ol emen in e enue collec ion, in oduced a e o m on mining company axa ion wi h
ad alo em axes and au oma ic iscal adjus men mechanisms [
161
]. In 2017, ano he
p oposed change in he Chinese go e nmen was he implemen a ion o he “Ac ion Plan
o Soil Pollu ion P e en ion and Con ol” (APSPPC), which in oduced puni i e measu es,
no only economically h ough ines bu also by a ec ing companies’ c edi epo s and
lowe ing hei c edi a ings o non-compliance wi h egula ions [
162
], ep esen ing signi -
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 19 o 29
ican p essu e o mining companies, especially hose lis ed on he s ock exchange o on
he e ge o ob aining loans.
In addi ion o he challenges posed by sus ainable mining de elopmen in ecen yea s,
new issues ha e eme ged ha we e no p e iously add essed. Peppe e al. [
163
] examine
public policies go e ning he ca e and main enance o mines ha ha e no ye closed bu
had o empo a ily suspend ope a ions due o exogenous ac o s like ma ke condi ions. I
hey ha e no closed bu a e no in he p oduc ion s age, how is sus ainabili y gua an eed
du ing his pe iod? They iden i y legal gaps [
164
] and sugges possible solu ions, such
as equi ing p og essi e closu es and pe iodically ecalcula ing closu e bonds and gua -
an ees conside ing al eady closed a eas, en i onmen al pe o mance indica o s, and he
companies’ economic pe o mance.
The inc ease in echnological capabili ies and he ise o echnoc a ic models ha e
become essen ial o be e unde s anding p ojec s, conduc ing p ope moni o ing, and
nego ia ing p ojec e ms. Public adminis a ions’ adop ion o new echnologies and ools
enables mo e accu a e da a and igu es necessa y o decision-making and ax imposi-
ion [
165
]. The use o d ones o assess s ocks, p og ess, and he size o ehabili a ed
and in e ened a eas may be a good op ion [
166
]; howe e , i equi es signi ican in es -
men in equipmen acquisi ion and p o essional aining. Despi e he high cos s, s udies
sugges ha s onge ins i u ional capaci y is c ucial o building c edibili y, enhancing
en i onmen al pe o mance, and ensu ing e ec i e ax collec ion and ein es men om
companies [
167
]. This could also be a key ac o in a oiding o alling in o economic
p oblems like he “ esou ce cu se” [
168
]. Policies like hose ou lined in he p e ious sec ion
(Sec ion 4) in coun ies such as Sweden o Colombia a e impo an o p omo ing bes
p ac ices in he ex ac i e indus y, especially in mining, whe e a small pe cen age o iscal
e enues is ein es ed in science, echnology, and inno a ion o he mining sec o , os e -
ing inc eased in e es and ools o en i onmen al op imiza ion and mo e en i onmen ally
iendly p ocesses wi hin he indus y [10].
Ve ical in eg a ion and he decen aliza ion o en i ies esponsible o o e seeing,
con olling, collec ing, and sanc ioning he mining indus y a e addi ional ac o s ha
co ela e wi h be e sus ainable mining p ac ices [
169
]. Nume ous s udies ha e ocused on
deepening he ela ionship be ween go e nance models in which local o s a e au ho i ies
play an ac i e ole and be e en i onmen al ou comes in mining e i o ies (dis ic s, s a es,
au onomous communi ies, depa men s, e c.) [
170
–
178
]. These s udies demons a e ha
decen alizing inancial powe s and gi ing local go e nmen s (en i onmen al and mining
au ho i ies) a mo e p ominen ole can posi i ely impac local economic de elopmen and
con ol he p ima y isks aced by e i o ies due o mining ac i i ies [
179
,
180
]. The imple-
men a ion o mixed go e nance models ha employ echnoc acy and agency models may
be an impo an s ep o na ions s ill lagging behind cen alized models [
181
]. Howe e ,
esea ch on such o ganiza ional e o ms in public ins i u ions is sca ce and ou da ed, and
he e is also a lack o poli ical will o implemen hem.
Towa d Global App oaches?
The mining indus y s ands a a sus ainabili y c oss oads, whe e i mus balance
he enhancemen o social and en i onmen al ou comes wi h he economic iabili y o
p ojec s, all wi hin a uni ied egula o y and me hodological amewo k [
182
]. While
p e ious esea ch has highligh ed he complexi y o designing a uni e sally accep ed
me hod o quan i ying en i onmen al and closu e cos s in mining, he ques ion emains
whe he a consensus can be eached o s anda dize hese calcula ions [
183
]. Public sec o
ini ia i es ac oss a ious coun ies demons a e ha egula o y ad ancemen s and adap i e
go e nance a e con e ging owa d simila objec i es [
184
]; howe e , signi ican dispa i ies
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 20 o 29
pe sis among na ions wi h a ying deg ees o economic dependence on mining and
di e ing social con ex s [185,186].
One o he main challenges in de eloping a uni e sal model lies in he he e ogenei y
o mining ope a ions wo ldwide. Geological condi ions, ex ac ion echnologies, egula o y
amewo ks, and socio-economic con ex s a y signi ican ly ac oss egions, making he
es ablishmen o a one-size- i s-all me hodology imp ac ical [
187
]. Ne e heless, e o s o
ha monize en i onmen al impac assessmen s and closu e cos calcula ions a e gaining
momen um, pa icula ly h ough in e na ional s anda ds and he c ea ion o inancial
assu ance mechanisms in coun ies wi h ma u e and de eloped mining sec o s [
188
].
These examples sugges ha while ull s anda diza ion may no be easible, a s uc u ed
amewo k wi h adap able pa ame e s could help b idge he gap be ween local egula ions
and global bes p ac ices [189].
F om a public policy pe spec i e, achie ing consensus wi hin he indus y equi es
no only egula o y alignmen bu also inancial and echnological incen i es ha p omo e
he adop ion o sus ainable p ac ices by companies. In eg a ing en i onmen al cos s in o
inancial models— h ough isk-adjus ed p ojec alua ions and p og essi e closu e bonds—
could se e as a s epping s one owa d b oade accep ance o sus ainabili y-d i en mine
planning [
190
]. In his ega d, go e nmen s play a c i ical ole in acili a ing collabo a ion
among indus y s akeholde s, en o cing s ic e en i onmen al accoun abili y, and unding
esea ch o imp o e cos es ima ion me hodologies. Mo eo e , he ole o coun ies ha de-
mand hese aw ma e ials is equally c ucial, as downs eam indus ies can d i e esponsible
sou cing decisions by p io i izing supplie s ha mee high sus ainabili y s anda ds [191].
The easibili y o a uni e sally accep ed app oach also hinges on he poli ical will
o na ions o p io i ize long- e m en i onmen al s ewa dship o e sho - e m economic
gains [
192
]. While some coun ies ha e adop ed decen alized go e nance models o
enhance o e sigh and public pa icipa ion, o he s con inue o ope a e unde ex ac i is
policies ha hinde sus ainable ansi ions [
185
]. Lessons om Finland’s Social Impac
Managemen Plans (SIMPs) illus a e how pa icipa o y go e nance can mi iga e con lic s
and es ablish mo e esilien egula o y amewo ks, po en ially se ing as a e e ence o
b oade adop ion in o he egions [
12
]. Al hough a ully s anda dized global me hodology
o calcula ing en i onmen al and closu e cos s in mining may emain an elusi e goal,
p og ess can be achie ed h ough inc emen al egula o y con e gence, c oss-bo de col-
labo a ion, and he adop ion o lexible ye comp ehensi e amewo ks. The u u e o
he mining indus y, om a public policy pe spec i e, will depend on he abili y o s a es
o balance esou ce exploi a ion wi h sus ainabili y impe a i es, ensu ing ha mining
ac i i ies con ibu e o economic de elopmen wi hou comp omising en i onmen al and
social well-being.
6. Conclusions
The e olu ion o mine planning has led o a holis ic app oach ha no only conside s
economic p o i abili y bu also en i onmen al and social aspec s, aligning wi h he SDGs. In
esponse o he g owing demand o sus ainable p ocesses, s a egic planning has become
an essen ial ool o mi iga e isks associa ed wi h nega i e impac s and ensu e he long-
e m iabili y o p ojec s. The inclusion o en i onmen al cos s and he implemen a ion o
Co po a e Social Responsibili y policies a e c ucial o balancing he in e es s o businesses,
communi ies, and go e nmen s. Despi e p og ess, gaps in holis ic planning pe sis , high-
ligh ing he need o e ec i ely inco po a e en i onmen al a iables in o mining models
and s eng hen egula ion and public policies o achie e uly sus ainable de elopmen in
he sec o .
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 21 o 29
While mos esea ch has ocused on maximizing adi ional economic indica o s, such
as Ne P esen Value (NPV) and cu -o g ades, me hodologies ha inco po a e en i on-
men al and mine closu e cos s in o op imiza ion algo i hms a e being
explo ed [58,63]
. This
app oach no only mi iga es he nega i e impac o mining ac i i ies bu also imp o es
long- e m p o i abili y by conside ing sus ainabili y om he ea ly s ages o he p ojec . As
he indus y mo es owa d mo e esponsible p ac ices, i is essen ial o con inue de eloping
and implemen ing s a egies ha comp ehensi ely assess he cos s and bene i s associa ed
wi h mining, ensu ing a mo e balanced de elopmen ha bene i s businesses, communi ies,
and he en i onmen .
The e a e quan i a i e me hodologies applied in mining o calcula e en i onmen al
and closu e cos s, wi h h ee main app oaches s anding ou : equa ions o en i onmen al
cos s, egula o y amewo ks o closu e cos s, and en i onmen al pe o mance e alua ion
models. While egula o y amewo ks exis in coun ies like Chile, he U.S., and Aus alia,
me hodologies o quan i ying en i onmen al cos s in mining emain limi ed. P ope
alua ion could imp o e he p o i abili y and sus ainabili y o hese p ojec s. Addi ionally,
me hodologies such as Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GISs) o moni o ing p og es-
si e closu es and mul i-c i e ia me hods like AHP and TOPSIS a e use ul o c ea ing
sus ainabili y indices. Mo e comp ehensi e models include he quan i ica ion o ecological
impac s, conside ing he loss o en i onmen al se ices and ca bon emissions, along wi h
speci ic me hodologies, such as he Chilean SERNAGEOMIN egula ions, which calcula e
closu e cos s based on e e ence a es and co ec ion ac o s. These me hodologies a e
c ucial o esponsible mining and o making in o med decisions abou he cos s de i ed
om en i onmen al impac s and he economic sus ainabili y o mining ope a ions.
While he e is no in e na ional s anda d o mine closu e, coun ies like Chile and
Aus alia ha e ad anced legisla ion ha equi es inancial gua an ees and calcula ion
me hodologies o ensu e he en i onmen al and social es o a ion o a ec ed a eas. The
expe iences o coun ies such as Canada, Sweden, and Aus alia highligh he alue o
clea egula ions ha allow o g ea e collabo a ion be ween go e nmen s, businesses,
and communi ies o mi iga e en i onmen al impac s and acili a e he ansi ion o land
use in mining-a ec ed a eas. As e idenced in his e iew, in addi ion o many esea ch
s udies o me hodologies o igina ing om hese coun ies, he EJA las—Global A las o
En i onmen al Jus ice [
193
] eco ds show a highe concen a ion o con lic s in coun ies
wi h lax o unclea legisla ion. The compa ison sugges s ha s ic e egula ions no only
bene i he en i onmen and communi ies bu also educe he isk o social con lic s by
ensu ing ha companies assume inancial esponsibili y om he ea ly s ages o he p ojec .
Di e ences in iscal bu dens and oyal y policies e lec he di e si y o app oaches o
sus ainabili y in mining. Howe e , i is e iden ha ha ing well-de ined closu e cos s
and me hodologies imp o es he pe mi ing p ocess, he economic e alua ion o p ojec s
by s a e en i ies, and anspa ency in he mining sec o , p omo ing a balance be ween
economic de elopmen and en i onmen al esponsibili y.
Inno a ion in public policies o he ex ac i e sec o is c ucial o add essing con em-
po a y challenges ela ed o en i onmen al and social sus ainabili y. Wi h he g owing
demand o mine al esou ces, coun ies mus adop mo e s ingen legal app oaches
while being lexible and pa icipa o y in p ocesses in ol ing local communi ies in decision-
making. The implemen a ion o egula o y amewo ks ha in eg a e en i onmen al
and social c i e ia om planning o execu ion is key o achie ing sus ainable de elop-
men . Success ul cases, such as he social managemen model in Finland, demons a e ha
communi y pa icipa ion can educe con lic s and os e mo e ha monious de elopmen .
Howe e , he challenge o balancing iscal incen i es and disincen i es, along wi h he
need o echnological capaci ies and ins i u ional obus ness, highligh s he complexi y

Resou ces 2025,14, 41 22 o 29
o go e nance in he mining sec o . To a oid alling in o he esou ce cu se, i is essen ial
o s a es o mode nize and inno a e hei egula o y amewo ks, p io i ize decen aliza-
ion, and p omo e ein es men in science and echnology, ensu ing he esponsible and
sus ainable managemen o mine al esou ces.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, D.O.-S.; me hodology, D.O.-S.; in es iga ion, D.O.-S.;
esou ces, M.B.-M. and G.F.-S.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, D.O.-S.; e iew and edi ing,
M.B.-M. and G.F.-S.; isualiza ion, D.O.-S.; supe ision, M.B.-M. and G.F.-S.; p ojec adminis a ion,
G.F.-S.; unding acquisi ion, D.O.-S. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o
he manusc ip .
Funding: This wo k was unded by esou ces om he Minis y o Science, Technology, and Inno a-
ion o Colombia and by he F ancisco José de Caldas Fund, wi hin he amewo k o “Con oca o ia
937—In es igación Fundamen al” o he yea 2023.
Acknowledgmen s: The au ho s acknowledge he use o Cha GPT o assis ing in language edi ing
and ansla ion o imp o e he cla i y and eadabili y o he manusc ip .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
ONU. In o me de la Con e encia de las Naciones Unidas Sob e el Medio Ambien e y el Desa ollo: Rio de Janei o, 3 a 14 de Junio de 1992,
O ganización de las Naciones Unidas; Naciones Unidas: Rio de Janei o, B asil, 1993.
2.
ONU. La Agenda 2030 y los Obje i os de Desa ollo Sos enible: Una Opo unidad pa a Amé ica La ina y el Ca ibe. O ganización de las
Naciones Unidas. 2018. [En línea]. A ailable online: h ps:// eposi o io.cepal.o g/se e /api/co e/bi s eams/cb30a4de-7d87-
4e79-8e7a-ad5279038718/con en (accessed on 16 Sep embe 2024).
3.
Oya zún, J.; Oya zún, R. Léxico de Geología Económica: Té minos de uso Común en España e Ibe oamé ica, 1.ª ed. La Se ena,
Chile: GEMM—Aula2pun one . 2014. [En línea]. A ailable online: h ps://www.aulados.ne /Lib os_Aula2pun one _GEMM/
Lib o_Lexico_Geologia_Economica.pd (accessed on 16 Sep embe 2024).
4.
Tos , M.; Hi ch, M.; Chandu ka , V.; Mose , P.; Feiel, S. The s a e o en i onmen al sus ainabili y conside a ions in mining. J. Clean.
P od. 2018,182, 969–977. [C ossRe ]
5.
F anco, S.G.; Ja amillo, A.P.; B anch, B.J. S ochas ic op imiza ion in mine planning scheduling. Compu . Ope . Res. 2020,
115, 104823. [C ossRe ]
6.
Lamgha i, A.; Dimi akopoulos, R. Ne wo k- low based algo i hms o scheduling p oduc ion in mul i-p ocesso open-pi mines
accoun ing o me al unce ain y. Eu . J. Ope . Res. 2016,250, 273–290. [C ossRe ]
7.
Ee ola, T.; Komni sas, K. P elimina y Assessmen o Social License o Ope a e (SLO) and Co po a e Communica ion in Fou
Eu opean Li hium P ojec s. Ma e . P oc. 2023,15, 35. [C ossRe ]
8. Lau ence, D. Es ablishing a sus ainable mining ope a ion: An o e iew. J. Clean. P od. 2011,19, 278–284. [C ossRe ]
9.
Lyy imäki, J.; Pel onen, L. Mining h ough con o e sies: Public pe cep ions and he legi imacy o a planned gold mine nea a
ou is des ina ion. Land Use Policy 2016,54, 479–486. [C ossRe ]
10.
Bashi , M.A.; Qing, L.; Syed, Q.R.; Ba wi´nska-Małajowicz, A.; Hashmi, S.M. Resou ces policy om ex ac ion o inno a ion:
The in e play o mine als, geo he mal ene gy, echnological ad ancemen s, and ecological oo p in in high-ecological oo p in
economies. Resou . Policy 2024,95, 105182. [C ossRe ]
11.
Mu guía, D.I.; Bas ida, A.E. The elephan in he mine: Why olun a y sus ainabili y s anda ds a e insu icien o ensu e
esponsible mining. Ex . Ind. Soc. 2024,19, 101485. [C ossRe ]
12.
Tuulen ie, S.; Halse h, G.; Kie ä äinen, A.; Ryse , L.; Similä, J. Local communi y pa icipa ion in mining in Finnish Lapland and
No he n B i ish Columbia, Canada—P ac ical applica ions o CSR and SLO. Resou . Policy 2019,61, 99–107. [C ossRe ]
13.
Baba, S.; Mohammad, S.; Young, C. Managing p ojec sus ainabili y in he ex ac i e indus ies: Towa ds a ecip oci y amewo k
o communi y engagemen : Managing P ojec Sus ainabili y in he Ex ac i e Indus ies. In . J. P oj. Manag. 2021,39, 887–901.
[C ossRe ]
14.
Bascomp a, M.; Sanmiquel, L.; Vin ó, C.; Youse ian, M. Co po a e Social Responsibili y Index o Mine Si es. Sus ainabili y 2022,
14, 13570. [C ossRe ]
15.
Mu guía, D.I.; Böhling, K. Sus ainabili y epo ing on la ge-scale mining con lic s: The case o Bajo de la Alumb e a, A gen ina. J.
Clean. P od. 2013,41, 202–209. [C ossRe ]
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 23 o 29
16.
Wagne , M.; Wellme , F.W. A Hie a chy o Na u al Resou ces wi h Respec o Sus ainable De elopmen —A Basis o a Na u al
Resou ces E iciency Indica o . In Mining, Socie y, and a Sus ainable Wo ld; Richa ds, J., Ed.; Sp inge : Be lin/Heidelbe g,
Ge many, 2009. [C ossRe ]
17.
Isacowi z, J.J.; Schmeidl, S.; Tabelin, C. The ope a ionalisa ion o Co po a e Social Responsibili y (CSR) in a mining con ex .
Resou . Policy 2022,79, 103012. [C ossRe ]
18.
Ga cia-Za ala, C.; O dens, C.M.; Paglie o, L.; Lèb e, É.; Ai ken, D.; S inge , M. An app oach o p io i ising en i onmen al, social
and go e nance (ESG) wa e - ela ed isks o he mining indus y: The case o Chile. Ex . Ind. Soc. 2023,14, 101259. [C ossRe ]
19. Bo egaa d, N. Valo ización económica de los impac os ambien ales en la mine ía Chilena. Ambien e Desa o. 2001,XVII, 50–58.
20. Mo an, R. Ap oximaciones al cos o económico de impac os ambien ales en la mine ía. Ambien e Desa o. 2001,17, 59–66.
21.
Juan Da id, O.; F ancisco, C. VALORACIÓN ECONÓMICA DE COSTOS AMBIENTALES: MARCO CONCEPTUAL Y MÉTODOS
DE ESTIMACIÓN. Semes . Económico 2004,7, 159–193.
22.
Ouoba, Y. Gold companies and local economic sus ainabili y: The case o Kalsaka Mining SA in Bu kina Faso. J. En i on. Econ.
Policy 2023,12, 79–95. [C ossRe ]
23.
Moia, G.C.M.; Ma laba, V.J.; dos San os, J.F. E alua ion o he impac o mining oyal ies on socio-en i onmen al indica o s in
Pa auapebas, Pa á, he Eas e n Amazon. Ex . Ind. Soc. 2024,19, 101512. [C ossRe ]
24.
Andía Valencia, W. Los Es udios de Impac o Ambien al y su Implicancia en las In e siones de los P oyec os. P od. Ges . 2012,15,
17–20.
25.
Galo, D.d.B.; dos Anjos, J.Â.S.A.; Sánchez, L.E. A e mining companies ma u e o mine closu e? An app oach o e alua ing
p epa edness. Resou . Policy 2022,78, 102919. [C ossRe ]
26.
Adibi, N.; A aee-Pou , M.; Rahmanpou , M. In eg a ion o sus ainable de elopmen concep s in open pi mine design. J. Clean.
P od. 2015,108, 1037–1049. [C ossRe ]
27. Vymazal, J.; Sklenicka, P. Res o a ion o a eas a ec ed by mining. Ecol. Eng. 2012,43, 1–4. [C ossRe ]
28. Lau ence, D. Op imisa ion o he mine closu e p ocess. J. Clean. P od. 2006,14, 285–298. [C ossRe ]
29.
Mancini, L.; Sala, S. Social impac assessmen in he mining sec o : Re iew and compa ison o indica o s amewo ks. Resou .
Policy 2018,57, 98–111. [C ossRe ]
30.
She ele a, O.; Slesa enko, E.; Kud e a ykh, N.; Mamzina, T. The uni y o he ajec o y o sus ainable de elopmen o he mining
egion and ensu ing i s en i onmen al sa e y. In E3S Web o Con e ences; EDP Sciences: Essonne, F ance, 2019. [C ossRe ]
31.
Espinoza, R.D.; Rojo, J. Towa ds sus ainable mining (Pa I): Valuing in es men oppo uni ies in he mining sec o . Resou . Policy
2017,52, 7–18. [C ossRe ]
32.
Upadhyay, S.P.; Aska i-Nasab, H. Simula ion and op imiza ion app oach o unce ain y-based sho - e m planning in open pi
mines. In . J. Min. Sci. Technol. 2018,28, 153–166. [C ossRe ]
33.
Del Cas illo, M.F.; Dimi akopoulos, R. Dynamically op imizing he s a egic plan o mining complexes unde supply unce ain y.
Resou . Policy 2019,60, 83–93. [C ossRe ]
34.
A ms ong, M.; Lagos, T.; Eme y, X.; Homem-de-Mello, T.; Lagos, G.; Sau é, D. Adap i e open-pi mining planning unde
geological unce ain y. Resou . Policy 2021,72, 102086. [C ossRe ]
35.
Jél ez, E.; Mo ales, N.; Nancel-Pena d, P.; Co nillie , F. A new hyb id heu is ic algo i hm o he P ecedence Cons ained
P oduc ion Scheduling P oblem: A mining applica ion. Omega 2020,94, 102046. [C ossRe ]
36.
Gilani, S.-O.; Sa a and, J.; Hajihassani, M.; Abdullah, S.S. A s ochas ic pa icle swa m based model o long e m p oduc ion
planning o open pi mines conside ing he geological unce ain y. Resou . Policy 2020,68, 101738. [C ossRe ]
37.
Mo ales, N.; Mancilla, D.; Mi anda, R.; Vallejos, J. A as me hod o de elop an op imal ope a ional suble el s ope design. Resou .
Policy 2022,77, 102670. [C ossRe ]
38.
Tabesh, M.; Mo adi A apoli, A.; Aska i-Nasab, H. A wo-s age simul aneous op imiza ion o NPV and h oughpu in p oduc ion
planning o open pi mines. Resou . Policy 2023,80, 103167. [C ossRe ]
39.
Yaakoubi, Y.; Dimi akopoulos, R. Decision- ocused neu al adap i e sea ch and di ing o op imizing mining complexes. Eu . J.
Ope . Res. 2024,320, 699–719. [C ossRe ]
40.
Osanloo, M.; Rashidinejad, F.; Rezai, B. Inco po a ing en i onmen al issues in o op imum cu -o g ades modeling a po phy y
coppe deposi s. Resou . Policy 2008,33, 222–229. [C ossRe ]
41.
Rimélé, M.A.; Dimi akopoulos, R.; Gamache, M. A s ochas ic op imiza ion me hod wi h in-pi was e and ailings disposal o
open pi li e-o -mine p oduc ion planning. Resou . Policy 2018,57, 112–121. [C ossRe ]
42.
Kum al, M. Op imizing o e-was e disc imina ion and block sequencing h ough simula ed annealing. Appl. So Compu . J. 2013,
13, 3737–3744. [C ossRe ]
43.
Se edkin, M.; Zabolo sky, A.; Je ess, G. In si u eco e y, an al e na i e o con en ional me hods o mining: Explo a ion, esou ce
es ima ion, en i onmen al issues, p ojec e alua ion and economics. O e Geol. Re . 2016,79, 500–514. [C ossRe ]
44.
Adiansyah, J.S.; Rosano, M.; Vink, S.; Kei , G. A amewo k o a sus ainable app oach o mine ailings managemen : Disposal
s a egies. J. Clean. P od. 2015,108, 1050–1062. [C ossRe ]
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 24 o 29
45.
Canales-Bus os, L.; San ibañez-González, E.; Candia-Véja , A. A mul i-objec i e op imiza ion model o he design o an e ec i e
deca bonized supply chain in mining. In . J. P od. Econ. 2017,193, 449–464. [C ossRe ]
46.
Yu, S.; Zheng, S.; Gao, S.; Yang, J. A mul i-objec i e decision model o in es men in ene gy sa ings and emission educ ions in
coal mining. Eu . J. Ope . Res. 2017,260, 335–347. [C ossRe ]
47.
Mi zehi, M.; Mo adi A apoli, A. A no el amewo k o in eg a ing en i onmen al cos s and ca bon p icing in open-pi mine
plans: Towa ds sus ainable and g een mining. J. Clean. P od. 2024,468. [C ossRe ]
48.
Li, L.; Lei, Y.; Wu, S.; He, C.; Yan, D. S udy on he coo dina ed de elopmen o economy, en i onmen and esou ce in coal-based
a eas in Shanxi P o ince in China: Based on he mul i-objec i e op imiza ion model. Resou . Policy 2018,55, 80–86. [C ossRe ]
49.
Rezaie, B.; Ande son, A. Sus ainable esolu ions o en i onmen al h ea o he acid mine d ainage. Sci. To al En i on. 2020,
717, 137211. [C ossRe ]
50.
Ullah, G.M.W.; Neh ing, M.; Kizil, M.; Knigh s, P. En i onmen al, Social, and Go e nance Conside a ions in P oduc ion
Scheduling Op imisa ion o Suble el S oping Mining Ope a ions: A Re iew o Rele an Wo ks and Fu u e Di ec ions. Min.
Me all. Explo . 2023,40, 2167–2182. [C ossRe ]
51.
Xu, X.C.; Gu, X.W.; Wang, Q.; Liu, J.P.; Wang, J. Ul ima e pi op imiza ion wi h ecological cos o open pi me al mines. T ans.
Non e ous Me . Soc. China Engl. Ed. 2014,24, 1531–1537. [C ossRe ]
52.
Mo adi, G.; Osanloo, M. P io i izing Sus ainable De elopmen C i e ia A ec ing Open Pi Mine Design: A Ma hema ical Model.
P ocedia Ea h Plane . Sci. 2015,15, 813–820. [C ossRe ]
53. Na ei, S.; Osanloo, M. Op imum cu -o g ade’s calcula ion in open pi mines wi h ega d o educing he undesi able en i on-
men al impac s. In . J. Min. Reclam. En i on. 2015,29, 226–242. [C ossRe ]
54.
Lane, K. Choosing he op imum cu -o g ade. In Choosing he Op imum Cu -O G ade; Colo ado School o Mines: Golden, CO,
USA, 1964; pp. 5–492.
55.
Rahimi, E.; Ghasemzadeh, H. A new algo i hm o de e mine op imum cu -o g ades conside ing echnical, economical, en i on-
men al and social aspec s. Resou . Policy 2015,46, 51–63. [C ossRe ]
56.
Neh ing, M.; Cheng, X. An in es iga ion in o he impac o mine closu e and i s associa ed cos on li e o mine planning and
esou ce eco e y. J. Clean. P od. 2016,127, 228–239. [C ossRe ]
57.
En i onmen al P o ec ion Au ho i y and Depa men o Mines and Pe oleum (EPA/DMP). Guidelines o P epa ing Mine Closu e
Plans; Go e nmen o Wes e n Aus alia: Pe h, Aus alia, 2011.
58.
Pa icheh, M.; Osanloo, M. A simula ion-based amewo k o es ima ing p obable open-pi mine closu e ime and cos . J. Clean.
P od. 2017,167, 337–345. [C ossRe ]
59.
Hu chison, I.; De o e, R. S a is ical and p obabilis ic closu e cos es ima ing. In P oceedings o he 15 h In e na ional Con e ence
on Tailings and Mine Was e, Vancou e , BC, Canada, 9 No embe 2011; Uni e si y o B i ish Columbia Ins i u e o Mining
Enginee ing: Vancou e , BC, Canada, 2011.
60.
Rahmanpou , M.; Osanloo, M. A decision suppo sys em o de e mina ion o a sus ainable pi limi . J. Clean. P od. 2017,141,
1249–1258. [C ossRe ]
61.
Xu, X.; Guo, X.; Wang, Q.; Liu, J.; Zhu, Q. P oduc ion Scheduling o Open Pi Me al Mine wi h Ecological Cos . Geo-Resou .
En i on. Eng. 2017,2, 59–63. [C ossRe ]
62.
Xu, X.C.; Cu, X.; Wang, Q.; Gao, X.; Liu, J.; Wang, Z.; Wang, X. P oduc ion scheduling op imiza ion conside ing ecological cos s
o open pi me al mines. J. Clean. P od. 2018,180, 210–221. [C ossRe ]
63.
Ja a pou , A.; Kha ami, S. Analysis o En i onmen al Cos s’ E ec in G een Mining S a egy Using a Sys em Dynamics App oach:
A Case S udy. Ma h. P obl. Eng. 2021,18. [C ossRe ]
64.
Badakhshan, N.; Shah ia , K.; A aei, S.; Bakh a a , E. Op imiza ion o ansi ion om open-pi o unde g ound mining
conside ing en i onmen al cos s. Resou . Policy 2024,95, 105178. [C ossRe ]
65.
Liu, F.; Yang, K.; Yang, T.; Deng, W.; Li, H.; Yang, L. Open pi limi op imiza ion conside ing he pumped s o age bene i a e
mine closu e: A case s udy. Geomech. Geophys. Geo-Ene gy Geo-Resou . 2024,10, 44. [C ossRe ]
66.
Oblasse , A.; Chapa o, E. Es udio compa a i o de la ges ión de los pasi os ambien ales mine os en Boli ia, Chile, Pe ú y Es ados
Unidos. A bo 2008,17, 3. [C ossRe ]
67. Ma inez-Alie , J. Mining con lic s, en i onmen al jus ice, and alua ion. J. Haza d. Ma e . 2001,86, 153–170. [C ossRe ]
68.
Vela-Almeida, D. Te i o ial pa i ions, he p oduc ion o mining e i o y and he building o a pos -neolibe al and plu ina ional
s a e in Ecuado . Poli . Geog . 2018,62, 126–136. [C ossRe ]
69.
Ge y, R.; Mo ison-Saunde s, A. E alua ing he e ec i eness o in eg a ing he en i onmen al impac assessmen and mine
closu e planning p ocesses. En i on. Impac Assess. Re . 2020,82, 106366. [C ossRe ]
70.
Gała´s, S.; Gała´s, A. The quali ica ion p ocess o mining p ojec s in en i onmen al impac assessmen : C i e ia and h esholds.
Resou . Policy 2016,49, 204–212. [C ossRe ]
71.
Lechne , A.M.; Baumga l, T.; Ma hew, P.; Glenn, V. The Impac o Unde g ound Longwall Mining on P ime Ag icul u al Land:
A Re iew and Resea ch Agenda. Land Deg ad. De . 2016,27, 1650–1663. [C ossRe ]
Resou ces 2025,14, 41 25 o 29
72.
McCullough, C.D.; Ha ey, B.; Unge , C.J.; Winches e , S.; McCa hy, B.; Coe zee, J. F om s a o inish—A pe spec i e on
imp o ing sus ainable de elopmen aspec s o li e-o -mine p ac ices. In F om S a o Finish: Li e o Mine Pe spec i e, Spec um 24;
AusIMM: Ca l on Vic o ia, Aus alia, 2018.
73.
Cen o de In es igación y Desa ollo—PUCESE. Economic Valua ion o he En i onmen al Assessmen s o Gold Mining Ac i i y in he
No h o Ecuado ; Minis e io del Ambien e: Esme aldas, Ecuado , 2011. [C ossRe ]
74.
Yupa i, A. Pasi os Ambien ales Mine os en Sudamé ica; Repo p epa ed o he CEPAL; Ins i u o Fede al de Geociencias y Recu sos
Na u ales—BGR and Se icio Nacional de Geología y Mine ía—SERNAGEOMIN: San iago de Chile, Chile, 2003.
75.
A ango A ambu o, M. Reque imien os Pa a el Diseño de una Me odología que Pe mi a Es ima el Valo de Pasi os Ambien ales Mine os;
Uni e sidad Nacional de Colombia: Bogo á, Colombia, 2011. A ailable online: h ps:// eposi o io.unal.edu.co/bi s eam/
handle/unal/8766/43869159.2011.pd ?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 9 Oc obe 2024).
76.
Liao, X.; Li, W.; Hou, J. Applica ion o GIS Based Ecological Vulne abili y E alua ion in En i onmen al Impac Assessmen o
Mas e Plan o Coal Mining A ea. P ocedia En i on. Sci. 2013,18, 271–276. [C ossRe ]
77.
Wu, Z.; Lei, S.; Lu, Q.; Bian, Z.; Ge, S. Spa ial dis ibu ion o he impac o su ace mining on he landscape ecological heal h o
semi-a id g asslands. Ecol. Indic. 2020,111, 105996. [C ossRe ]
78.
Glais e , B.J.; Mudd, G.M. The en i onmen al cos s o pla inum-PGM mining and sus ainabili y: Is he glass hal - ull o hal -
emp y? Mine . Eng. 2010,23, 438–450. [C ossRe ]
79.
Pie zyk-Sokulska, E.; Ube man, R.; Kulczycka, J. Mine ía e impac os ambien ales en Polonia. Gospod. Su owcami Mine . Mine .
Resou . Manag. 2015,31, 45–64. [C ossRe ]
80.
Lechne , A.M.; Kassulke, O.; Unge , C. Spa ial assessmen o open cu coal mining p og essi e ehabili a ion o suppo he
moni o ing o ehabili a ion liabili ies. Resou . Policy 2016,50, 234–243. [C ossRe ]
81.
Kasz elewicz, Z.; Szwed, L. Di ec ions o Reclama ion in Polish Ligni e Mines on Selec ed Examples. Min. Geoengin. 2010,66,
86–102.
82.
Feng, Z.; Hu, Z.; Li, G.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, H. Imp o ing mine eclama ion e iciency o a mland sus ainable use:
Insigh s om op imizing mining scheme. J. Clean. P od. 2022,379, 134615. [C ossRe ]
83.
Kosinskiy, P.; Me ku ie , V.; Med ede , A. App oaches o e alua ion o en i onmen al and economic damage o he Kuzbass
agglome a ion caused by coal mining indus y de elopmen . E3S Web Con . 2019,134, 03009. [C ossRe ]
84.
Delgado, A.; Rome o, I. En i onmen al con lic analysis using an in eg a ed g ey clus e ing and en opy-weigh me hod: A case
s udy o a mining p ojec in Pe u. En i on. Model. So w. 2016,77, 108–121. [C ossRe ]
85.
Gulley, A.L. Valuing en i onmen al impac s o me cu y emissions om gold mining: Dolla pe oy ounce es ima es o wel e
open-pi , small-scale, and a isanal mining si es. Resou . Policy 2017,52, 266–272. [C ossRe ]
86.
Na ei, S.; A aee-pou , M. Es ima ions o u ili y unc ion and alues o sus ainable mining ia he choice expe imen me hod. J.
Clean. P od. 2020,267, 121938. [C ossRe ]
87.
Ve ga a Tamayo, C.; González Quesada, A.; González Co onado, C. E aluación de impac o ambien al y es udios p e ios a una
alo ación con ingen e. Caso La Colosa, Cajama ca, Tolima, Colombia. Ens. Econ. 2013,23, 191–222.
88.
Ki ula, A.G.N. The en i onmen al and socio-economic impac s o mining on local li elihoods in Tanzania: A case s udy o Gei a
Dis ic . J. Clean. P od. 2006,14, 405–414. [C ossRe ]
89. Willis, K.G.; Ga od, G.D. Valuing landscape: A con ingen alua ion app oach. J. En i on. Manag. 1993,37, 1–22. [C ossRe ]
90.
Rod íguez-Zapa a, M.A.; Ruíz-Agudelo, C.A.; Ah ens, M.J. Analysis o social pe cep ion and ield e i ica ion as a ou e o
e alua ion o en i onmen al liabili ies in Colombia: Case s udy Cesa (Colombia). Wo ld De . Sus ain. 2024,4, 100133. [C ossRe ]
91. Gu, X.W.; Xu, X.C.; Wang, Q.; Wang, R. Ecological Cos o Mining. J. No heas . Uni . Na . Sci. 2013,34, 594–597.
92.
Se icio Nacional de Geología y Mine ía (SERNAGEOMIN). Guía Me odológica pa a la P esen ación de Planes de Cie e Some idos al
P ocedimien o de Aplicación Gene al; Minis e io de Mine ía, Gobie no de Chile: San iago, Chile, 2014.
93.
Valdebeni o, L.M. Es imación de Cos os de Cie e de Pasi os Ambien ales Mine os Iden i icados en Chile de Acue do a los Reque imien os
de la Ley 20.551; Uni e sidad de Chile: San iago, Chile, 2015.
94.
Dialga, I. A mining indus y sus ainabili y index: Expe iences om gold and u anium sec o s. In En i onmen al Foo p in s and
Eco-Design o P oduc s and P ocesses; Sp inge : Be lin/Heidelbe g, Ge many, 2019; pp. 27–63. [C ossRe ]
95.
Global Repo ing Ini ia i e. GRI 14: Mining Sec o 2024; GRI: Ams e dam, The Ne he lands, 2024. A ailable online: h ps:
//www.global epo ing.o g/ (accessed on 19 Feb ua y 2025).
96.
Taou ikallah, A. Capí ulo 5. Aplicación de la Me odología AHP; Escuela Técnica Supe io de Ingenie os de Se illa, Uni e sidad de
Se illa: Se illa, Spain, 2010. A ailable online: h ps://biblus.us.es/bibing/p oyec os/ab ep oy/70496/ iche o/Capi ulo+5+
Aplicaci%C3%B3n+de+la+me odologia+AHP.pd (accessed on 23 Ma ch 2024).
97.
Hwang, C.-L. Mul iple A ibu e Decision Making: An In oduc ion; Sage Publica ions: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1995; Volume 104.
98. Saa y, T.L. The Analy ic Hie a chy P ocess: Planning, P io i y Se ing, Resou ce Alloca ion, 2nd ed.; McG aw-Hill In e na ional Book
Company: New Yo k, NY, USA, 1980.