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Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s40677-025-00317-9
Alcalá de Júca (Cas ile La Mancha), wi h dozens o
dea hs each and nume ous collapsed buildings (see
Sec .4). These illages a e loca ed a slopes c owned by
ock cli s. Rock alls ha e also caused acciden s in com-
munica ion co ido s such as oads and ailways. Rock-
alls a ec ing ailways a e he ones ha cause he g ea es
numbe o ic ims and a ac he mos public a en ion
like he one in Ame lla de Ma (Ca alonia) in 1926, which
caused 24 dea hs and mo e han 150 inju ies. In ecen
decades, he e ha e also been episodes o ock alls wi h
a signi ican economic impac , such as he ones ha
occu ed be ween 2008 and 2010 in he T amun ana
ange (Balea ic Islands), wi h se e e ma e ial damage
and in e up ions o oad a ic (Ma eos e al. 2012).
Al hough he abo e e en s a e indica i e o he la ge
scale o he consequences ac oss he coun y, a sys em-
a ic e iew o ock all casual ies in gene al and by con ex
is lacking in he li e a u e.
Se e al esea che s ha e analyzed he occu ence o
a al landslides bu no speci ically a al ock alls. Mos
In oduc ion
Rock alls a e pe asi e geological p ocesses ha subs an-
ially a ec popula ion, p ope ies, in as uc u e and
se ices. This e m is applied o blocks o ock masses
ha , a e hei sepa a ion om a s eep wall, expe ience
ee all and subsequen impac agains he g ound, wi h
he consequen ebound, possible olling and/o sliding
o he agmen s (C uden and Va nes 1996; Hung 2016).
Va ious his o ical e en s highligh he isk posed by
ock alls in Spain. The mos ca as ophic ones occu ed
in Azag a (Na a e), Beas de Segu a (Andalusia) and
Geoen i onmen al Disas e s
*Co espondence:
Nie es Lan ada
nie es.lan [email protected]
1In e na ional Cen e o Nume ical Me hods in Enginee ing (CIMNE),
Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca alunya-UPC. Ba celonaTech, Ba celona, Spain
2Depa men o Ci il and En i onmen al Enginee ing, Uni e si a
Poli ècnica de Ca alunya-UPC. Ba celonaTech, Ba celona, Spain
3Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Wes A ica, A hens,
G eece
Abs ac
Rock alls a e he slope ins abili y p ocesses ha cause he g ea es numbe o ic ims in Spain, as well as
conside able economic losses. This pape quan i ies he impac o a al ock alls ob ained om he documen a y
collec ion, mainly w i en p ess. We compiled 1,118 e en s ha occu ed be ween 1803 and 2021 and caused
casual ies (1,550 dea hs and a ound 2,184 inju ies). F om his se , we analyzed he seasonal dis ibu ion and
mul iannual e olu ion o 1,018 ock alls e en s o he pe iod 1872–2021 (150 yea s) in which he daily w i en
p ess was a ailable. The in en o ied cases we e di ided acco ding o he con ex in which hey occu ed: dwellings
and illages, qua ies and exca a ions, ailways, oads and ou doo ac i i ies (moun ain ails and coas al a eas).
Di e ging ends a e obse ed. While he consequences and isk ha e dec eased as s abiliza ion and p e en ion
ac ions accumula e a ound h ea ened dwellings, qua ies and ail oads, he numbe o a al inciden s has
inc eased on oads and in na u al spaces. This is due o he inc ease in oads and a ic, and especially, he g ea e
p esence o people in he na u al en i onmen (inc eased exposu e). We p esen a i s quan i a i e es ima e o
he in es men s made by adminis a ions o s abilize a i icial cu s and na u al cli s in o de o educe he isk o
ock alls.
Fa al non-seismic ock alls in Spain
Jo diCo ominas1, Nie esLan ada2* , Ma ía Ampa oNúñez-And és2 and Olga Ch is inaMa ouli3
Page 2 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
s udies ha e obse ed an inc ease o e ime in dea hs
om landslides. A main cause is ound in he inc ease in
u ban popula ion and o he imp o emen in sys ema ic
da a collec ion (A is izábal e al. 2019; E ans 2018; G ahn
and Jaldell 2017; Sepúl eda and Pe ley 2015). Simila ly,
he a ali y g ow h in Nepal is associa ed o he ex en-
sion o he oad ne wo k in moun ain a eas (Pe ley e al.
2007. In I aly, i has been no ed ha despi e an inc ease
in dea hs o e ime in absolu e e ms, as he popula ion
has inc eased, he mo ali y a e has dec eased (Guz-
ze i 2000). O he analyses in a ious coun ies indica e
an oscilla ing end in he numbe o e en s and associ-
a ed dea hs (Gö üm and Fidan 2021; Pe ei a e al. 2016;
Badoux e al. 2016; Pe ucci 2022). Al hough he in en-
o ies on which hese s udies a e based include ock-
alls, i is no possible o adequa ely assess hei impac .
Landslides and ock alls sha e igge s such as ain all o
ea hquakes, bu hey do no in e ac in he same way o
cause slope ailu e. O he igge s mo e speci ic o ock-
alls exis such as snow mel ing, eeze- haw cycles, ock
wea he ing o oo wedging. In il a ion om ain o
snow mel ing aise cle wa e p essu es in join s o ock
masses p omo ing des abiliza ion o blocks (D’Ama o e
al. 2016; Delonca e al. 2014; Ma suoka 2019). The mo-
mechanical s esses due o empe a u e luc ua ions
(Collins and S ock 2016; D aebing and K au bla e
2019), epea ed eezing and hawing o wa e in join s
(Ma suoka and Sakai 1999; Regmi and Wa anabe 2009;
Ra anel and Deline 2010) weaken ocks by c ea ing and
p opaga ing issu es which e en ually may des abilize
ock blocks (Sa i e al. 2021). Fo all hese easons, we
unde s and ha ock alls do no necessa ily ollow he
same pa e n o occu ence as landslides, which jus i ies
he pa icula analysis ha we p esen he e.
This wo k a emp s o p o ide a quan i a i e es ima e
o he ock all a ali ies and inju ies in Spain by analyzing
an in en o y o his o ical ock alls ha caused ic ims.
We ha e compiled an in en o y o non-seismic ock alls
since 1803 ha con iden ly will p o ide a ep esen a i e
assessmen o hei ele ance and isk posed o he popu-
la ion in Spain. I is impo an o highligh ha i is no
an in en o y o all ock alls bu only o hose ha caused
ic ims (dea hs and/o inju ies). The la e is expec ed
o be se e al o de s o magni ude smalle han he o al
ock all occu ence. I is he e o e a educed sample o
he eal ock all ac i i y in he coun y.
Speci ically, we aimed a : (1) p o iding a ep esen-
a i e (almos comple e) eco d o a al ock alls ha
occu ed be ween 1872 and 2021, as a con ibu ion o
he exis ing egional and global da abases; (2) pe o m-
ing a disagg ega ed analysis o he seasonal, empo al
and spa ial dis ibu ion o a al ock alls ha occu ed
in di e en con ex s; (3) ca ying ou a i s es ima e o
he cos o emedial measu es implemen ed by di e en
adminis a ions and (4) discussing he unde lying causes
o changes in he end o ock all a ali ies by con ex
( illages and dwellings, anspo a ion in as uc u e,
qua ies and exca a ions and he ou doo ac i i ies), o e
ime.
Rock all occu ence and impac s in Spain
Spa ial dis ibu ion o ock alls in he Ibe ian Peninsula
The Ibe ian Peninsula is sha ed by Spain and Po ugal
and has a landscape a o able o he occu ence o ock-
alls. The wes e n and cen al pa o he Peninsula is a
pla eau (“Mese a”) composed o c ys alline and me a-
mo phic ocks ha o m he He cynian basemen . The
pla eau has a mean heigh o 660m and is bounded on i s
Sou he n and No heas e n edges by he Guadalqui i
and Eb o i e basins, espec i ely. The pla eau i sel con-
ains wo i e basins, he Due o and Tagus, illed wi h
sedimen s o Cenozoic age and sepa a ed by he Cen al
ange (Fig.1). Se e al alpine anges su ound he pla eau.
The Py enees a e in he No h; he Can ab ian ange
ex ends owa d he Wes ; in he Sou h he e is he Bae ic
sys em; and in be ween he e is he Ibe ian ange. Finally,
wo a chipelagos a e o in e es o ock alls and land-
slides. In he Medi e anean Sea, he e a e he Balea ic
Islands, which, in geological e ms, a e he ex ension o
he Bae ic sys em owa ds he Eas . In he A lan ic Ocean
he e a e he Cana y Islands, o olcanic o igin, cha ac-
e ized by he p esence o la ge coas al cli s and s ongly
en enched a ines.
Rock alls a e no e enly dis ibu ed in he Spanish e -
i o y. The Py enees, Can ab ian and Bae ic anges con-
ain an inne co e o igneous and me amo phic ocks
shaped o a g ea ex en by he Pleis ocene glacie s and
now subjec ed o pe iglacial ac i i y. The e osi e ac ion
o he glacie s and he incision o he p esen lu ial ne -
wo k, locally exace ba ed by he o ogenic upli (e.g. he
Bae ic sys em), ha e esul ed in a s eep elie , which con-
s i u es he main p edisposing ac o o slope ins abili y.
In he Cenozoic basins, ock alls a e concen a ed
along he main lu ial alleys, pa icula ly in he an-
si ion be ween he pla eau (“Mese a”) and he coas al
inge. The e, deeply en enched i e s low, o ming
s eep na ow go ges (“ga gan as”, “ ajos” and “hoces” in
Spanish).
Spain has a coas line o 7,880km. Almos hal o he
coas line consis s o ha d and so cli s, which a e pa ic-
ula ly abundan in he A lan ic a ea, on bo h he No h-
e n and Sou he n edges o he Medi e anean coas , and
on bo h Cana y and Balea ic a chipelagos (Ma eos e al.
2012, 2013; Ma eos 2013). In loca ions whe e he alpine
anges mee he sea he landscape is cha ac e ized by a
ugged coas , ock alls and la ge landslides a e he p e-
dominan mechanism (Co ominas e al. 2017). Rock alls
a e also equen ly associa ed wi h slope cu s o oads,
Page 3 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
ailway, qua ies and o he enginee ing wo ks ( o exam-
ple, canals and dam abu men s).
Rock all igge s in Spain
Ea hquake-induced ock alls ha e he highes impac s
a egional scale. One o he deadlies ock all episodes
in Spain occu ed du ing he Andalusian ea hquake
o Decembe 25, 1884 wi hin he Bae ic ange. Mos o
he casual ies in he illages we e due o he collapse o
he buildings. Howe e , in Alhama de G anada, Ven as
de Za a aya and Albuñuelas a high numbe o a ali ies
we e caused by ock alls and landslides (Vidal 2011; El
Hamdouni e al. 1997) al hough he exac numbe canno
be speci ied.
Rain all-induced ock alls a e ubiqui ous in Spain. In
he Eas e n Py enees, a so o mul i-annual cyclici y in
he occu ence o landslides and ock alls, has been iden-
i ied ela ed o we e pe iods (Co ominas and Moya
1999; Co ominas e al. 2017). In he T amun ana ange
(Balea ic Islands), Luque-Espina e al. (2017) applied a
spec al analysis o p edic ain all induced landslides,
70% o which co espond o ock alls. They ob ained
a good co ela ion be ween No h A lan ic Oscilla ion
(NAO) cycles and win e ain all ha ma ched he dis i-
bu ion o landslides eco ded be ween 1954 and 2015.
Rock all occu ence in Spain also shows a seasonal pa -
e n. In he coas al moun ains o Ca alonia, he Eas e n
Py enees and he Ibe ian ange he pa e n di e s om
he es o Spain. In hese anges, slope ailu es a e mainly
concen a ed in au umn (Oc obe and No embe ). In he
Bae ic sys em and Cenozoic basins, slope ailu es p e-
domina e in win e and sp ing. In he Can ab ian ange,
ac i i y akes place h oughou he yea , bu wi h g ea e
in ensi y a he end o summe -beginning o au umn, la e
au umn-beginning o win e and la e sp ing-beginning
o summe . In bo h he Cana y Islands and he Balea ic
Islands, ock alls a e mainly concen a ed in he win e
mon hs (Ley a e al. 2022; Melillo e al. 2020; San os e al.
2024; Rius and Aguiló 2022). On Mallo ca island win e
2008–2009 was ema kable, as i was he coldes and we -
es win e in a 40 yea -pe iod. A o al o up o 296mm
o ain was eco ded in 24h while he annual o al was
wice he a e age in coincidence wi h anomalous, low
empe a u es, wi h abundan snow all and eeze- haw
e en s in he highes zones o he T amun ana ange. In
his episode, ou een ock alls and one ock a alanche
Fig. 1 Main mo phos uc u al uni s o Spain and Po ugal: ou e alpine anges (ligh g een) inne alpine anges (da k g een), He cynian basemen (g ey),
Cenozoic basins (yellow), and olcanic islands (o ange). Adap ed om Co ominas e al. (2017)
Page 4 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
we e eco ded, amongs o he landslides (Ma eos e al.
2012). In all he moun ain anges, ock alls a e less e-
quen in la e sp ing and summe .
The ela ionship o he occu ence o a al ock alls
wi h he seasonali y o ain all and he we es pe iods
will be discussed in Sec s.6 and 7, espec i ely.
Fa al ock all in en o ies in Spain
As a o emen ioned, he e is nei he a comple e in en o y
o a al ock alls in Spain no a easonable es ima e o
hei consequences. The easons a e di e se. Fi s , hese
a e local phenomena ha , unlike o he na u al p ocesses
such as ea hquakes o loods, a ec a limi ed e i o ial
a ea. This makes hem ha d o de ec . Then, when ock-
alls a e igge ed by majo ca as ophic e en s such as
hea y ains o ea hquakes, hey appea o be in eg a ed
in o he se o gene al damage, wi hou dis inc ion. Fu -
he mo e, ock alls mos ly occu in spa sely popula ed
moun ainous a eas and o en emain unno iced. Fo all
hese easons, hei ele ance and impac a e di icul o
quan i y. Howe e ock alls cause he g ea es numbe o
ic ims in Spain.
So a , da a a ailable in Spain e e o all ypes o slope
ins abili y. Ayala (2002) es ima ed ha , on a e age, land-
slides, ock alls and snow a alanches p oduce abou 6
dea hs pe yea . Se e al egional in en o ies ha e also
been d awn up, which a e mos ly ocused on he haz-
a d a he on he consequences. Fo example, in he
As u ias egion, an exhaus i e in en o y was p epa ed
mainly h ough sea ching local newspape a chi es
(Domınguez-Cues a e al. 1999). Valenzuela e al. (2017)
en iched his in en o y (BAPA da abase) and analyzed
a o al o 2,063 slope ailu es (landslides, deb is lows,
ock alls), co e ing he pe iod be ween 1980 and 2015.
The egis e ed ock alls we e 112. In G an Cana ia he
Road Main enance Se ice in en o ied 128 signi ican
ock alls which a ec ed he GC-200 oad o e he pe iod
2010–2016 (Sa o e al. 2020). Un il now, he mos com-
ple e and spa ially ep esen a i e landslide da abase
in Spain is he “Base de Da os de Mo imien os del Te -
eno (BDMOVES)”, c ea ed by he Geological and Min-
ing Ins i u e o Spain (IGME). This da abase eco ds all
kind o slope ins abili y mechanisms including dam-
age and ic ims and i is a ailable a : h p s : / / i n o . i g m e . e
s / B D M o e s / (las accessed on 23 Janua y 2025). In o al
1082 ock alls a e included. The ea lies eco ded ock-
all e en ook place a in 1683 in Albelda de I egua (La
Rioja) wi hou a ali ies. Fo he pe iod 1803 o 2021,
BDMOVES con ains a o al o 784 ock all e en s. F om
hem, we ha e inco po a ed 63 cases wi h ic ims in o
ou da abase.
Ma e ials and me hods
The p ocedu e ha we ha e ollowed o compiling he
a al ock all in en o y consis ed in sea ching newspa-
pe a chi es and o he documen a y sou ces since 1803,
which esul ed in a o al o 1,118 e en s. The in en o y is
summa ized in an Excel shee accessible in open o ma
on he CORA-da ase (Co ominas e al. 2023). The in o -
ma ion con ained in he ile includes he da e o occu -
ence, locali y, adminis a i e egion, con ex , ulne able
elemen , numbe o dea hs, inju ies and he documen a y
sou ce.
The collec ed da a come om a ious sou ces: 85% o
ou en ies a e om newspape s, 9% a e om published
scien i ic li e a u e, 4% a e om he BDMOVES da abase
(IGME) and almos 2% om o he sou ces. Fundamen-
ally, he sou ces a e newspape a chi es o he gene al
daily p ess such as La Vangua dia ( om 1 Feb ua y
1881 o he p esen ) and ABC ( om 1 Janua y 1903),
which accoun o 68% o he eco ds. The o he s a e
om wel e egional and local newspape s dis ibu ed
h oughou he coun y, including El Co eo, El No e
de Cas illa, El Dia io Mon añés o El ideal de G anada.
Thema ic collec ions such as hose o ailway acciden s
(FCMAF, sd) d awn om a ange o media we e also con-
sul ed. The sea ch c i e ia we e based on he use o key-
wo ds (in Spanish) such as “ ock all”, “ea h all”, “s one
all”, “hillside collapse”, “ ock all + dead”, “ ock all + bu ied”
and “ ock all + ca as ophe”. The in en o y su e s se e al
limi a ions, s a ing wi h he desc ip ion o he e en . The
w i en p ess o en labels as ock all (“desp endimien o”
in Spanish) e en s ha ac ually could be ano he ype o
landslide. The e en s we e e ised based on he desc ip-
ion o he inciden s bu unce ain ies emain. Rega d-
ing he desc ip ions o he oldes ock all epo s ha
in ol ed a la ge numbe o people ( illages, ains), he e
is con usion and dispa i y in he numbe and condi ion o
he casual ies. Some imes, he de ini i e numbe o a ali-
ies canno be de e mined om he a ailable sou ces.
The le el o se e i y in he desc ip ions is also highly
a iable when i exis s. Fo his eason, we conside ed
he ca ego ies o “se e ely o se iously inju ed” when i
is clea ly s a ed, “o he inju ies” as hose wi h mode a e,
mino wounds, and unspeci ied. People bu ied wi hou
u he in o ma ion ha e been included in he sec ion
o “o he inju ies”. Fu he unce ain y esul s om he
occu ence o dea hs days o e en weeks a e he e en .
In mos cases, he e was no ollow-up on he condi ion
o he inju ed people and whe he hey e en ually died
o eco e ed. The e o e, i is easonable o assume ha a
ce ain p opo ion o hese people died, bu we could no
quan i y hem e en oughly. An added limi a ion is ha
in ca as ophic e en s, eleg ams ollow one ano he and
he e a e epe i ions in he numbe and condi ion o he
casual ies. Despi e hese d awbacks, gi en he consis en
Page 5 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
and con inuous in o ma ion p o ided by ex ensi e p ess
co e age, his in en o y includes all he impo an e en s
and can be conside ed as he mos comple e and eliable,
a ailable in en o y o ock all casual ies in Spain up o
da e.
We ha e g ouped he in en o ied e en s in i e di e -
en con ex s o hei analysis: (a) ock alls a ec ing iso-
la ed dwellings and illages. The casual ies occu ei he by
he di ec impac o he ock blocks and/o he collapse
o he buildings; (b) qua ies (usually shallowe han open
pi mines) and la ge ci il enginee ing exca a ions (e.g.
dam abu men s, canals); (c) ailways; (d) oad ne wo ks;
and (e) he ou doo ac i i ies, which include coas al a eas
and moun ain ails. E en s wi h casual ies ha occu ed
in building ounda ions, di ches and wells, and hose p o-
duced in unde g ound mines and unnels ha e no been
included in he analysis. Thus, he in en o y co e s also
cases o ock alls o an h opogenic o igin, like o he
in en o ies ha ha e al eady been published (e.g. E ans
and Clague 1997; Ga cia-Delgado e al. 2022; S ou h and
McDougall 2021; Zhang e al. 2023). Roads and ailways
a e in as uc u es ha in e ac wi h he na u al en i-
onmen . F om he desc ip ions in he newspape s, i is
o en no possible o dis inguish whe he he e en s ha e
hei o igin in he na u al slope abo e he ack o in he
ock cu s exca a ed. In hese wo con ex s, he ock ail-
u es gene a ed in he na u al slope and in he exca a ed
cu s ha e been conside ed oge he .
Finally, in o de o analyze he seasonal dis ibu ion
(Sec .6) and he mul iannual end (Sec .7) o a al ock-
alls, we ha e selec ed he subg oup o e en s be ween
1872 and 2021 (150 yea s) in which daily w i en p ess is
a ailable unin e up edly.
Resul s
The in en o y ha we p esen in his pape analyzes a
o al o 1,118 cases o ock alls esponsible o mo e han
3700 casual ies, o he pe iod 1803–2021 (Figs.2 and 3,
and Table1). A o al o 41.5% o he casual ies a e a ali-
ies (1,550 dea hs) and he o he s a e inju ies o a ying
se e i y (2,184), wi h he ollowing b eakdown: 626 se i-
ous inju ies, and 1,558 o he inju ies (o a ying deg ees).
A o al o 89% o he e en s ha e been geo e e enced
assigning each one o i s co esponding municipali y
(Fig.2).
The e olu ion o e he yea s o a al ock alls and he
numbe o dea hs (Fig.3) shows ha pe iods wi h highe
and lowe incidence al e na e. Howe e , he pe iod wi h
Fig. 2 Spa ial dis ibu ion o a al ock all e en s (o ange do s). Black do s wi h numbe ed labels co espond o he cases men ioned in Tables2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 and in he ex
Page 6 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
he highes concen a ion o e en s and dea hs (263) is
ha o 1926–1935 (a e age numbe o dea hs pe e en is
1.65) which coincides wi h a pe iod o posi i e p ecipi a-
ion anomaly, as i will be seen in he ollowing sec ion.
A e a pe iod (be ween 1976 and 2005), in which bo h
he numbe o e en s and ic ims dec eased, he numbe
o e en s has expe ienced a s ong g ow h al hough he
numbe o dea hs has only g own mode a ely. The num-
be o dea hs pe e en , d opped om 1.9 dea hs/e en in
he pe iod 1926–1935 o 0.6 dea hs/e en in he pe iod
2006–2015.
I is impo an o no e ha Fig.3 does no show he dis-
ibu ion o o al ock alls, bu a he he dis ibu ion o
ock alls ha ha e caused casual ies, ha is, he pe sonal
isk dis ibu ion. The la e esul s om he combina ion
o he occu ence o he na u al p ocess wi h he p es-
ence o exposed elemen s and hei ulne abili y. Thus,
an inc ease in he numbe o ock alls does no necessa -
ily esul in an inc ease in isk and ice e sa.
In o de o be e assess he in e ac ion be ween he
ock alls and he exposed elemen s, we ha e p oceeded
o analyze he occu ence o a al ock alls o each o
he con ex conside ed. Table1 shows he dis ibu ion
o e en s and a ali ies by con ex . I is in e es ing o
no e ha , excep o dwellings and illages, e en s wi h
ew a ali ies domina e ock all mo ali y. Thus, e en s
ha caused one o wo dea hs a e esponsible o 42.1%
o o al a ali ies. This pe cen age inc eases up o 60% i
e en s ha caused 5 dea hs o less a e conside ed. This
pa e n is especially dominan in ou doo ac i i ies, such
as moun ain ails and coas al a eas, whe e e en s wi h
only one dea h accoun o 74% and 59% o o al a ali-
ies in hese con ex s. In he case o exca a ions and
oads e en s wi h 1 o 2 dea hs accoun o 60% and 65%
espec i ely o o al a ali ies. A he opposi e ex eme
a e dwellings and illages whe e 54% o a ali ies ha e
occu ed in e en s in ol ing mo e han 10 dea hs (13
cases). Fa ali ies on ailways a e mo e e enly dis ibu ed.
In his con ex , e en s causing 1 o 2 dea hs accoun o
32% o all a ali ies, while hose causing mo e han 10
dea hs accoun o 36% o all a ali ies.
Rock alls a ec ing dwellings and illages
Despi e he local na u e o ock alls, when hey a ec
illages loca ed unde nea h ock walls o cli s, eal
ca as ophes can occu . I is, by a , he con ex wi h he
g ea es numbe o dea hs. The o al numbe o ic ims
was 577 dead and 266 inju ed (Table1). These e en s only
ep esen 12.3% o he cases in he in en o y, bu hey a e
esponsible o o e 37.2% o dea hs and 21.4% o se i-
ous inju ies. The a e age numbe o dea hs pe e en is
4.6, which is he highes a e o he con ex s conside ed.
Table 1 Numbe o ock alls wi h ic ims collec ed and hei b eakdown by he se e i y o he damage in lic ed and he con ex , om
1803 o 2021. Values in bold co espond o maximum o each kind o ic ims
# e en s Dea hs Se iously inju ed O he inju ed To al ic ims
Dwellings and illages 125 577 134 132 843
Qua ies and exca a ions 275 418 109 111 638
T anspo a ion in as uc u e Railways 200 213 194 1005 1412
Roads 163 138 109 191 438
Moun ain ails and coas al a eas 212 150 52 106 308
Unspeci ied 43 54 28 13 95
TOTAL 1118 1550 626 1558 3734
Fig. 3 Tempo al dis ibu ion o ock all e en s and a ali ies in Spain wi hin he las 220 yea s
Page 7 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
No ela ionship can be es ablished be ween he size o
he ock all, he numbe o houses a ec ed and he o al
numbe o ic ims. Al hough he houses we e pe ma-
nen ly exposed, he numbe o ic ims depend la gely on
he p esence o absence o esiden s a he ime o occu -
ence and he capaci y o he buildings o wi hs and he
impac o he ock blocks. The mos appalling cases ook
place a nigh . Table2, p esen s he mos ele an ock all
e en s documen ed since 1803 (see also hei loca ion in
Fig.2).
Some o hese illages consis o buildings buil a ound
medie al cas les, which o e ed p o ec ion o hei inhab-
i an s. The cas les we e buil on ocky ou c ops bo de ed
by e ical walls ha we e di icul o access. In mos
cases, ock alls ha e been a ecu ing p ocess un il e i-
cien , a o dable s abiliza ion and p o ec ion echniques
we e made a ailable. I was no un il he middle o he
las cen u y ha a ious a ec ed Spanish municipali ies
we e able o mobilize economic esou ces o mi iga e he
isk. This is he case o Azag a (Na a e). The illage su -
e ed se e al episodes, he i s epo ed e en occu ing
on 30 June 1856. On his da e, a conside able pa o he
ock called “El Cas illo” collapsed, des oying six houses
and bu ying 11 people. On 21 July 1874, a dawn, a siz-
able pa o he ock cli collapsed, su p ising a la ge pa
o he neighbo hood in hei sleep. The esul was he
des uc ion o 77 inhabi ed buildings wi h a o al o 99
dea hs.
Alcalá de Juca (Cas ile la Mancha) is a illage wi h
a long lis o inciden s. The i s known e e ence is he
e en o 24 Decembe 1803, when he cli , ha sup-
po ed pa o he cas le’s ounda ion, ell o . A o al o 30
houses we e des oyed, lea ing 26 dead, while 27 people
we e bu ied and escued ali e in he ollowing h ee days
(Rod íguez de la To e 1997). The illage has been h ea -
ened o a long ime since o he e en s a e known in he
nine een h and wen ie h cen u ies. New a al e en s ol-
lowed in Janua y 1880, Ap il 1881 and Decembe 1932
(López Sanz 2014). The las ca as ophic e en occu ed
on 19 Decembe 1945, wi h 20 houses bu ied, 16 dead,
2 se iously inju ed and 40 inju ed o a ying deg ees.
Recen ly, ollowing he implemen a ion o some p o ec-
i e wo ks, ock alls ha e con inued o occu , o una ely
o a smalle magni ude and wi hou pe sonal inju y.
Rock alls ha e also led o he abandonmen o illages.
One no able case is ha o Fuen es de Cesna (Andalusia).
I s o me loca ion is known as Fuen es Viejas. Acco ding
o he newspape s, on 4 Feb ua y 1940, a 600m x 500m
mass o sands one and conglome a es collapsed on o he
illage, lea ing a 3 m- hick man le o deb is. The olume
was es ima ed a abou 1 Mm3. In he e en , 22 houses
we e des oyed wi h a balance o 19 dead and 4 se iously
inju ed. The cause o he ock all is a ibu ed o in ense
and pe sis en ains. On 4 Ap il 1963, ain all caused
u he ins abili y, which o ced he displacemen o 200
esiden s. In 1965, he new Fuen es de Cesna was buil a
a sa e loca ion.
Rock alls in qua ies and exca a ions
Rock qua ies and g a el and clay pi s ha e been a pe -
manen sou ce o acciden s. So ha e he exca a ions
o ci il enginee ing wo ks such as dam abu men s. The
in en o y includes 275 e en s. This is he con ex wi h
he highes pe cen age o e en s (27%) wi h a o al o
418 dea hs (27%) and 220 inju ies o a ying deg ees
(Table 1). Acciden s occu in e y di e en si ua ions,
om wo ks ha gene a e la ge cu heigh s and exca a-
ion olumes, o qua ies o a iable dimensions, and
mino exca a ions ca ied ou manually. I is he con ex
in which he g ea es numbe o e en s wi h ic ims a e
eco ded, bu wi h a mode a e a io o 1.52 dea hs pe
e en . In qua ies and g a el pi s, a he end o he 19 h
cen u y and beginning o he 20 h, i was common o
he limi ed numbe o wo ke s being he exposed popula-
ion, o wo k shi s o up o 10 and 12h. The exca a ion
me hods we e udimen a y and since hey we e empo-
a y ock cu s, p e en ion measu es we e no no mally
implemen ed. The main acciden s wi h ic ims ook place
in exca a ed abu men s o dams and canals in ol ing a
la ge numbe o wo ke s. One o he acciden s wi h he
highes numbe o ic ims occu ed on 31 July 1972 du -
ing he exca a ion o he abu men o he Cedillo dam in
Ex emadu a, in he Tajo i e basin (Table3). I is es i-
ma ed ha app oxima ely 50,000 m3 o ock and ea h
ell om a heigh o abou 40m, esul ing in 11 dea hs
and one inju y. On 10 Feb ua y 1982, a 20m-long ench
de ached du ing he wo ks on he Tajo-Segu a canal, in
Lo ca, Mu cia, esul ing in 7 ic ims.
The isk o ock alls also occu s in qua ies. Despi e
qua ies in Spain no mally ha e small dimensions and a
limi ed numbe o wo ke s, ock alls a e one o he main
causes o occupa ional mo ali y. A pa adigma ic case is
he Mon juïc moun ain, he emblema ic hill o Ba celona.
Table 2 The i e mos ele an ock alls e en s wi h ic ims
(dea hs and inju ies) in dwellings and illages, in he pe iod
1803–2021. Loca ion o he e en (ID) is shown in Fig.2
ID
label
Locali y,
egion
Da e Des oyed
houses
Dea hs Se iously
inju ed
1Azag a, Na a e 21/07/1874 72 99
2Beas de Segu a,
Andalusia
25/04/1879 36 16
3Alcalá de Júca ,
Cas ile la Mancha
24/12/1803 30 26 27
4Viana do Bolo,
Galicia
27/12/1909 36 26
5Fuen es de Cesna,
Andalusia
04/02/1940 22 19 4
Page 8 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
Despi e i s modes dimensions (191m high and an a ea
o 360ha wide), i has wi nessed nume ous inciden s. A
o al o 25 qua ies we e coun ed (Fig.4 shows one o
hem), dis ibu ed h oughou he massi . Acciden s pe i-
odically occu ed in he qua ies un il hey we e inally
closed in 1955 by he au ho i ies which conside ed hem
oo dange ous. In Mon juïc, a o al o 42 a ali ies and 36
inju ies o a ious deg ees we e eco ded in he pe iod
be ween 1849 and 1971 (Pinyol e al. 2022).
Rock alls on ailways
In he in en o y, 19.6% o he e en s collec ed (200
e en s) a e included in his con ex wi h a o al o 213
dead and 1,199 inju ies, which is he highes numbe o
inju ies o all he con ex s analyzed (Table1). The eason
is he high numbe o people exposed and he ac ha
mos o ic ims a e no due o he di ec impac o he
ock blocks bu o he subsequen acciden .
The bigges ca as ophes a e associa ed wi h he de ail-
men o con oys and/o c ashed passenge ca iages ha
ge s uck o all down an embankmen o hillside. Thus,
36% o a ali ies and 19% o se ious inju ies a e due solely
o he 5 e en s lis ed in Table4. These ypes o inciden s
a e o en ollowed by upda es in he news and deba es
abou sa e y o he in as uc u e a e gene a ed.
As men ioned, he e en wi h he highes numbe o
ic ims and desc ibed in g ea de ail by he media is ha
o Ame lla de Ma (Ca alonia). I ook place in he mid-
dle o a ainy pe iod on he nigh o 1 Sep embe 1926.
A dawn, a ain de ailed as he esul o a ock all. The
ock all, wi h an ex ension o 50m, ook place when he
locomo i e was passing, which ended up colliding wi h
he slope cu . A e aining wall ell on wo o he ca iages.
The eason o he high numbe o ic ims was due o he
ac ha he ca iages became embedded wi h each o he .
Rock alls on oads
Road acciden s accoun ed o 138 a ali ies and 109 se i-
ous inju ies, con ibu ing o 438 o al ic ims, a ela-
i ely lowe p opo ion compa ed o o he con ex s
such as ailways o dwellings (Table1). The mos c i ical
s e ches co espond o go ges, which a e equen in he
main moun ain anges (Fig.6), in which he ou e layou
uns o kilome e s exposed o ock alls. In he Py enees,
Te ade s and Collega s a e known in he Nogue a Pal-
la esa Ri e , T es Pon s in he Seg e Ri e , he Ven am-
illo go ge in he Ése a Ri e , and he He mida Go ge in
Table 3 The i e mos ele an ock alls e en s wi h ic ims
(dea hs and inju ies) in qua ies and du ing exca a ions, in he
pe iod 1803–2021. Loca ion o he e en (ID) is shown in Fig.2
ID
label
Locali y,
egion
Da e Dea hs Se iously
inju ed
O he
inju ed
6Cabila de
Tensaman,
Melilla
01/08/1930 16 3
7Cedillo dam,
Ex emadu a
31/07/1972 11 1
8Lo ca, Mu cia 10/02/1982 7
9Abelenda
qua y, Galicia
03/09/1957 6 2
10 Cons ucción en
los al os Izbo ,
Andalusia
14/02/1933 6
Table 4 The i e mos ele an ailway acciden s wi h ic ims, caused by ock and Ea h alls, in he pe iod 1803–2021. Loca ion o he
e en (ID) is shown in Fig.2
ID
label
Loca ion, egion Da e con ex Dea hs Se iously inju ed O he inju ed
11 Ame lla de Ma ,
Ca alonia
01/09/1926 ope a ing 24 20 130
12 Filguei a-F iei a,Galicia 10/03/1915 ope a ing 18 15 21
13 Villagonzalo, Ex emadu a 12/10/1921 ope a ing 12 76
14 Pindueles, As u ias 03/08/1988 ope a ing 11 1 18
15 Laxosa, O Co go,
Galicia
01/08/1882 cons uc ion 11
Fig. 4 Sands one qua y on Mon juïc moun ain, Ba celona in he ea ly
1900s. Fho og aphy o Josep B angulin, cou esy o Na ional A chi e o
Ca alonia
Page 9 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
he De a Ri e , in Can ab ia. Table5 shows he acciden s
wi h he highes numbe o ic ims.
Simila ly, as in he case o ains, he cases wi h he
highes numbe o ic ims a e due o he acciden caused
by he ock all and no by he di ec impac o he ock
blocks. The la ges numbe o ic ims (dead and inju ed)
is due o acciden s in ol ing collec i e anspo ehicles.
In he acciden s ha occu ed on he oad om Ronda
o San Ped o de Alcán a a in 1978 and om Es ada o
Silleda in 1992 (Table5), he ock all caused a bus o go
o he oad and plunge in o he i e .
Rock alls in ou doo ac i i ies
Ou doo en i onmen s eco ded 150 a ali ies and 52
se ious inju ies, comp ising 8.2% o he o al ic ims in
his s udy. High moun ains and i e go ges a e loca ions
a ec ed by equen ock alls. The eco d also includes
ew cases o ic ims such as a me s o shephe ds who
did no p ac ice ou doo ac i i ies. The a ailable s a is ics
o a al ock all a e p obably incomple e because in he
ea ly eco ds he cause o moun ain acciden s and in pa -
icula he occu ence o a ock block impac was a ely
s a ed. As moun ain hiking is an ac i i y ha is ca ied
ou indi idually o in small g oups ha a e in mo emen ,
he numbe o people a ec ed in each acciden is e y
small. The a ali y a e is 0.7 dea hs pe e en , he lowes
amongs all he con ex s (Table6).
The o al numbe o acciden s eco ded in ou doo
ac i i ies ep esen s 20.8% o ou in en o y (172 on
moun ain ails and 40 in coas al a eas) and 9.7% o a al-
i ies. The geog aphical dis ibu ion is e y cha ac e is ic
and di e s om ha obse ed in o he con ex s (Fig.2;
Table6). O e 24% o ic ims in moun ain ails occu in
he Py enees. I should be no ed ha 16% o all a ali ies
on moun ain ails occu ed in he Py enees o A agon,
a e y popula des ina ion o moun ainee s. The As u -
Leonese sec o o he Can ab ian moun ain ange, he
Leonese pa o he Can ab ian moun ain ange, con-
cen a es 13% o a ali ies no only due o i s peaks bu
also due o he popula i y o ails such as he Ca es ail,
which ecei es mo e han 200,000 isi o s each yea , and
up o 3,000 isi o s a day. The e is also a no able hiking
ac i i y ha has led o a ious acciden s nea ou is
des ina ions ha a e known o hei beaches. Thus, Ali-
can e coas (numbe 1 in Fig.9), he Balea ic and Cana y
Islands, accoun o 16.3% o acciden s wi h ic ims on
moun ain ails.
In coas al a eas (Fig. 5), wo ock alls s and ou , wi h
ou dea hs each (Table6). In bo h, people we e a he
beach o leisu e. One occu ed in 1961 in To emolinos
(Andalusia) and he o he 24 yea s la e , in 1985 in Cádiz
(Andalusia).
In es men in s abiliza ion and p o ec ion agains
ock alls
I is impossible o co ec ly in e p e he empo al e o-
lu ion o he a ali ies-inju ies and ma e ial losses due o
ock alls wi hou aking in o conside a ion he in es -
men in s abiliza ion and p o ec ion measu es. This
Table 5 The mos ele an acciden s wi h ic ims caused by
ock alls on oads, in he pe iod 1803–2021. Loca ion o he e en
(ID) is shown in Fig.2
ID
label
Loca ion,
egion
Da e Dea hs Inju ies Commen
16 B idge in
Poma ,
Can ab ia
27/06/1803 9 Du ing con-
s uc ion.
24,000m3
collapse
17 Ge i de
la Sal,
Ca alonia
09/09/1902 8 3 Du ing
cons uc-
ion
18 Road N-640
Es ada-Sille-
da, Galicia
25/06/1992 5 30 Bus alls
down he
i e 45m
below
19 To o,
Cas ile and
Leon
06/12/1965 5 Two con-
secu i e
e en s
20 Ronda, San
Ped o de
Alcán a a,
Andalusia
04/12/1978 4 16 Bus alls
down he
i e
Table 6 The mos ele an acciden s in he na u al en i onmen wi h ic ims caused by ock alls, in he pe iod 1803–2021. Abo e:
coas al a eas (beaches and coas al cli s). Below: moun ain ails (hiking and o he ac i i ies)
Con ex ou doo ac i i ies ID label Loca ion, egion Da e Dea hs Inju ies Commen
Coas al a eas 21 Beach Fuen e de la Salud, To emolinos,
Andalusia
09/07/1961 4
22 Beach San a Ma ía del Ma , Andalusia 21/07/1985 4 1
23 Cala Sa Nau, Felani x,
Balea ic Islands
14/04/2021 2
Moun ain ails 24 Xixona, Valencia 27/02/1913 3
25 San a Ma ga ida de Mon bui, Ca alonia 06/01/1930 3
26 San Joan de Fàb egues, Ca alonia 18/10/1940 3
27 Se a del Cadí, Ca alonia 19/12/1993 3 Rescue helicop e hi by a ock all
28 Pico el Jiso, As u ias 22/04/2017 3
Page 16 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
he pe iod 1972–1981 saw mo e inju ies, bu sp ead o e
13 inciden s.
The numbe o a ali ies in ailway acciden s caused
by ock alls has been dec easing o e ime (Fig. 12),
al hough no as much as i would be expec ed conside -
ing he in es men s made o e decades in he s abiliza-
ion o ock cu s. In he i s yea s o ailway ope a ion,
ock alls we e equen . O e he yea s he slopes ha e
been ein o ced and p o ec ed and wa ning sys ems and
b aking de ices ha e been ins alled in case o ca ena y
b eakage. This has imp o ed sa e y. Howe e , p o ec ing
long hauls h ough na ow go ges exposed o a di use
ock all haza d om di icul - o-access slopes con inues
o be a challenge.
Roads
The numbe o a al e en s collec ed on oads is 218,
esul ing in 399 ic ims (1.8 ic ims pe acciden on a e -
age). The empo al dis ibu ion o he numbe o a al
ock alls on oads shows ma ked a iabili y, wi h a sub-
s an ial inc ease o e he las h ee decades (Fig.13).
I is no possible o assign he inc ease in a al ock-
alls in oad a ic o a single cause. One eason is he
imp o emen o in o ma ion hanks o he appea ance
o digi al media and social ne wo ks. The w i en p ess
usually epo s acciden s wi h dea hs bu a ely hose
ha only esul in inju ies. The eme gence o digi al local
p ess o e he las 20 yea s has acili a ed he access o
in o ma ion ha would o he wise ha e gone unno iced
in he main na ion-wide newspape s. On he o he hand,
he as majo i y o e en s occu in moun ain oads,
including hose o he Cana y Islands and he Balea ic
Islands. I is he e o e logical o assume ha he highe
incidence is due o he inc ease in a ic on he mos
dange ous moun ain oad sec ions (Table8). Thus, a -
ic in he Escue gauge s a ion in he access o he Cen al
Py enees quad upled be ween 1980 and 2021 ( om 1,427
o 5,801 ehicles/day espec i ely). We should conside
in 2021 in Spain he e we e s ill mobili y limi a ions due
o he COVID-19 pandemic. A simila si ua ion is ound
in he access o he main ou is ic loca ions in he Can-
ab ian ange such as Panes gauge s a ion ( om 130 o
4,446 ehicles/day be ween 1988 and 2021) o in Pon de
Sue in he access o he Eas e n Py enees ( om 1993 o
3,869 ehicles/day be ween 1980 and 2021).
The inc ease in he numbe o ic ims con as s wi h
he in es men made by he adminis a ion in mi iga-
ion measu es agains ock alls and he execu ion o
oad bypasses as men ioned in he p e ious sec ion.
This appa en lack o e ec i eness o he se o p e en-
i e ac ions has been obse ed on o he moun ain oads
(Weidne and Wal on 2021). In any case, he end o
inc easing acciden s highligh s he di icul y o isk man-
agemen on oads ha c oss moun ain anges ollowing
he cou se o he main i e alleys. These a e s e ches
a ec ed by a di use haza d o igina ed a abo e he oad
and wi h innume able sou ce a eas.
Fig. 12 E olu ion o he numbe o ic ims in ailway acciden s caused by ock alls g ouped by decades. Ve ical dashed blue lines ep esen he we es
pe iods acco ding o Fig.8
Page 17 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
Ou doo ac i i ies
The dis ibu ion o ock alls by decades shows a sub-
s an ial inc ease in he numbe o a al e en s and he
numbe o ic ims (Fig.14). The inc ease in he numbe
o e en s in his case canno be associa ed o he p e-
cipi a ion pe iods. The a e age annual p ecipi a ion in
he Py enees as a whole (a e age o he 26-clima e se ies
analyzed) shows a s a is ically signi ican dec easing
end o he pe iod 1959–2023 o -1.9% pe decade, an
inc ease o 1.9ºC o he mean annual empe a u e and an
annual educ ion o 18 eezing days (Py enean Clima e
Change Obse a o y 2023). The only easonable explana-
ion o a al ock alls in moun ains is he inc ease in isi-
o s (elemen s exposed). The e exis s a moun ainee ing
adi ion o o e 100 yea s in Spain bu he expansion o
ou doo ac i i ies and p ac i ione s ha e only eme ged in
ecen decades. In he pe iod 2010–2019, he numbe o
moun ain spo s ede a ions has almos doubled, g owing
om 139,325 o 248,406 (h ps://es.s a is a.com). The n u
m b e o isi o s o he na u al ese es in Spain inc eased
by 72% be ween 1996 and 2019, om 8.8 o 15.2million
people espec i ely, acco ding o he Spanish Minis y o
ecological ansi ion and demog aphic challenge.
Unlike in u ban a eas, moun ainee ing ac i i y is sub-
jec o di use haza d ha is no easible o manage and
is usually p ac iced a he use ’s own isk. The possi-
bili ies o e e sing he inc ease in a ali ies a e limi ed.
Educa ion abou moun ains and hei isks and sel -p o-
ec ion is a use ul bu insu icien ool. On some popula
ails he adminis a ion has ca ied ou some ini ia i es
such as signaling he mos dange ous a eas, issuing ec-
ommenda ions and eplacing damaged elemen s. On
Table 8 E olu ion o he a e age daily a ic (ADT) o i e s a ions loca ed in he moun ain oads o Spain (Minis e io de Fomen o
2021). Yea 2020 is excluded due o he pandemic lock-down
ADT by yea s
Moun ain Range S a ion 1980 1990 2000 2010 2019 2021(*)
Can ab ian ange Panes 1,684 3,470 4,035 4,268 4,446
Po es 3,288 3,533 3,820 3,749 3,757
Eas e n Py enees Pon Sue 1,993 3,487 4,669 4,140 4,958 3,869
So 1,644 2,742 3,356 3,780 3,228
Cen al Py enees Escue 1,427 2,808 4,298 5,058 6,051 5,801
Fig. 13 E olu ion o he numbe o ic ims o oad acciden s caused by ock alls. g ouped by decades. Ve ical dashed blue lines ep esen he we es
pe iods acco ding o Fig.8
Page 18 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
occasions i has been decided o empo a ily close he
accesses, wi hou much success. This is he case o he
Ba anco del In ie no on he island o Tene i e (Cana y
Islands). Access o he go ge was closed in 2010 a e a
deadly ock all. The access was eopened 5 yea s la e
and a e ha ing ca ied ou sa e y and signpos ing
wo k. Howe e , jus a ew mon hs a e he eopening a
new ock all caused he loss o ano he li e. In a simila
way o ock alls in moun ain a eas, he numbe o acci-
den s on beaches and coas al cli s has inc eased signi i-
can ly in ecen decades. The eason mus be sough in
he p esence o ou is s on he Spanish coas , which has
inc eased om 0.2M in 1938 o 85M in 2023 (Tu españa
2023) (Fig.15).
Fig. 15 E olu ion o he numbe o ic ims caused by ock alls in coas al a eas. g ouped by decades. Ve ical dashed blue lines ep esen he pe iods o
majo p ecipi a ions acco ding o Fig.8
Fig. 14 E olu ion o he numbe o ic ims caused by ock alls on moun ain ails (hiking and o he ac i i ies) g ouped by decades. Ve ical dashed blue
lines ep esen he we es pe iods acco ding o Fig.8
Page 19 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
The possibili y o e e sing his upwa d end is mo e
likely han in he case o moun ain ac i i ies. O e he
las 20 yea s, egional adminis a ions ha e made a sig-
ni ican in es men e o in signpos ing, implemen a ion
o p o ec i e sys ems and cli s abiliza ion. The esul s
should be isible in a ew yea s.
Final ema ks
To he knowledge o he au ho s, wo ldwide, he e is a
lack o speci ic s udies on he analysis o ock all a ali ies
o e ime, as ock all consequences a e ypically included
in o he impac s o landslides in gene al. Thus, he pa -
e ns o loss o li e due o ock alls ha e no been s ud-
ied sepa a ely o compa ison wi h his s udy. By eason
o his gap, he esul s o his wo k a e compa ed o he
pa e ns which ha e been obse ed o landslides and
ela ed na u al disas e s in gene al.
In is con ibu ion, we p esen he i s comp ehensi e
ca alogue o a al ock alls in Spain since 1803. The ca -
alog was compiled om e en s epo ed in he na ional
daily p ess ha has been published unin e up edly since
he las qua e o he 19 h cen u y. I was supplemen ed
wi h in o ma ion d awn om local newspape s, ch on-
icles, books and websi es (a icles, g ay li e a u e and
web esou ces). The spa io- empo al dis ibu ion o a al
ock alls and hei consequences o e a pe iod o 150
yea s (1872–2021) is speci ically analyzed. The esolu ion
o he ca alog has made i possible o examine he empo-
al ends o ock alls acco ding o he con ex in which
hey occu .
Ou in en o y inc eases ou unde s anding o he
social impac o ock alls in Spain. The numbe o annual
ic ims (> 10) g ea ly exceeds he igu es known o da e
o all landslide ypes (Ayala 2002).
Ou in en o y allowed us o assess he con ibu ion
o mo ali y om small e en s. In he i s pa o he
in en o y (be o e 1872), many o hese e en s p obably
wen unno iced. Ins ead, we conside ha he compi-
la ion since 1872 is easonably comple e. The analysis
o he impac o e en s wi h ew ic ims (less han 5) in
Spain showed ha hei impac is as impo an as ha
o la ge, in equen ca as ophic ock alls. In pa icula ,
e en s ha ha e caused 1 o 2 dea hs a e esponsible o
42.1% o o al a ali ies. This pe cen age inc eases o 60%
i e en s ha caused up o 5 dea hs a e included. This
obse a ion con as s wi h esul s om global s udies
sugges ing ha la ge e en s domina e mo ali y s a is ics
(Pe ley e al. 2005).
The la ges numbe o ock alls ake place in he we -
es seasons (la e au umn and win e ) and occu in
g ea e numbe s du ing we yea cycles. Fa al ock alls
a ec ing dwellings, oads and ail oads ollow a simila
pa e n, bu his does no apply o he es o he con-
ex s. The da abase shows a high le el o a iabili y in he
occu ence o a al ock alls om yea o yea , bu he
o e all end o a ali ies is downwa d. In ou case, he
educ ion is no isible in all he con ex s analyzed, as
an inc ease in a al acciden s in he na u al en i onmen
is obse ed. Fac o s such as he in es men made by he
adminis a ions o mi iga e he isk and he inc ease in
exposu e play a ele an ole.
Ou s udy sugges s ha , in Spain, he u ban and popu-
la ion g ow h as well as he de elopmen o communi-
ca ion in as uc u es has no led o an inc ease in a al
ock alls as i occu s in o he geog aphical en i onmen s
(Pe ley 2010). In he las 150 yea s he popula ion has
ipled; he ailway ne wo k was i s cons uc ed in 1848
and i cu en ly ex ends o e 15,000km. While he oad
ne wo k ha in 1900 measu ed only 36,000km and was
used mainly by animal-powe ed ehicles has expanded o
exceed 165,000km a p esen . Howe e , ou s udy shows
ha he incidence o a al ock alls has dec eased o e all.
The isk o ock alls o people has been signi ican ly
educed in buil -up a eas and dwellings loca ed benea h
cli s and s eep ock walls. We a ibu e his decline
mainly o he s abiliza ion and p o ec ion asks ca -
ied ou in ecen decades. Villages ha ha e his o ically
su e ed ock alls a e mo e p o ec ed hanks o mi iga-
ion wo ks. This end was also obse ed by Shinoha a
and Kume (2022) in Japan. I con as s wi h he upwa d
ends in landslide casual ies obse ed in o he la i udes
(Ga cia-Delgado e al. 2022).
A declining end was obse ed in ailway sec ions due
also o slope s abiliza ion wo ks and o he sa e y sys ems
ha de ec inciden s in he ca ena y o acks. How-
e e , hese imp o emen s do no each he en i e ex en-
si e ailway ne wo k and acciden s con inue o occu
al hough wi h lesse consequences. Simila ly, a dec ease
in acciden s in qua ies is obse ed, associa ed wi h he
imp o emen o exca a ion sys ems and sa e y measu es
implemen ed. These a e su icien ly eloquen igu es o
jus i y he in es men e o s in p e en ion and p o ec-
ion ha a e being ca ied ou by adminis a ions and
au ho i ies.
In he con ex o oads, signi ican mi iga ion e o s
ha e been unde aken o educe he numbe and isk
o ock alls. Howe e , he in ensi ica ion in a ic, pa -
icula ly on moun ain oads, has subs an ially inc eased
exposu e. Fo his eason, he in es men e o has no
esul ed in a educ ion o isk globally in he coun y.
The e a e wo easons o his: he inc ease in he leng h
o he oad ne wo k (almos 20% in he las 50 yea s)
bu , abo e all, he inc ease in oad a ic, pa icula ly on
moun ain oads.
The seasonal dis ibu ion o ock all dea hs in ou doo
ac i i ies (moun ain ails and coas al a eas) di e s sub-
s an i ely om he dis ibu ion o ock all mo ali y in
o he con ex s. The inc ease in acciden s wi h ic ims
Page 20 o 21Co ominas e al. Geoen i onmen al Disas e s (2025) 12:17
ollows a pa e n ha is di ec ly ela ed o human p es-
ence. Acciden s a e mainly concen a ed in he summe
season, which coincides wi h he holiday pe iod. Sum-
me is he season wi h he leas p ecipi a ion and, con-
sequen ly, he leas numbe o ock alls. This inc ease in
acciden s can only be explained by he inc ease in expo-
su e. A simila explana ion was p oposed by Ayala e
al. (2003) o jus i y he signi ican inc ease in ic ims o
snow a alanches in win e in he Py enean a ea.
In he las 20 yea s, a al ock alls in he na u al en i-
onmen ha e accoun ed o 55% o he dea hs and 31%
o he se ious inju ies. I is o eseeable ha his end will
con inue in he u u e due o he inc ease in he numbe
o isi o s and he di icul y o implemen ing isk mi iga-
ion measu es. especially in high moun ains.
The e ec o clima e change on ock alls is s ill
unknown. The small ex en o pe ma os in he highes
moun ain anges o he peninsula sugges s ha i s dis-
appea ance will no signi ican ly a ec he equency o
ailu es. Howe e , he inc ease in in ense p ecipi a ion
e en s will be a ac o ha will a o a highe incidence.
This end is obse ed in Pe uccacci e al. (2023) o land-
slides in I aly.
Au ho con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion: J.C.; me hodology: all he co-au ho s; da a compila ion: J.C.,
N.L. and M.A.N.; so wa e N.L. and M.A.N.; o mal analysis: all he co-au ho s;
da a cu a ion all he co-au ho s; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion J.C.;
w i ing— e iew and edi ing all he co-au ho s; unding acquisi ion and
p ojec adminis a ion N.L. and M.A.N. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he
published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding
This wo k was suppo ed by he Geo isk p ojec “Ad ances in ock all
quan i a i e isk analysis (QRA) inco po a ing de elopmen s in geoma ics
(GeoRisk)”, g an numbe PID2019-103974RB-I00, unded by MCIN/AEI/ h p s : /
/ d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 3 0 3 9 / 5 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 3, Minis e io de Ciencia e Inno ación and he
Agencia Es a al de In es igación o Spain.
Da a a ailabili y
No da ase s we e gene a ed o analysed du ing he cu en s udy.
Decla a ions
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
Recei ed: 8 Augus 2024 / Accep ed: 5 Ma ch 2025
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