wa e
A icle
Assessing he Impac o Lining Pollu ed S eams on G oundwa e
Quali y: A Case S udy o he Eas e n Nile Del a Aqui e , Egyp
Ismail Abd-Ela y 1, Abdel ahman M. Said 1,2, Gamal M. Abdelaal 1, Ma ina Zeleˇnáko á3,* , Jan Jando a 4
and Hany F. Abd-Elhamid 1,5


Ci a ion: Abd-Ela y, I.; Said, A.M.;
Abdelaal, G.M.; Zeleˇnáko á, M.;
Jando a, J.; Abd-Elhamid, H.F.
Assessing he Impac o Lining Pollu ed
S eams on G oundwa e Quali y: A
Case S udy o he Eas e n Nile Del a
Aqui e , Egyp . Wa e 2021,13, 1705.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/w13121705
Academic Edi o s: F édé ic Huneau
and Da id Wido y
Recei ed: 11 Ap il 2021
Accep ed: 16 June 2021
Published: 20 June 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Depa men o Wa e and Wa e S uc u es Enginee ing, Facul y o Enginee ing, Zagazig Uni e si y,
Zagazig 44519, Egyp ; [email p o ec ed] (I.A.-E.); [email p o ec ed] (A.M.S.);
[email p o ec ed] (G.M.A.); hany_ a [email p o ec ed] (H.F.A.-E.)
2Highe Ins i u e o Enginee ing, Belbies 55419, Egyp
3Depa men o En i onmen al Enginee ing, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, Technical Uni e si y o Kosice,
04001 Košice, Slo akia
4Ins i u e o Wa e S uc u es, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Technology B no,
60200 B no, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed].cz
5Cen e o Resea ch and Inno a ion in Cons uc ion Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, Technical Uni e si y o Kosice,
04001 Košice, Slo akia
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +421-55-602-4270
Abs ac :
G oundwa e is conside ed o be an impo an wa e supply o domes ics, indus y, and
i iga ion in many a eas o he wo ld. Renewable g oundwa e is echa ged by ain all and seepage
om canals and open d ain ne wo ks. Ag icul u al and indus ial d ainage, as well as domes ic
d ainage, ep esen he main discha ges in o open d ains. The e o e, hese d ains a e conside ed
o be a sou ce o echa ge as well as a sou ce o pollu ion. In his s udy, we aim o e alua e he
impac o he Bah El Baqa d ain sys em on g oundwa e quali y in he Eas e n Nile Del a, Egyp .
MODFLOW was used o c ea e a nume ical model o simula e g oundwa e low in an aqui e and
MT3DS was used o simula e solu e anspo om he open con amina ed Bah El Baqa d ain o he
g oundwa e . Two app oaches we e de eloped in he s udy a ea. The i s app oach was applied
o in es iga e he impac o inc easing he abs ac ion a es on he con aminan anspo in o he
aqui e , he second app oach was de eloped o iden i y he e ec o lining he d ain using di e en
ma e ials on con aminan ex ension in he aqui e o p o ec g oundwa e quali y in he eas Nile
Del a Aqui e . The esul s showed ha he TDS alues inc eased by 18.23%, 23.29%, and 19.24% wi h
inc eased abs ac ion a es o 15%, 34%, and 70%, esul ing om popula ion inc eases in 2010, 2025,
and 2040, espec i ely; howe e , he TDS in he aqui e dec eased om 0.6%, o 6.36%, 88.35%, and
90.47% by using lining ma e ials.
Keywo ds: g oundwa e ; con amina ion; open d ains; p o ec ion; MODFLOW
1. In oduc ion
Global g oundwa e abs ac ion quan i ies a e es ima ed o be 982 km
3
/yea [
1
].
G oundwa e sou ces p o ide almos hal o he o al global d inking demands [
2
]. The
o al olume o g oundwa e in he uppe 2 km o he Ea h’s con inen al c us (no
inclusi e o high-la i ude No h Ame ica o Asia) is app oxima ely 22.6 million km
3
,
o which om 0.1 million km
3
o 5.0 million km
3
is less han 50 yea s old (judged as
“mode n” o ecen ly echa ged) [
3
]. G oundwa e in Egyp plays a c i ical ole in wa e
supply. P o ec ing g oundwa e om he pollu ed sou ces imp o es all ac i i ies ha
depend on g oundwa e sou ces. In Egyp , he e a e wo main sou ces o g oundwa e :
(1) enewable g oundwa e which is loca ed in he Nile Del a and Nile Valley sys em and
(2) non- enewable g oundwa e ha is loca ed in he Nubian Sands one Aqui e in he
Wes e n Dese [4].
Wa e 2021,13, 1705. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/w13121705 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/wa e
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 2 o 18
Abou 20% o g oundwa e comes om con en ional wa e esou ces whe e he o al
abs ac ion om he Nile Del a Aqui e , Egyp has been es ima ed o be 7 billion cubic
me e s (BCM) in 2016 [5–7].
Annual g oundwa e abs ac ion om he Nile aqui e sys em has been es ima ed o
be 4.6 BCM, while he o al g oundwa e abs ac ion om he Del a, Sinai, and New Valley
egions has been es ima ed o be 5.1 BCM/yea in addi ion o 0.50 BCM/yea abs ac ion
om he Wes e n Dese aqui e s [
4
]. G oundwa e is echa ged om di e en sou ces
which include leakage om i e s, canals, and d ainage sys ems; downwa d leakage
om excess i iga ion; leaks and g oundwa e in e sec ion; in e -aqui e low; and ain all
in il a ion. The main discha ge sou ces include g oundwa e e u n low o canals and
d ains, di ec ex ac ion, e apo anspi a ion, and in e -aqui e low o g oundwa e [
4
].
These sou ces ha e di e en impac s on he g oundwa e echa ge a es om one loca ion
o ano he depending on soil ype, geog aphy, slope, dep h, and empe a u e. The Nile
Del a and he Nile Valley aqui e s in Egyp a e mainly eplenished by seepage om he
Ri e Nile, he ne wo k o canals and d ains, and pe cola ion om ag icul u al wa e [
5
].
Mul iple me hods ha e been applied o in es iga e he e ec o su ace open d ains on he
g oundwa e in he Old Ri e I iga ion a ea, no he n Aus alia. The esul s ha e shown
ha su ace d ain and g oundwa e in e sec ion a e changing o e sho e pe iods o ime
such as seasonally and o e he long e m as he aqui e ills [8].
The sou ces o g oundwa e echa ge in he no heas e n pa o he Nile Valley, Egyp
includes seepage om he cu en Nile wa e and old Nile wa e be o e cons uc ing he
High Aswan Dam, e u n low om he i iga ion wa e , and su ace uno esul ing om
local ains [
9
]. The h ee-dimensional (3D) egional model esul s indica e ha su ace
wa e seepage and e u n i iga ion wa e a e he main sou ces o echa ging he Nile
Del a Aqui e [
10
]. The e is a good and di ec ela ion be ween g oundwa e and echa ge
om su ace wa e sys ems. Bea (1979) p esen ed ou main sou ces o g oundwa e
con amina ion, i.e., en i onmen al, domes ic, indus ial, and ag icul u e sou ces [11].
The main ole o open d ains is o collec excess i iga ion wa e which includes
con aminan s coming om ag icul u al ac i i ies due o excessi e use o pes icides and
e ilize s. In addi ion, hese d ains a e unde con amina ion p essu e om he a ious
indus ial and domes ic was ewa e sou ces ha in oduce di e en o ganic and ino ganic
con aminan s in o he g oundwa e , such as hea y me als, sulpha es, and many ha m ul
compounds om he esiden ial a eas. The main sou ce o d ain wa e con amina ion in
Mahala Kob a is discha ge om household sewage di ec ly in o d ains [
12
]. The open d ain
was ewa e , leakage om sewage ne wo ks, and un ea ed was ewa e om indus ial
a eas ep esen he main g oundwa e con amina ion sou ces [13].
A MODFLOW nume ical model was applied o a hypo he ical case s udy o in es iga e
he impac o con amina ed open d ains on g oundwa e quali y. The model esul s
indica ed ha solu e anspo om open d ains o g oundwa e aqui e s is e y sensi i e
o changes in he pumping schemes [
14
]. A coupled nume ical model using MODFLOW
and MT3DMS was applied o assimila e he di e en wa e supply sys ems including
su ace wa e (pollu ed d ains and canals) and g oundwa e and o de e mine g oundwa e
con amina ion esul ing om d ains, as eshwa e was pollu ed and he con amina ion
le el exceeded he s anda d limi s. The esul s showed ha he lining me hod was he
bes me hod and mos e ec i e sys em o dec easing con aminan mig a ion and ha
his me hod can be applied uni e sally, in addi ion o conside ing he condi ions and
geo echnical soil p ope ies, he ypes o he lining ma e ial, and he sou ce o pollu an
loads and elemen s in hese d ains. P o ec ing g oundwa e om pollu ed open d ains
has become an essen ial issue o imp o ing g oundwa e quali y. A numbe o s udies
ha e p esen ed na u al ma e ials wi h low pe meabili y (clay, ben oni e mix u e, e c.) and
manu ac u ed ma e ials (geomemb ane, conc e e, e c.) o minimize he leakage o open
d ains in o g oundwa e . The impac o hese ma e ials on wa e p oo ing indica es ha
hese ma e ials can be highly e ec i e o wa e p oo ing hyd aulic wo ks and which ype
o choose depends on he unc ion o he ese oi i sel and economic ac o s [
15
]. Using
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 3 o 18
soil-cemen iles o he lining o open canals can signi ican ly dec ease he leakage om
hese canals [
16
]. Using low pe meabili y ma e ials such as clay, ben oni e, geomemb ane,
and conc e e o lining d ain c oss-sec ions has dec eased he solu e ex ension by 43, 89.6,
91.4, and 93%, espec i ely, as compa ed wi h he base case. Wa e apou ansmission es
esul s ha e shown ha he pe meabili y o geomemb ane anges om 1
−13
o
10−15 m/s
,
while he pe meabili y o ben oni e is es ima ed o be 10
−10
m/s [
17
]. The hyd aulic
conduc i i y o conc e e and mo a s has been es ima ed o be 5.67
×
10
−13
m/s and
5.87 ×10−14 m/s
, espec i ely [
18
]. The hyd aulic conduc i i y o sand-ben oni e mix u es
(80% sand and 20% ben oni e) has been es ed and calcula ed o be 0.033 m/d [
19
]. Di e en
nume ical simula ions ha e been applied o s udy p o ec ing g oundwa e om pollu ed
s eams using lining, a cu o wall, and inc easing esh g oundwa e [20–22].
In his s udy, we aim o in es iga e he impac o a pollu ed s eam, he Bah El Baqa
d ain (BED), in eas e n Nile Del a, Egyp on g oundwa e quali y. The pollu ed wa e
in he BED is ecei ed om ag icul u al, indus ial, and domes ic d ainage wi h alues
o 58%, 2%, and 40%, espec i ely [
23
]. The o al dissol ed sal (TDS) alues in he BED
ange om 4971 o 5010 (mg/L) [
24
]. The main sou ces o discha ge in o he BED a e
d ainage wa e om he indus ial a eas in Shoub a El-Khema and Zagazig, as well as
domes ic and ag icul u e d ainage wa e ac i i ies om Belbeis and Qalubeya d ains [
25
].
In he cu en s udy, MODFLOW was used o simula e g oundwa e low and con aminan
anspo . The e a e a numbe o echniques ha can be applied o dec ease solu e anspo
om pollu ed wa e bodies o g oundwa e . In his s udy, we in es iga ed he impac o
using di e en lining ma e ials wi h low hyd aulic conduc i i y such as clay, ben oni e,
geomemb ane, and conc e e on g oundwa e quali y. Finally, he easibili y o each lining
ma e ial was conside ed.
2. S udy A ea Desc ip ion
The Eas e n Nile Del a Aqui e (ENDA) is loca ed be ween la i udes 30
◦
00
0
, 31
◦
30
0
no h and longi udes 31
◦
00
0
, 32
◦
30
0
eas wi h a o al a ea o 14,000 km
2
. The ENDA has
a p edominan ly ag icul u al na u e wi h a high densi y o o e lapping i iga ion and
d ainage ne wo ks which ollow om he sou h o he no h, as shown in Figu e 1[
21
,
26
].
The a ea is bounded by he Damie a b anch in he wes , Suez Canal in he eas , El Manzala
Lake in he no h, and Ismailia canal in he sou h. The Bah El-Baqa d ain sys em consis s
o wo seconda y d ains ( he Bilbeis and he Qalubeya d ains), which me ge downs eam
in o a main d ain [
25
,
27
]. This d ain is conside ed o be one o he la ges open su ace
d ains in Egyp wi h a o al leng h o 85 km. The d ain bo om wid h anges om 100
o 200 m wi h an a e age dep h o 5 m. The d ain conduc ance has been obse ed o be
be ween 0.05 and 0.2 m/d [28,29].
The s udy a ea has low ele a ion e ain ha slopes gen ly o he no he n di ec ion
wi h an a e age slope o 1 m pe 10 km. I is loca ed in an a id egion be ween sou hwes
Asia and no heas A ica wi h he same clima e as a ound he Medi e anean Sea [
30
]. The
minimum and maximum eco ded empe a u e anges om 20.20 o 35.30
◦
C in summe
and om 7.50 o 20.1
◦
C in win e , while he humidi y eaches 74% a Zagazig s a ion and
dec eases o 51% a Suez s a ion [
31
]. The a e age eco ded annual p ecipi a ion anges
om 0.065 mm/day in Cai o Ezbekiya s a ion o 0.380 mm/day in he Bal im s a ion [
32
].
The in il a ion a es a e di e en om one loca ion o ano he depending on he dominan
sedimen a y acies (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO) o he Uni ed Na ions,
1966) [
33
]. The maximum eco ded e apo a ion a es ha e eached 0.39 mm/day in Cai o
and his a e dec eases owa ds he no h and eas wi h minimum e apo a ion a es equals
o 0.12 mm/day in Mansou a, while he e apo anspi a ion alues inc ease sou hwa ds a
he Suez Canal and Po Said zone due o high-speed wind and high empe a u e [22].
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 4 o 18
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 18
Figu e 1. Geologic map o he eas e n Nile Del a [21] (modi ied a e [26]).
The s udy a ea has low ele a ion e ain ha slopes gen ly o he no he n di ec ion
wi h an a e age slope o 1 m pe 10 km. I is loca ed in an a id egion be ween sou hwes
Asia and no heas A ica wi h he same clima e as a ound he Medi e anean Sea [30].
The minimum and maximum eco ded empe a u e anges om 20.20 o 35.30 °C in sum-
me and om 7.50 o 20.1 °C in win e , while he humidi y eaches 74% a Zagazig s a ion
and dec eases o 51% a Suez s a ion [31]. The a e age eco ded annual p ecipi a ion
anges om 0.065 mm/day in Cai o Ezbekiya s a ion o 0.380 mm/day in he Bal im s a ion
[32]. The in il a ion a es a e di e en om one loca ion o ano he depending on he
dominan sedimen a y acies (Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO) o he Uni ed
Na ions, 1966) [33]. The maximum eco ded e apo a ion a es ha e eached 0.39 mm/day
in Cai o and his a e dec eases owa ds he no h and eas wi h minimum e apo a ion
a es equals o 0.12 mm/day in Mansou a, while he e apo anspi a ion alues inc ease
sou hwa ds a he Suez Canal and Po Said zone due o high-speed wind and high em-
pe a u e [22].
Figu e 1. Geologic map o he eas e n Nile Del a [21] (modi ied a e [26]).
3. Ma hema ical Model
In he cu en s udy, MODFLOW (2010) is used o simula e g oundwa e low and
MT3DS is used o simula e he solu e anspo in he ENDA. A g oundwa e ma hema ical
model o cons an densi y h ough po ous ea h ma e ial can be desc ibed by a pa ial
di e en ial equa ion [34]:
∂
∂xKxx ∂h
∂x+∂
∂yKyy ∂h
∂y+∂
∂zKzz ∂h
∂z+W=SS
∂h
∂ , (1)
whe e h(x,y,z, ) is he po en iome ic head (L); K
xx
(x,y,z), K
yy
(x,y,z), and K
zz
(x,y,z) a e
alues o hyd aulic conduc i i y (LT
−1
); W(x,y,z, ) is he olume ic lux pe uni olume
(T
−1
); S
s
(x,y,z) is he speci ic s o age o he po ous ma e ial (L
−1
); and is he ime (T).
The ini ial condi ion desc ibes he po en iome ic head h(x,y,z) in ime = 0 in an aqui e
sys em. Bounda y condi ions speci y low and/o po en iome ic head a he bounda ies
o he aqui e sys em (see Table 1and Sec ion 3.2). To sol e he p oblem o g oundwa e
low, a ini e di e ence me hod is used in MODFLOW.
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 5 o 18
MT3DS uses he ollowing pa ial di e en ial equa ion o an unknown unc ion o
he concen a ion, C, o con aminan s dissol ed in g oundwa e (ML−3) [35]:
∂c
∂ =∂
∂xi Dij
∂c
∂xj!−
∂
∂xi
(ViC)+qS
θCS+
N
∑
K−1
RK, (2)
whe e D
ij
is he hyd odynamic dispe sion coe icien (L
2
T
−1
), V
i
is he seepage o di ec ion
x (LT
−1
) calcula ed in g oundwa e low p oblems, q
S
is he olume ic lux o wa e ,
θ
is
he po osi y o he po ous medium (-), C is he concen a ion o con aminan s dissol ed in
g oundwa e (ML
−3
), C
S
is he concen a ion o con aminan s dissol ed in he olume ic
lux o wa e , and R
k
is he a e o solu e p oduc ion in eac ion K o N di e en eac ions
(ML
−3
T
−1
). The ini ial condi ion desc ibes he concen a ion C(x,y,z, 0) o con aminan s
dissol ed in g oundwa e a ime = 0 in an aqui e sys em. Bounda y condi ions speci y
con aminan lux and/o concen a ion o con aminan s dissol ed in g oundwa e a he
bounda ies o he aqui e sys em.
3.1. Model Geome y
The nume ical domain o he ENDA was ca ied ou using a mesh o 175 ows and
135 columns wi h a cell a ea o 1 km
2
, as p esen ed in Figu e 2a. This domain was di ided
in o ele en laye s, as p esen ed in Figu e 2c,d, in which he i s laye ep esen ed he clay
cap wi h hickness anging om 20 m in he sou h o 50 m in he no h, while he o he
laye s we e di ided by equal hicknesses o ep esen he ac ual aqui e . Mo eo e , Laye s
2–5 we e simula ed o ep esen ine sand wi h lenses o clay ype, Laye s 6–9 ep esen ed
coa se sand o qua e na y p ope ies, and Laye s 10 and 11 ep esen ed g aded sand and
g a el ype.
3.2. Model Bounda y Condi ions
The ENDA has h ee ypes o bounda y condi ions. The i s bounda y condi ion is
he cons an head which ep esen s sea le el wi h a alue o ze o; he second bounda y
condi ion is he i e bounda y which ep esen s he main wa e bodies o he main sys em
o canals; he hi d bounda y condi ion is he d ain bounda y which ep esen s he main
sys em o d ains (p esen ed in Table 1). Figu e 2a shows he head bounda y condi ion o
he ENDA domain. The concen a ion wi h cons an anges om 4971 o 5010 mg/L is
assigned along he Bah El Baqa d ain leng h, as p esen ed in Figu e 2b.
Table 1. The main wa e bodies in he ENDA [36].
Wa e Body To al Leng h (km) Bo om Wid h (m) Mean Dep h (m) Su ace Wa e Le el Range
Damie a b anch 245 0–200 6 16–1.0
El Rayah El Taw iky 63 10–26 5 16–0.5
Ismailia canal 136 10–30 5 16–0.0
El Sha kaweya Canal 32 7–10 5 16.5–13.0
El Basoseya Canal 24 5–10 5 16–12.0
Suez Canal 173 - 16 -
El Manzala Lake (a ea) Km
21500 - 1.2 1–0.0
Bah El Baqa d ain 85 100–200 5 -
Bah Hadous d ain 50 5–40 5 -
El Se w d ain 30 5–10 5 -

Wa e 2021,13, 1705 6 o 18
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 18
Ismailia canal 136 10–30 5 16–0.0
El Sha kaweya Canal 32 7–10 5 16.5–13.0
El Basoseya Canal 24 5–10 5 16–12.0
Suez Canal 173 - 16 -
El Manzala Lake (a ea) Km2 1500 - 1.2 1–0.0
Bah El Baqa d ain 85 100–200 5 -
Bah Hadous d ain 50 5–40 5 -
El Se w d ain 30 5–10 5 -
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Figu e 2. The ENDA bounda y condi ions: (a) Head; (b) TDS concen a ion; (c) e ical sec ion in he Y di ec ion om
no h o sou h; (d) e ical sec ion in he X di ec ion om eas o wes .
Figu e 2.
The ENDA bounda y condi ions: (
a
) Head; (
b
) TDS concen a ion; (
c
) e ical sec ion in he Y di ec ion om no h
o sou h; (d) e ical sec ion in he X di ec ion om eas o wes .
3.3. Hyd aulic Pa ame e s
The hyd aulic pa ame e s we e assigned based on p e ious s udies and calcula ions,
as p esen ed in Table 2[
37
]. These pa ame e s include speci ic s o age (S
S
), speci ic yield
(S
y
), e ec i e po osi y (n
e
), and hyd aulic conduc i i y (K) in x,y, and z. The echa ge
alues in he ENDA a y om one loca ion o ano he ; he maximum eco ded echa ge is
0.80 mm/day, while he minimum eco ded a e is 0.25 mm/day [
38
,
39
]. The Eas e n Nile
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 7 o 18
Del a has a high densi y o wells wi h a o al abs ac ion a e o 3.48 Mm
3
/day. Figu e 5b
p esen s he dis ibu ion o abs ac ion wells in he ENDA.
Table 2. Hyd aulic pa ame e s o he ENDA o each laye [36].
Laye No. Laye Type Hyd aulic Conduc i i y (m/Day) S o age Coe icien Speci ic Yield E ec i e Po osi y
Kh K SS (-) Sy (1/m) ne (%)
1 Clay 0.10–0.25 0.01–0.025 10−30.10 50–0
F om 2 o 5 Fine sand wi h
lenses o clay 5–20 0.5–2 5×10−30.15 30
F om 6 o 9 Coa se sand
qua e na y 20–75 2–7.5 2.5 ×10−30.18 25
F om 10 and 11 G aded sand and
g a el 75–100 7.5–10 5×10−40.20 20
3.4. Model Calib a ion
Calib a ion o he model was done using 21 obse a ion wells dis ibu ed in he ENDA
domain based on ield da a, as p esen ed in Figu e 3a. The calib a ion was de eloped by
ial and e o o ma ch be ween he calcula ed head by MODFLOW and he obse ed head
using he piezome ic map which was de eloped by Mo sy in 2009 [
28
].
Figu e 3b
ep e-
sen s a compa ison be ween he calcula ed and obse ed ield da a in which he esidual
alues anged om 0.002 o
−
0.69 m wi h a oo mean squa e (RMS) o 0.382 m and a no -
malized RMS o 2.495%. F om hese esul s, he model p o ided good ag eemen be ween
he calcula ed and obse ed da a, and he e o e he esul s we e sa is ac o y. The calcula ed
o al in low and ou low eached 4,910,400 m
3
/day, while he alida ion a ge achie ed
was 0.0002% less han 1.00% o he o al in low. The o al in low was
4,910,300 m3/da
y and
he o al ou low was 4,910,400 m
3
/day wi h a ne low o
100 m3/day
, which indica ed
ha he disc epancy pe cen age was ze o.
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18
(a) (b)
Figu e 3. Calib a ion o he model o (a) a eal iew and (b) calcula ed e sus obse ed heads.
4. Model Resul s
4.1. G oundwa e Flow in he ENDA
The calib a ed model o he ENDA indica es ha he g oundwa e le els eached 16
m in he sou h o Cai o, deceased owa d he no h, and inally eached 0 m. Figu e 4a
p esen s he con ou map o he g oundwa e heads in he ENDA. The g oundwa e
lows om he high head a Cai o o he low head a Medi e anean Sea a e p esen ed in
Figu e 4a,b. The minimum eloci y calcula ed in he clay laye is 0.0007 m/day while he
a e age eloci y in he qua e na y aqui e is 0.000615 m/day wi h a maximum eloci y o
0.00053 m/day.
(a) (b)
Figu e 3. Calib a ion o he model o (a) a eal iew and (b) calcula ed e sus obse ed heads.
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 8 o 18
4. Model Resul s
4.1. G oundwa e Flow in he ENDA
The calib a ed model o he ENDA indica es ha he g oundwa e le els eached
16 m in he sou h o Cai o, deceased owa d he no h, and inally eached 0 m.
Figu e 4a
p esen s he con ou map o he g oundwa e heads in he ENDA. The g oundwa e
lows om he high head a Cai o o he low head a Medi e anean Sea a e p esen ed in
Figu e 4a,b
. The minimum eloci y calcula ed in he clay laye is 0.0007 m/day while he
a e age eloci y in he qua e na y aqui e is 0.000615 m/day wi h a maximum eloci y o
0.00053 m/day.
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18
(a) (b)
Figu e 3. Calib a ion o he model o (a) a eal iew and (b) calcula ed e sus obse ed heads.
4. Model Resul s
4.1. G oundwa e Flow in he ENDA
The calib a ed model o he ENDA indica es ha he g oundwa e le els eached 16
m in he sou h o Cai o, deceased owa d he no h, and inally eached 0 m. Figu e 4a
p esen s he con ou map o he g oundwa e heads in he ENDA. The g oundwa e
lows om he high head a Cai o o he low head a Medi e anean Sea a e p esen ed in
Figu e 4a,b. The minimum eloci y calcula ed in he clay laye is 0.0007 m/day while he
a e age eloci y in he qua e na y aqui e is 0.000615 m/day wi h a maximum eloci y o
0.00053 m/day.
(a) (b)
Figu e 4.
A eal iew o (
a
) g oundwa e le els and (
b
) low pa e n and eloci y di ec ion in
he ENDA.
4.2. Solu e T anspo in he ENDA
The MT3D model is used o in es iga e he solu e anspo o he g oundwa e
aqui e . The model esul s indica e ha he con amina ion mo es in he same di ec ion
as he g oundwa e low. Figu e 5a p esen s an a ea iew o he con aminan , wi h o al
dissol ed sal (TDS) in he ENDA o isochlo ine 1000 ppm a Laye 4 loca ed be ween
80 and 200 m below he g ound su ace. The simula ed TDS sou ce in and sink ou in
he ENDA wi h a o al sal mass o 6.907
×
10
10
. Two c oss-sec ions in he model domain
a e p esen ed o in es iga e he impac o o e pumping on he g oundwa e quali y in
he s udy a ea. The i s c oss-sec ion is loca ed in zone A which has a la ge numbe o
wells wi h high abs ac ion a es, while he second c oss-sec ion is loca ed in zone B which
has a low numbe o wells wi h low abs ac ion a es, as p esen ed in Figu e 5b. Figu e 6
p esen s he con aminan ex ension o isochlo ine 1000 ppm in he X and Y di ec ions o
zone A. The esul s show a clea ex ension o con aminan in o he s udy domain, while
he esul s p esen ed in zone B show a sha p impac om he d ain in he aqui e .
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 9 o 18
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 18
(a) (b)
Figu e 5. A ea iew o (a) TDS in he ENDA and (b) loca ion o he c oss-sec ions wi h abs ac ion
well dis ibu ion.
(a) X di ec ion om eas o wes in zone A (b) Y di ec ion om no h o sou h in zone A
(c) X di ec ion om eas o wes in zone B (d) Y di ec ion om no h o sou h in zone B
Figu e 6. Con aminan ex ension in he ENDA.
4.3. Impac o Inc easing Abs ac ion Ra es on G oundwa e Quali y in he ENDA
Figu e 5. A ea iew o (a) TDS in he ENDA and (b) loca ion o he c oss-sec ions wi h abs ac ion well dis ibu ion.
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 18
Figu e 4. A eal iew o (a) g oundwa e le els and (b) low pa e n and eloci y di ec ion in he
ENDA.
4.2. Solu e T anspo in he ENDA
The MT3D model is used o in es iga e he solu e anspo o he g oundwa e aq-
ui e . The model esul s indica e ha he con amina ion mo es in he same di ec ion as
he g oundwa e low. Figu e 5a p esen s an a ea iew o he con aminan , wi h o al dis-
sol ed sal (TDS) in he ENDA o isochlo ine 1000 ppm a Laye 4 loca ed be ween 80
and 200 m below he g ound su ace. The simula ed TDS sou ce in and sink ou in he
ENDA wi h a o al sal mass o 6.907 × 1010. Two c oss-sec ions in he model domain a e
p esen ed o in es iga e he impac o o e pumping on he g oundwa e quali y in he
s udy a ea. The i s c oss-sec ion is loca ed in zone A which has a la ge numbe o wells
wi h high abs ac ion a es, while he second c oss-sec ion is loca ed in zone B which has
a low numbe o wells wi h low abs ac ion a es, as p esen ed in Figu e 5b. Figu e 6 p e-
sen s he con aminan ex ension o isochlo ine 1000 ppm in he X and Y di ec ions o zone
A. The esul s show a clea ex ension o con aminan in o he s udy domain, while he
esul s p esen ed in zone B show a sha p impac om he d ain in he aqui e .
Figu e 5. A ea iew o (a) TDS in he ENDA and (b) loca ion o he c oss-sec ions wi h abs ac ion
well dis ibu ion.
(a) X di ec ion om eas o wes in zone A (b) Y di ec ion om no h o sou h in zone A
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 18
(c) X di ec ion om eas o wes in zone B (d) Y di ec ion om no h o sou h in zone B
Figu e 6. Con aminan ex ension in he ENDA.
4.3. Impac o Inc easing Abs ac ion Ra es on G oundwa e Quali y in he ENDA
The i s app oach in his s udy aims o apply he model o in es iga e he impac o
inc easing he abs ac ion a e om he ENDA on he ex ension o con aminan om he
d ain bed in o he aqui e . Th ee scena ios we e applied which in ol ed inc easing he
abs ac ion a es om he base case (100%) o 115%, 134%, and 170%. These a es we e
calcula ed based on an es ima ion o popula ion g ow h a es in 2010, 2025, 2040, and 2060.
The esul s showed ha he con aminan ex ension inc eased in he aqui e domain
wi h an inc ease o o al abs ac ion a es by 15% and 34% in he i s and second scena ios.
The maximum ex ension was obse ed in he lowe pa o he eas ENDA whe e he e
was o e pumping. In addi ion, he TDS alues inc eased om 6.907 × 1010 kg in he base
case o 8.165 × 1010 and 8.519 × 1010 kg in he i s and second scena io.
In he hi d scena io, he abs ac ion a es we e inc eased by 70% and he TDS was
dec eased o zone due o he upwa d low which occu ed in his case because his zone
has high abs ac ion a es in addi ion o an inc ease in hese a es by 70%. The g oundwa-
e low eloci y inc eased causing abs ac ion om he lowe laye s and inc eased he
upwa d eloci y, and o e pumping led o con amina ion abs ac ion om he aqui e . In
zone B, he esul s showed ha he pollu ion in he s udy a ea was inc eased wi h an in-
c ease in abs ac ion because his zone had low abs ac ion a es as compa ed wi h zone
A, he e o e, he upwa d eloci y was less han he eloci y in zone A, and he e o e he
con amina ion was ans e ed om his zone o zone A and ex ended in o he aqui e .
Figu e 7 shows he change in con aminan ex ension o an equi alen concen a ion line
o 1000 mg/L in zones A and B o each inc ease in abs ac ion a es. Figu e 8 p esen s a
e ical dis ibu ion o TDS in zones A and B o all scena ios o abs ac ion in he X di-
ec ion which explains he TDS inc easing and deceasing in he domain ec o s.
The alues o TDS dec eased o 8.239 × 1010 as compa ed wi h 8.519 × 1010 in he sec-
ond scena io, as p esen ed in Table 3.
Table 3. Abs ac ion a es and o al mass o di e en scena ios.
Scena ios No Yea Inc easing Ra e (%) Abs ac ion Ra e (m3) To al Mass A e (kg)
Base case s udy 2010 100 3.480 × 106 6.907 × 1010
Fi s scena io 2025 115 4.002 × 106 8.165 × 1010
Second scena io 2040 134 4.663 × 106 8.519 × 1010
Thi d scena io 2060 170 5.916 × 106 8.239 × 1010
Figu e 6. Con aminan ex ension in he ENDA.
Wa e 2021,13, 1705 16 o 18
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 18
Figu e 12. Rela ion be ween abs ac ion a e and o al dissol ed sal (TDS) alues in he ENDA.
Figu e 13 p esen s he ela ion be ween he TDS alues and di e en lining ma e ials
which indica es ha aqui e con amina ion is dec eased by lining he pollu ed s eams o
he BED. In addi ion, o al sal mass dec eased om 6.87 × 1010 in he base case o 6.409 ×
1010, 3.969 × 109, and 3.440 × 109 kg using clay, ben oni e, geomemb ane, and conc e e lin-
ing ma e ials, espec i ely, as shown in Figu e 13.
Figu e 13. To al sal mass o di e en lining ma e ials.
8. Conclusions
One o he ad an ages o g oundwa e is ha i is a sou ce o enewable wa e ha
can be echa ged again om di e en wa e sou ces, bu his ad an age has ano he ha m-
ul e ec on he quali y o uncon ined g oundwa e especially when he echa ge sou ces
a e pollu ed by con amina ions such as pollu ed open d ains. The e o e, in he p esen ed
s udy, a nume ical model using MODFLOW was applied o he mos con amina ed and
la ges d ain, he Bah El Baqa d ain in he Eas Nile Del a Aqui e (ENDA). We p e-
sen ed wo app oaches o de e mine he impac o he d ain on he g oundwa e quali y
in he s udy a ea. In he i s app oach, we s udied inc eased abs ac ion a es o 15%, 34%,
and 70% esul ing om popula ion inc eases in 2010, 2025, and 2040, espec i ely, and he
esul s indica ed ha he TDS alues inc eased by 18.23%, 23.29%, and 19.24%, espec-
i ely. In he second app oach, we s udied he p o ec ion o g oundwa e in he ENDA
using low hyd aulic conduc i i y ma e ials including clay, ben oni e, geomemb ane, and
conc e e; he TDS dec eased om 0.6% o 6.36%, 88.35%, and 90.47% in he aqui e by
using di e en lining ma e ials, espec i ely. A compa ison o he cos s o he di e en
ma e ials indica ed ha geomemb ane was he bes ma e ial o use o lining he Bah El
Figu e 12. Rela ion be ween abs ac ion a e and o al dissol ed sal (TDS) alues in he ENDA.
Figu e 13 p esen s he ela ion be ween he TDS alues and di e en lining ma e ials
which indica es ha aqui e con amina ion is dec eased by lining he pollu ed s eams
o he BED. In addi ion, o al sal mass dec eased om 6.87
×
10
10
in he base case o
6.409 ×1010
, 3.969
×
10
9
, and 3.440
×
10
9
kg using clay, ben oni e, geomemb ane, and
conc e e lining ma e ials, espec i ely, as shown in Figu e 13.
Wa e 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 18
Figu e 12. Rela ion be ween abs ac ion a e and o al dissol ed sal (TDS) alues in he ENDA.
Figu e 13 p esen s he ela ion be ween he TDS alues and di e en lining ma e ials
which indica es ha aqui e con amina ion is dec eased by lining he pollu ed s eams o
he BED. In addi ion, o al sal mass dec eased om 6.87 × 1010 in he base case o 6.409 ×
1010, 3.969 × 109, and 3.440 × 109 kg using clay, ben oni e, geomemb ane, and conc e e lin-
ing ma e ials, espec i ely, as shown in Figu e 13.
Figu e 13. To al sal mass o di e en lining ma e ials.
8. Conclusions
One o he ad an ages o g oundwa e is ha i is a sou ce o enewable wa e ha
can be echa ged again om di e en wa e sou ces, bu his ad an age has ano he ha m-
ul e ec on he quali y o uncon ined g oundwa e especially when he echa ge sou ces
a e pollu ed by con amina ions such as pollu ed open d ains. The e o e, in he p esen ed
s udy, a nume ical model using MODFLOW was applied o he mos con amina ed and
la ges d ain, he Bah El Baqa d ain in he Eas Nile Del a Aqui e (ENDA). We p e-
sen ed wo app oaches o de e mine he impac o he d ain on he g oundwa e quali y
in he s udy a ea. In he i s app oach, we s udied inc eased abs ac ion a es o 15%, 34%,
and 70% esul ing om popula ion inc eases in 2010, 2025, and 2040, espec i ely, and he
esul s indica ed ha he TDS alues inc eased by 18.23%, 23.29%, and 19.24%, espec-
i ely. In he second app oach, we s udied he p o ec ion o g oundwa e in he ENDA
using low hyd aulic conduc i i y ma e ials including clay, ben oni e, geomemb ane, and
conc e e; he TDS dec eased om 0.6% o 6.36%, 88.35%, and 90.47% in he aqui e by
using di e en lining ma e ials, espec i ely. A compa ison o he cos s o he di e en
ma e ials indica ed ha geomemb ane was he bes ma e ial o use o lining he Bah El
Figu e 13. To al sal mass o di e en lining ma e ials.
8. Conclusions
One o he ad an ages o g oundwa e is ha i is a sou ce o enewable wa e ha can
be echa ged again om di e en wa e sou ces, bu his ad an age has ano he ha m ul
e ec on he quali y o uncon ined g oundwa e especially when he echa ge sou ces a e
pollu ed by con amina ions such as pollu ed open d ains. The e o e, in he p esen ed s udy,
a nume ical model using MODFLOW was applied o he mos con amina ed and la ges
d ain, he Bah El Baqa d ain in he Eas Nile Del a Aqui e (ENDA). We p esen ed wo
app oaches o de e mine he impac o he d ain on he g oundwa e quali y in he s udy
a ea. In he i s app oach, we s udied inc eased abs ac ion a es o 15%, 34%, and 70%
esul ing om popula ion inc eases in 2010, 2025, and 2040, espec i ely, and he esul s
indica ed ha he TDS alues inc eased by 18.23%, 23.29%, and 19.24%, espec i ely. In
he second app oach, we s udied he p o ec ion o g oundwa e in he ENDA using low
hyd aulic conduc i i y ma e ials including clay, ben oni e, geomemb ane, and conc e e;
he TDS dec eased om 0.6% o 6.36%, 88.35%, and 90.47% in he aqui e by using di e en
lining ma e ials, espec i ely. A compa ison o he cos s o he di e en ma e ials indica ed

Wa e 2021,13, 1705 17 o 18
ha geomemb ane was he bes ma e ial o use o lining he Bah El Baqa d ain as i
dec eased he TDS by 94.35% wi h a low cos as compa ed wi h conc e e ha educed he
TDS by 95.02% bu wi h a high cos .
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, M.Z.; me hodology, I.A.-E., H.F.A.-E. A.M.S., and G.M.A.;
alida ion, I.A.-E., H.F.A.-E., and A.M.S.; o mal analysis, I.A.-E., A.M.S., and J.J.; in es iga ion, I.A.-E.
and A.M.S.; da a cu a ion, I.A.-E., A.M.S., and H.F.A.-E.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, I.A.-E.,
H.F.A.-E., and A.M.S.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, I.A.-E., A.M.S., H.F.A.-E., M.Z., G.M.A., and J.J.;
supe ision, G.M.A. and M.Z.; p ojec adminis a ion, M.Z.; unding acquisi ion, M.Z. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a a e no publicly a ailable due o ins i u ional p ope y igh s.
Acknowledgmen s:
This wo k was suppo ed by a p ojec o he Minis y o Educa ion o he
Slo ak Republic, VEGA 1/0308/20, Mi iga ion o hyd ological haza ds, loods, and d ough s by
explo ing ex eme hyd oclima ic phenomena in i e basins and p ojec HUS OUA/1702/6.1/0072,
En i onmen al Assessmen o Na u al Resou ces Re i aliza ion in Solo yno o p e en he u he
pollu ion o he Uppe -Tisza Basin h ough he p epa a ion o a complex moni o ing sys em.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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