ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ijgi11020105 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ijgi
A icle
Me hod o Ca og aphic Symbols C ea ion in Connec ion wi h
Map Se ies Digi iza ion
Dalibo Ba oněk * and Pa la Andělo á
Ins i u e o Geodesy, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, B no Uni e si y o Technology, Ve eří 95,
602 00 B no, Czech Republic; andelo a.[email p o ec ed]b .cz
* Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]b .cz
Abs ac : The a icle add esses he issue o he uni ica ion o ca og aphic symbols in e ms o
g aphics ( isual) and in e p e a ion in an in e na ional con ex . The mo i a ion is he ongoing dig-
i iza ion o p ocesses in he condi ions o Indus y 4.0, especially Cons uc ion 4.0, whe e geodesy
and ca og aphy ha e hei i eplaceable sha e. The aim was bo h o design uni o m ca og aphic
symbols o he desc ip ion o geog aphical objec s on he map and o design a gene al me hod o
he desc ip ion o uni ied ca og aphic symbols so ha i is independen o speci ic applica ions.
The au ho s compa ed he symbols used in he map wo ks o he Czech Republic and neighbo ing
coun ies ha a e membe s o he EU and p oposed a o mal desc ip ion o he g aphics p ope ies
o he symbols, which is based on a gene al ma hema ical model. The desc ip ion akes he o m o
a ex s ing, and a Py hon algo i hm was buil o ende he symbol and implemen ed in he QGIS
en i onmen . The a icle also p esen s a compa ison o some ca og aphic symbols used in he
Czech Republic and in selec ed EU coun ies and a p oposal o hei uni ica ion. The mo i a ion is
he e o o uni y he ca og aphic language wi hin he EU. The p oblem is in acco dance wi h he
INSPIRE di ec i e (seamless map o Eu ope) a he in e na ional le el and wi h he Digi al Czechia
2018+ s a egy a he na ional le el.
Keywo ds: ca og aphic symbol; maps digi iza ion; au oma ed d awing o ca og aphic symbols;
design o ca og aphic symbols; o mal desc ip ion o ca og aphic symbols
1. In oduc ion
The p esen ime is cha ac e is ic o ex ensi e digi iza ion in almos all ields o
human ac i i ies. In he Czech Republic (CR) a s a egy o coo dina ed and comp ehen-
si e digi iza ion o he Czech Republic 2018+, in sho , “Digi al Czechia”, was accep ed.
One o he sub- a ge s o his s a egy is an i em called GeoIn oS a egy. I is abou he
e ec i e use o spa ial in o ma ion in he s a e adminis a ion and in he public in e es .
This ca ego y also includes he digi iza ion o na ional map se ies and ele an ca o-
g aphic p oduc s. Wo ld map p oduc s di e in hei con en , a ious coo dina es, e -
ical sys ems, p ojec ions, and ca og aphic languages used. One o he many p ojec s
ha ha e been in his a ea is he esea ch and de elopmen o so wa e o s a e map
se ies gene aliza ion add essed in [1]. Wi hin his p ojec was he modi ica ion o he
symbol key also sol ed, he aim o which we e:
• En ichmen o he b and key wi h new elemen s o a ibu es om o he da abases,
• Uni ica ion o he b and key ac oss all scales,
• B inging he b and key close o he o m o o he b and keys o be e usabili y o
he ansmi ed da a,
• B and key o an au oma ed mapping p ocess adap ing and a oiding he need o
manual adjus men s ( esizing o colo ).
Pa o his p ojec was he s udy o ca og aphic symbols, he possibili y o uni ying
Ci a ion: Ba oněk, D.; Andělo á, P.
Me hod o Ca og aphic Symbols
C ea ion in Connec ion wi h Map
Se ies Digi iza ion. ISPRS In . J.
Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/ijgi11020105
Academic Edi o : Wol gang Kainz
Recei ed: 14 No embe 2021
Accep ed: 31 Janua y 2022
Published: 2 Feb ua y 2022
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays
neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional
claims in published maps and
ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/license
s/by/4.0/).
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 2 o 23
he se o symbols in an in e na ional con ex , and hei use in digi ized map p oduc s.
Cu en ly, he s anda diza ion o symbol se s o p in ed maps is no s ill sa is ac o ily
esol ed a na ional le els. In he case o map p oduc ion using in o ma ion echnologies,
he s anda diza ion is only e lec ed in me ada a s uc u e and used sys em o ma s.
Cu en ly used ca og aphic symbol se s a e s o ed in di e en so wa e (A cGIS, Mi-
c oS a ion, e c.) in lib a ies ha a e no ully compa ible among pa icula applica ion
so wa e [2–5]. Me hods o use s o c ea e new symbols o o modi y exis ing symbols
a e no uni ied ac oss he so wa e. This si ua ion limi s he p ocess o map p oduc dig-
i iza ion ac oss all pla o ms and hei common use on a na ional and in e na ional scale.
In connec ion wi h he massi e ad en o digi iza ion, he solu ion o hese p oblems is
e y u gen .
A conside able numbe o p ojec s, wo ks, and s udies ha e been de o ed o he
issue o he digi iza ion o maps. P ojec s a he Eu opean le el include he Eu opean In-
e ope abili y F amewo k (EIF) [6], which aims:
• To p omo e and suppo he deli e y o Eu opean public se ices by os e ing
c oss-bo de and c oss-sec o al in e ope abili y;
• To guide public adminis a ions in hei wo k o p o ide Eu opean public se ices
o businesses and ci izens;
• To complemen and ie oge he he a ious Na ional In e ope abili y F amewo ks
(NIFs) a he Eu opean le el. In e ope abili y o da a, se ices, and echnologies is
enabled by in e na ional echnical no ms and s anda ds (ISO, OGC, e c.). The ini i-
a o s o hese ac i i ies a e he INSPIRE di ec i e, Eu o-Geog aphics, e c.
In he Czech Republic (CR), he issue o uni ica ion and c ea ion o ca og aphic
symbols is add essed in se e al ollow-up p ojec s wi h he suppo o he Technology
Agency o he Czech Republic, o example [1].
The aim o his a icle is o p opose a sui able me hodology o he c ea ion, o mal
desc ip ion, uni ica ion, and au oma ic d awing o ca og aphic symbols in he digi al
map se ies.
The pape is o ganized as ollows. In Sec ion 2, we men ion some ela ed wo k
conce ning ca og aphic symbols. In Sec ion 3, we desc ibe p oblems ega ding ca o-
g aphic symbol c ea ion and p opose he me hod o a possible solu ion. Sec ion 4
demons a es he expe imen s. Sec ion 5 con ains a discussion o he gi en opic. Sec ion
6 add esses he conclusions.
2. Rela ed Wo ks
The opics selec ed in his sec ion a e di ec ly ela ed o he goal de ined in he p e-
ious chap e . The me hods o o mal desc ip ion o ca og aphic symbols a e desc ibed
in [7–9]. The aim was o ind ou exis ing ways (me hods) o inding common desc ip-
ions o ca og aphic symbols ha a e pla o m-independen (desk op, web applica ion,
e c.).
A p oposal o a new ca og aphic language pa adigm ha would sui he map se-
ies o a ious s a es and hus make in e na ional collabo a ion in his ield possible is
p esen ed in [7]. Au ho s do no p opose he c ea ion o indi idual ca og aphic symbols,
bu a ca og aphic language as a whole. They sol e language s yle issues in a ious s a e
map se ies, speci ic na ional con en ions, and p oblems wi h ca og aphic symbol
s anda diza ion. Au ho s p opose a comple ely new ca og aphic language alphabe
based on GIS empla es ha a e mo e usable han con en ional pixels o symbols. Tem-
pla es o a iable GIS icons suppo addi ional g aphic elemen s including
leng h/wid h/shape/angle/o ien a ion. Nume als, alphabe ical cha ac e s, and icono-
g aphic symbols can be used as a iables. The bene i is he possibili y o isualiza ion o
mul idimensional da a ela ionships. P oblems wi h he p opo ional size o ca og aphic
symbols a e sol ed in he wo k [8] by p og amming language R. This me hod is gene al
and allows o bo h ma hema ical and pe cep ual scaling in he p ocess o displaying he
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 3 o 23
symbols. The e is no solu ion o he complex desc ip ion o ca og aphic symbols
g aphics including a ibu es (colo , hickness, line ype, e c. The a icle [9] deals wi h
linea ca og aphic language c ea ion in he p og amming language C++. The c ea ion o
linea ca og aphic language c ea ion in he p og amming language C++ is a opic in [9].
The algo i hm concep p ima ily p esen s symbol isualiza ion on digi al maps wi h e-
spec o ca og aphic ules and alid s anda ds. The o mal symbol desc ip ion is e y
simila (including ende ing) a he expense o complexi y and gene ali y.
The design o ca og aphic symbols including special symbols (use symbols) wi h
ega d o cu en ly used symbols in EU s a es and hei compa ibili y wi h applica ions
o map p oduc ion (GIS SW) is shown in [3,5,10–15].
Me hods o ca og aphic symbol c ea ion in a GIS en i onmen (A cGIS) and on he
websi e (Web Map Se ices) a e discussed in pape [3]. Ca og aphic symbols we e c e-
a ed in he applica ion Co elD aw and impo ed in o he A cGIS lib a y ia Fon edi o .
Na ional and in e na ional s anda ds we e espec ed du ing symbol c ea ion. The ad-
an age o his concep is he possibili y o using symbols in bo h GIS en i onmen s and
web applica ions. The disad an age is a pa ial dependence on speci ic pla o ms
(Co elD aw, A cGIS).
The use o andom a iable con igu a ions and bounda ies o he c ea ion o ca -
og aphic symbols is a opic in [11]. These gene a ing algo i hms a e limi ed by shape
elemen s, ca og aphic s anda ds, and many o he condi ions. The me hod is based on
ac al geome y, namely he i e a ed unc ion sys em (IFS). This me hod was imple-
men ed in o a digi al mapping sys em o p ac ical use. The essence o symbol gene a ion
is inspi ing, bu he limi ed use o symbols wi h andomly plana pa e ns is a disad-
an age. A cogni i e geome y model o ca og aphic symbols ealiza ion is p oposed in
[12]. I s ad an age is usabili y no only on wo-dimensional maps bu also on digi al
maps, maps anima ion, and ca og aphy o blind use s. Ano he ad an age o his
model is p ecise da a sou ce ep esen a ion and an in ui i e unde s anding o he phe-
nomena ha symbols ep esen on he map. Howe e , he a icle does no indica e he
me hodology o symbol c ea ion, hei inclusion in applica ions, and binding o alid
s anda ds. The pape [5] desc ibes ca og aphic symbol c ea ion o geological maps.
Symbols a e de ined wi h he aid o XML language and s o ed in he lib a y. Howe e ,
he lib a y is dependen on he applica ion and was specially de eloped o GIS Mani-
old®. Symbol de ini ions a e simple and su icien ly common, so a e some modi ica-
ions, hey can be used in o he GIS p og ams. Special s anda dized ca og aphic sym-
bols se o plane a y mapping based on he Ame ican s anda ds o geological explo a-
ion a e p esen ed in [13]. Symbol se s a e implemen ed in o he GIS sys em, namely
A cGIS. This is a con ibu ion o space esea ch p esen a ion and subsequen in e plan-
e a y space mapping.
A new me hodology o c ea ing wo-dimensional ca og aphic symbols and dia-
g ams o applica ion in hema ic maps is desc ibed in [14].
The p oposed me hod ex ends wo cons uc ion heo ies o Be in [10] and Wil-
kinson [15]. The bene i is imp o ed isualiza ion o s a is ical da a on hema ic maps.
P oblems o map p oduc digi iza ion a e he opic o [16–23]. The aim was o dis-
co e p oblems ha esul om a ans e o classic analog o digi al o m maps.
A me hod o c ea ing map legends in a dynamic en i onmen is in oduced in [16].
These legends we e de eloped o s a ic media wi h espec o op imal map isualiza-
ion. The main c i e ia o he design o legends a e elemen selec ion, symbols layou and
hei posi ion, ep esen a ion dynamics, and o he ac o s. Ca og aphic symbols appea
he e only as legend componen s wi hou u he con ex . A mul i-le el hie a chic spa ial
model is designed in wo k [17]. Objec s wi h inc easing de ail a e s o ed in le els and can
be used in he composi ion o maps a some scale. The me hod can also be applied o a
speci ic display o ca og aphic symbols on a de ini e map a some scale. The p oblem o
symbol c ea ion is no sol ed in his pape . Geologic maps a e cha ac e ized by e y ex-
ensi e and complica ed legends. A new lexible legend ha o e s a lo o di e se geo-
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 4 o 23
mo phological in o ma ion and possibili ies o many in o ma ion combina ions is p o-
posed by he au ho s o [18]. The esul is a scien i ic da a- ich map ha is mo e in-
o ma i e han mos maps used un il now bu is based on a simple legend. The de el-
oped sys em uses GIS applica ions as a base. In o ma ion based on geomo phological
map symbols can be s o ed digi ally and can be used as an e icien da abase wi h he-
ma ic le els and a ibu e ables. The ad an age o his me hod is he simpli ica ion o he
legend, bu his does no add ess he concep o ca og aphic symbols c ea ion in he
legend. G aphics, numbe s, and op imal dis ibu ion o bu ons wi h inse ed unc ions
in applica ions o mobile mapping and maps p esen ed in a web en i onmen a e de-
sc ibed in [19]. The p oblem o symbols c ea ion and s anda diza ion is no sol ed in his
wo k. Wi h he in eg a ion o ca og aphic symbols ha come om di e en sou ces in o
uni ed map ou pu deals [20]. The esea ch esul s we e p ima ily o mobile de ices o
LBS (Loca ion Based Se ices) and in ended o accep spa ial da a om a ious p o id-
e s. The concep ion is based on on ology and has gene al u iliza ion. The a icle does no
esol e he symbol c ea ion issue, only hei selec ion in a common map. Se e al selec ion
ules ensu e he a oidance o symbol duplica ion. A hie a chical classi ica ion sys em o
hema ic ca og aphy is p oposed in pape [21]. The sys em was applied o a lases in he
Czech Republic and he Slo ak Republic om 1935 un il now. The con ibu ion o he
wo k is a me hod o he ime se ies analysis o ca og aphic p oduc s and hei subse-
quen classi ica ion in e ms o opics and logic. The a icle [22] p oposes he me hod o
he au oma ic selec ion o poin heigh posi ions ha ep esen na u al ea u es as peaks,
saddles, o dep essions. The algo i hm and da a s uc u e a e designed o a con inuous
scale. The con ibu ion is a esul compa able wi h manually c ea ed e e ence compila-
ions. This esea ch does no sol e he ca og aphic symbol c ea ion issue bu in oduces
an in e es ing me hod o o he use o hese symbols. The algo i hm o au oma ic con-
ou line gene a ion acco ding o ca og aphic lines is p oposed in he a icle [23]. This
algo i hm deals wi h supplemen a y con ou s selec ion and au oma ed me hods o hei
placemen on opog aphic maps. Resul s o his me hod a e simila o manually placed
supplemen a y con ou s. The me hod is sui able o digi al e ain model c ea ion and is
a ewa ding con ibu ion o map digi iza ion.
Me hods o au oma ed isualiza ion o ca og aphic symbols a e he opic o se -
e al wo ks [4,24–28]. This pa deals wi h symbol selec ion om a sui able da abase, hei
posi ioning and plo ing in a map ace using au oma ed ools. A me hod o he isuali-
za ion o p opo ional ca og aphic symbols on a map is p esen ed in [24]. The algo i hm
is based on a decomposi ion o an o iginal symbol o componen s and hei hie a chical
syn hesis and con ains ools o display op imiza ion. Wi h espec o he concep , his
app oach is simila o ou s. The s udy [4] p esen s possibili ies o ca og aphic symbols’
dynamic isualiza ion on digi al s a ic maps. The p oposed me hods we e based on a se-
ies o isual es s, pa ame e s o dynamic symbols isualiza ion (in ensi y and equency
o blink, size, e c.), and hei op imiza ion in ela ion o he cu en scale was e alua ed.
The publica ion [25] p esen s a p oposal o a me hod o he imp o emen o isualiza-
ion o ca og aphic symbols s o ed in he GIS applica ions lib a y. The symbols’ p o-
posal is based on he aliasing ep ession and sol es mu ual ela ions be ween pa icula
symbols. The p oposed me hod is also inspi a ional o he opic sol ed in his a icle. An
e ec i e me hod o linea ca og aphic symbols depic ion in 3D is desc ibed in he pape
[26]. I is abou an accele a ion algo i hm o GPU (G aphics P ocessing Uni ). Due o
his, symbol depic ion can be in almos eal- ime execu ed. The au ho s o [27] deal wi h
pe cep ional aspec s o g aphic a iables (namely shape and size), he p oblem o chosen
and map backg ound du ing ca og aphic isualiza ion. The bene i o his s udy is un-
de s anding map use s’ eac ions o a ious ca og aphic symbols in di e en cul u al
condi ions. These expe imen s we e accomplished in he Czech Republic and China. The
p oposal and implemen a ion o a iable POI (Poin s O In e es ) symbol models is he
opic o [28]. The bene i is imp o ed symbol isualiza ion on digi al maps in a web en-
i onmen based on p inciples o cogni i e psychology.
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 5 o 23
I is clea om ele an li e a u e ha p oblems o c ea ion, o mal desc ip ion and
isualiza ion on digi al map p oduc s a e sol ed om many pe spec i es and in a ious
con ex s. All he p esen ed me hods a e inspi ing, and include o iginal ideas, bu none o
hem sol e his p oblem comp ehensi ely. Ca og aphic symbols c ea ion is applica-
ion-dependen in many cases. The me hods p oposed o he desc ip ion o ca og aphic
symbols a e, in many cases, based on Cascading S yle Shee s o Maps—Ca oCSS [29] o
OGC (Open GeoSpa ial Conso ium) Symbology Encoding [30]. The ad an age o hese
ools is hei e sa ili y and lexibili y, he disad an age is he ela i e complexi y o he
desc ip ion and he need o know he syn ax o hese languages, which equi es good
knowledge o in o ma ion echnology. The me hod p oposed in his a icle ies o e-
mo e he p e iously men ioned p oblems.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
The aim, desc ibed in Sec ion 1 ( o p opose a sui able me hodology o he c ea ion,
o mal desc ip ion, uni ica ion, and au oma ic d awing o ca og aphic symbols in he
digi al map se ies) was deli e ed in wo pa s:
1. Analysis o ca og aphic symbols in map se ies in CR and ela ed EU s a es in o de
o design a uni o m symbol se .
2. P oposal o a sui able me hod o he desc ip ion o ca og aphic symbols.
3.1. Analysis o Ca og aphic Symbols in Map Se ies in CR and Selec ed EU S a es in O de o
Design a Uni o m Symbol Se
This opic was in [31] and [32], basic esul s a e p esen ed in Sec ion 4.1. P ojec [1]
was sol ed unde he coope a ion o he Czech O ice o Su eying, Mapping and Ca-
das e and Ins i u e o Geodesy, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, B no Uni e si y o Tech-
nology (bo h Czech Republic).
Gi en he signi ican his o ical de elopmen o he ea u es used in he na ional map
se ies o he EU, i would no be igh o ejec hese ea u es and design comple ely new
ones. On he con a y, i is mo e ad an ageous o suppo his de elopmen and hus use
hese symbols o he new uni o m symbol se . The bigges ad an ages lie in he expe i-
enced ea u es o bo h map use s and make s, bu also in he ac ha hey a e es ed o
use in p ac ice. As he ea u es in each coun y ha e e ol ed, i can be assumed and e en
desi able ha he newly c ea ed single se will unde go e olu ion wi h he necessa y
changes and adjus men s.
Howe e , i is no possible o ake a se o symbols om one coun y and decla e i
he bes ha should be used h oughou he Eu opean Union. A single symbol se should
be c ea ed by compa ing and e alua ing ma ching symbols. Conside a ions on a uni o m
symbol se should hus begin wi h he selec ion o coun ies whose symbol se s will o m
he so-called basic symbol selec ion g oup. The used selec i e me hod wi h p ede e -
mined condi ions hus de e mines he symbol se s ha will en e he analy ical pa o he
wo k. Reducing he numbe o coun ies o compa ison will make he compa ison
analysis mo e e icien .
One o he main selec ion c i e ia should be he numbe o people who a e al eady
ela ed o he ield. Because he mo e inhabi an s he s a e has, he mo e use s a e al eady
used o i s s a e symbol se . I he symbol se s o he mos populous coun ies a e com-
bined, ewe use s will ha e o lea n new symbols. This condi ion mainly conce ns use s,
bu we mus no o ge he map c ea o ei he . I can be assumed ha he la ge he a ea,
he mo e people mus pa icipa e in he c ea ion o he s a e map. These wo conside a-
ions combine he c i e ion o popula ion and a ea o s a es o selec a basic g oup o
compa ing ea u es. A he same ime, he selec ed coun ies should ep esen he majo -
i y o he Eu opean Union in bo h a ea and popula ion.
The numbe o s a es was educed du ing he p ojec p ocessing on he basis o co-
ope a ion wi h he Embassy and i needs u he educ ion. In he end, he wo k is p i-

ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 6 o 23
ma ily aimed a he coun ies o Cen al Eu ope, ha is, he Czech Republic and neigh-
bo ing coun ies.
Nex , compa isons and de ailed analysis o he g aphical a iables o he co e-
sponding ea u es helped o e eal he ends o con empo a y na ional ca og aphic
languages and hei simila i y o , con e sely, di e si y. The manual isual compa ison o
g aphic a iables was pe o med by he esea ch eam and subsequen ly e alua ed by
he au ho s in a quan i a i e and quali a i e compa ison.
A simila compa ison was made due o he his o y o he symbols used on he maps
o Czech s a e map wo ks in o de o e eal he ends in he de elopmen o ca o-
g aphic language in CR. This analysis was also pe o med by he isual compa ison o
g aphical a iables and esul ed in quan i a i e and quali a i e ou pu s.
3.1.1. The P ocess o Accep ing New Symbols
The design o he new ea u es hen ook place on he basis o a discussion among
expe s om he ca og aphic sec ion o he Embassy, hei expe ience wi h p oblema ic
si ua ions in ca og aphic in e p e a ion and, las bu no leas , wi h he inclusion o
commen s om use s o s a e map p oduc ions. These p oposals had o go h ough se -
e al ial publica ions wi h depa men al and in e depa men al commen s. All ca o-
g aphic ac i i ies a e subjec o he Su eying Ac , which, a e app o al by he Pa lia-
men o he Czech Republic on 30 Sep embe 1994, en e ed in o o ce on Janua y 1s 1995.
Only hen we e hey admi ed o he p ess o public dis ibu ion. All symbols we e
d awn in A cGIS and used o he au oma ic c ea ion o s a e map se ies. The symbols a e
a he same ime supplemen ed wi h de ailed speci ica ions and published in a comp e-
hensi e symbol key.
3.1.2. Fac o s In luencing he Compa ison o Symbols
The bigges obs acle o compa ing symbols is he ansla ion o hei meanings be-
cause one wo d in a o eign language can ha e se e al Czech equi alen s and ice e sa.
The di e ences be ween he names o he symbols a e di icul o dis inguish, especially
when i comes o specialized objec s, such as elec ical o mining elemen s. The use o
mul ilingual egula ions and a e minological dic iona y pa ially add esses his issue
[33]. Ano he signi ican complica ion is he absence o dimensions. This makes i im-
possible o compa e he symbols in de ail and d aw o he conclusions, such as he im-
po ance o he phenomenon, e c. The compa ison is hus limi ed o he appea ance o he
symbols. The bigges p oblem is he di e en ways and de ails o he di ision o elemen s
and hei hie a chical di ision.
3.2. Me hod o Desc ip ion o Ca og aphic Symbols
A e wa d, we can o mula e basic equi emen s o he me hod o ca og aphic
symbols c ea ion:
The e is a possibili y o gene a e own symbols besides es ablished s anda ds, o
example, o hema ic maps.
• Depic ion o any scales (p opo ional change o symbol geome ic p opo ions).
• Possibili y o modi y symbols acco ding o equi emen s.
• Possibili y o combine symbols.
• Applica ion independence.
• Op imiza ion o symbols loca ion o map ace in case o possible symbols o e lap.
P oposed solu ion concep .
The au ho s chose he ollowing wo king p ocedu e o au oma ed ca og aphic
symbols gene a ion:
• C ea ion o a ma hema ical model o ca og aphic symbols based on g aphic a ia-
bles.
• P oposal o a o mal language o g aphics desc ip ion (syn ax).
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 7 o 23
• Choice o a sc ip ing language o symbols depic ions o a iable scale maps.
• P oposal o an algo i hm and he ealiza ion o he p ocess in a sui able applica ion
(e.g., A cGIS, QGIS).
The p oposed me hod is shown in Figu e 1.
Figu e 1. Concep o au oma ed c ea ion and usage o ca og aphic symbols.
3.2.1. Ma hema ical Model
Au ho s P a da [34] and Be in [10] men ion hese basic g aphic a iables o a
symbol:
Shape—gi en by symbol con ou line.
Size— ep esen s he quan i a i e alue o phenomenon and his quan i y is p opo -
ional o symbol size.
Filling o ex u e—using colo s o as e o exp ess phenomenon quali y, quan i y
can be exp essed by di e en in ensi ies o colo o as e .
O ien a ion—is impo an i symbols exp ess some phenomenon’s posi ion in ela-
ion o coo dina e g id (o ano he objec ) o phenomenon de elopmen along some
ou e.
Colo —cha ac e is ics used a e hue, sa u a ion, and b igh ness [35].
Hojo ec [36] and Voženílek [37] ex end hese g aphic a iables by wo mo e:
S uc u e—in e nal g aphic segmen a ion o symbol. I can exp ess quan i a i e e-
la ions among componen s ha o m he whole phenomenon. The s uc u e can ha e
only es he ic sense.
Posi ion (geo e e encing)—symbol loca ion on he map using coo dina es.
Digi al o ms o ca og aphy p o ide ano he means o exp ession, such as mo e-
men , blinking, o colo change, e c. P oblems o hese a iables a e no explo ed in his
wo k.
On basis o he abo e-men ioned a iables, ca og aphic symbol s ∈ S is gi en by
depic ion o
: P x G x M x O → S, e.g.,: s = (p, g, m, o) (1)
whe e
S is collec ion o ca og aphic symbols. The collec ion means ha symbols may e-
pea in he se . This enables he c ea ion o composed (also hie a chical) ca og aphic
symbols and hei epea ed use, o example, basic symbol pa e n placing on a linea
elemen .
P is he se o symbol ixed poin s in a map space wi h coo dina es x, y, (z),
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 8 o 23
G is a se o geome ical and desc ip i e elemen s wi h a ibu es o which a symbol
is composed (symbol g aphical a iables); he se is in luenced by s anda diza ion and
alid legisla ion. They can be s anda d o c ea ed o a gi en pu pose. They depend on a
geog aphical objec o ∈ O ha is ep esen ed by he gi en symbol.
M is map scale—i also in luences symbol ep esen a ion on a map. I in luences he
size o he symbol ha is o be displayed.
O is he se o geog aphic objec s on a map, which a e ep esen ed by he symbol
(symbol seman ics).
When designing symbols, aking exis ing symbol o ms in he CR and he EU in o
conside a ion is necessa y. I is also impo an o selec sui able ep esen a i e symbols
ha would be app op ia e in a wide con ex o use. This is a me hod o comp omise
be ween he mode n app oach o digi aliza ion and he symbol o ms used so a wi hin
he Eu opean and wo ld ca og aphic communi ies.
3.2.2. P oposal o a Fo mal Language o Symbol G aphic Desc ip ion (Syn ax)
The language o a ca og aphic symbol desc ip ion was p oposed on he basis o
g aphical a iables and Equa ion (1)—see he p e ious subchap e . The basic idea was a
desc ip ion o g aphic a iables se by simple elemen s (p imi i es), om which i would
be possible o c ea e mo e complex elemen s using composi ion (e.g., a ci cle eplaced by
a sequence o line segmen s).
The basic a ibu es o he symbols we e classi ied wi hin he in o ma ion analysis in
he p e ious subchap e . Symbolic equi alen s ha se e as commands o d awing we e
assigned o hese a ibu es :
1. Global symbol pa ame e s ( alid o he whole map shee o slice):
• symbol ID,
• x, y, (z), coo dina es o symbol ixed poin ,
• M—map scale- alue M = 0 means ha he symbol will no be d awing in a
gi en scale.
2. Local symbol pa ame e s:
a) Commands o geome ic elemen s d awing (d awing o poin s, lines, a cs, ci -
cles, o polygons. Coo dina es ela i e in ela ion wi h symbol ixed poin ).
• L = line x1, y1, x2, y2
• A = a c—add pa ame e s
• R = ing xs, ys, (ci cle wi h cen e and adius)
• P = polygon xi, yi ( e exes on polygon bounda y)
b) Commands o geome y design—colo , ype, and weigh o he line (d awing
a ibu es).
• C = colo <colo ID> (colo code, same as illing colo code)
• F = colo <colo ID o illing>—las de ined en i y (ci cle o polygon) will be
illed wi h gi en colo . Colo s (C, F) will be om colo able chosen. F = N
means wi hou illing
• Y = ype < ype line numbe >
• W = weigh <weigh line numbe >
• T = ex < on numbe >—o he a ibu es (C, Y, W) will be adop ed om geom-
e y de ini ion
• H = hype ex —link o ano he objec ( ile) in case o dynamic isualiza ion
(anima ion) o symbol wi h mul imedia componen s.
• Sepa a o s o commands a e semicolons ‘;’ (al e na i e TAB o space).
• Decimal poin s will be ep esen ed by do s ‘.’.
The p e iously men ioned o mal language o symbols desc ip ion will be sa ed in a
ex ile in his o ma :
(line s uc u e o 1 ca og aphic symbol):
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 9 o 23
<ID, commands sequence, EOL (End o Line)>.
Symbols a e cu en ly sa ed in applica ion lib a ies in g aphic o ma s ( as e o
ec o ). The disad an age is a necessi y o he symbol ans o ma ion o a gi en scale
while pu ing symbols in o he map shee . The ans o ma ion wo ks au oma ically in
his me hod.
Fo he p oposed me hod, a special algo i hm o d awing ca og aphic symbols
was de eloped. The inpu o he algo i hm we e global da a (symbol ID, coo dina es o
he e e ence poin x0, y0, scale M) and a ex ile con aining a o mal desc ip ion o ca -
og aphic symbols. The lowcha o he algo i hm is in Figu e 2.
Figu e 2. Algo i hm o d awing ca og aphic symbols.
4. Expe imen al Resul s
The e i ica ion o he p oposed me hodology consis ed o h ee phases:
1. P ocessing o analysis o used ca og aphic symbols in map wo ks o neighbo ing
s a es wi h ela ion o he Czech Republic and he EU.
2. Design o new ca og aphic symbols.
3. Design and implemen a ion o an algo i hm o d awing he ca og aphic symbols
based on he o mal desc ip ion.
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 16 o 23
y0 = [ySJTSK]
scale M = 100 (1:100)
ID = <chapel>
Symbol geome y desc ip ion:
I is assumed ha x0 = 0 and y0 = 0 ( ela i e coo dina es):
Line in Tex File:
ID; F = 255; R0,0,2; C = black; Y = solid; W = 1.5; L0,0,−6,0; L−4,2,−4−2; <EOL>
Algo i hm inpu pa ame e s o symbols depic ion:
ID, x0, y0, M.
The symbol ep esen ing he chu ch in he en i onmen QGIS is shown in Figu e 4.
Figu e 4. The symbol ep esen ing he chapel in he QGIS en i onmen .
Ano he demons a ion example o a linea symbol is shown in Figu e 5. This sym-
bol ep esen s he di icul y o he ou e in maps o cycling pa hs [2]. This basic segmen
is epea ed on he whole ou e.
Figu e 5. Example o linea symbol depic ion ( oad) om he o mal desc ip ion.
Symbol geome y desc ip ion:
I is assumed ha x0 = 0 a y0 = 0 ( ela i e coo dina es), ID = < oad wi h ype o su -
ace>
Line in Tex File:
ID; F = iole ; P0,0,−1,0,−1,−12,0,−12; F = black; P0,−4,−1,−4,−1,−4.2,0,−4.2;
P0,−12,−1,−12,−1,−12.2,0−12.2;<EOL>
The p oposed me hod is able o desc ibe also composed symbol. An example o an
a ea symbol is shown in Figu e 6, symbol geome y desc ip ion is in he nex ex .

ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 17 o 23
Symbol geome y desc ip ion:
I is assumed ha x0 = 0 a y0 = 0 ( ela i e coo dina es), ID = <a ea symbol: ga den>
Line in Tex File:
ID; F = g een; P0,0,-8,0,-8,-12,0,-12; F = N; Y = solid;
R−2.5,−3,1;R−5.5,−3,1;R−2.5,−9,1;R−5.5,−9,1;
F = black; R0,0,0.8;R−2,0,0.8; R−4,0,0.8; R−6,0,0.8; R−8,0,0.8; R−8,−2,0.8; R−8,−4,0.8;
R−8,−6,0.8; R−8,−8,0.8; R−8.−10.8; R−8,−12,0.8;
R−12,−6,0.8; R−12,−4,0.8; R−12,−2,0.8; R−12,0,0.8;
R−10,0,0.8; R-8,0,0.8; R−6,0,0.8; R−4,0,0.8; R−2,0,0.8; <EOL>
Figu e 6. Example o a ea symbol depic ion (ga den) om he o mal desc ip ion.
A demons a ion example o a special use -de ined symbol is shown in Figu e 7.
This symbol ep esen s a pub in pu pose maps o cycling pa hs [2]—see Figu e 8.
Symbol geome y desc ip ion:
I is assumed ha x0 = 0 a y0 = 0 ( ela i e coo dina es), ID = <a ea symbol: pub>
Line in Tex File:
ID; F = blue; P-1,-1,-2,0,-12,0,-13,-1,-14,-2,-14,-12,-13,-13,-14,-12,-14,-2,-13,-1,-12,0,-2,0;
F = whi e; A-10,-2.5,12,-6,-10,-9.5; L-10,-2.5,-10,-9.5; P-2,-2,-9,-2,-9,-9-9,-2;
F = blue; P-3,-3,-8,-3,-8,-4,-3,-4; P-3,-5,-8,-5,-8,-6,-3,-6P-3,-7,-8,-7,-8,-8,-3,-8;
C = whi e; W = 1; L-8,-10,-8,13;A-8,-13,-6.5,-12.5,-4.5,-10; <EOL>
Figu e 7. Example o use -de ined symbol depic ion (pub) om he o mal desc ip ion.
Acco ding o he symbol ID, he p og am sea ches o he app op ia e line in he ex
ile and pe o ms pa sing o he ex . Commands o d awing a symbol (line poin s,
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 18 o 23
polygons) a e iden i ied using sepa a o s (special cha ac e s). Wi hin each command, he
symbology o indi idual elemen s (colo , s eng h and line ype, e c.) is p ocessed and
w i en o he app op ia e laye . Finally, op ional ope a ions such as me ging laye s,
con e ing om ec o o as e o ma , and he like a e pe o med. The algo i hm was
debugged in he Py hon sc ip ing language in he QGIS en i onmen . Figu e 4 shows a
chu ch symbol in QGIS. This emblem was designed as a common symbol o map wo ks
in he Czech Republic and neighbo ing coun ies [32]. The symbol desc ip ion acco ding
o he me hodology in chap e 3.3 is ( he sepa a o is a semicolon):
ID5; Fblack;R0,0,70; Cblack; Ysolid; W4.6; L0,0,−6,0; L−4,2,−4,−2; <EOL>
The algo i hm is su icien ly uni e sal and can be used in any CAD, GIS, e c. appli-
ca ion.
The p oposed me hod was e i ied when c ea ing special maps o cycling. In his
case, i was necessa y o display he ou e map wi h addi ional in o ma ion such as ype
o su ace, di icul y o he oad, ype o oad (1s , 2nd, o 3 d class oad), e c. An example
o hese maps is shown in Figu es 8 and 9. Maps o bike pa hs we e also c ea ed o he
web en i onmen — he link is o [44].
Figu e 8. Poin and line symbols in a special map o cycling pa hs.
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 19 o 23
Figu e 9. Combined line symbols in a special map o cycling pa hs.
I can be seen om he igu es ha he p oposed desc ip ion o he ca og aphic
symbol is uni e sal and allows he combina ion o all possible g aphic elemen s wi hin
one symbol.
5. Discussion
The digi iza ion o maps is no jus abou con e ing maps om analog o digi al
o ma s. I is mainly a uni ica ion o me hods and p ocesses in he c ea ion, upda ing, and
p esen a ion o ca og aphic wo ks.
Expe ience om p ac ice con i ms ha digi iza ion in he gi en ield will be maxi-
mally e ec i e, unde he ollowing condi ions:
• All wo k p ocedu es will be he same i possible.
• All p ocesses will be as simple as possible.
• Da a lows be ween subsys ems will be in machine- eadable o ma .
• Phenomena om legisla ion and s anda diza ion will be clea ly implemen ed in he
applica ion so wa e.
• The in o ma ion in as uc u e, ha is., HW and SW, will be he same a all le els o
o ganiza ional uni s.
In he ield o ca og aphic wo ks, he au ho s p oposed o sol e his p oblem on
wo le els:
• Analysis o he cu en s a e o map p oduc ion in selec ed EU coun ies in o de o
uni y he p ocedu es o he c ea ion, in e p e a ion, and publica ion o map wo ks
a he na ional and in e na ional le el.
• Uni y he map key o he analyzed digi al maps and design a me hod o he simple
desc ip ion o ca og aphic symbols.
Gi en he cu en solu ions, he p esen ed me hodology is bene icial in he ollow-
ing poin s:
• Analyzes map wo ks no only a he na ional bu also a he in e na ional le el.
• I seeks o uni y he map key in an in e na ional con ex .
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 20 o 23
• Sugges s a simple desc ip ion o ca og aphic symbols, independen o applica ion
and na ional language.
The symbol desc ip ion s o ed in he ex ile can be conside ed he simples da a
s uc u e ha any use can c ea e and in e p e e en wi hou special in o ma ion ech-
nology. In addi ion, each applica ion has he means o p ocess ex iles.
The pape con ains examples o ca og aphic symbols and hei desc ip ion. These
a e jus demons a ion examples ha p o e ha he p oposed desc ip ion is gene al
enough o desc ibe e en complex ea u es.
The me hods published so a , which deal wi h he design o symbols, we e con-
cei ed mos ly om a ce ain poin o iew wi hou a b oade con ex . Fo example, he
me hod p oposed in he a icle [3] is usable in a web en i onmen bu is applica-
ion-dependen on A cGIS and Co el D aw. The me hod o symbol c ea ion desc ibed in
he publica ion [5] is e y gene al (desc ip ion using XML), bu also applica-
ion-dependen . Ano he disad an age is ha he desc ip ion o symbols using XML is
ex ensi e (o conside able size), complex, and con using. The app oach o symbol c ea-
ion using ac al geome y p oposed in ano he a icle has simila p ope ies [11]. O he
wo ks ocus mo e on ca og aphic language as a whole han on he c ea ion o indi idual
symbols. These a e, o example, publica ions [7] whe e he bene i is a new pa adigm o
ca og aphic language, which would sui he map wo ks o a ious s a es and hus ena-
ble in e na ional coope a ion in his ield. The au ho s [45] hen p opose a comple ely
new alphabe o ca og aphic language based on empla es. The bene i o he me hod is
he possibili y o isualizing he mu ual ela ionship o mul idimensional da a.
One o he mos impo an aspec s o digi iza ion is he uni ica ion o p ocesses,
p ocedu es, and me hods in a gi en ield o he wides possible ex en ( egion, s a e, …).
To achie e his goal, i is necessa y ha all p ocesses a e simpli ied as much as possible
and made unde s andable and easily accessible o all ac o s. These p inciples also apply
o he digi iza ion o ca og aphic symbols.
Cu en ly, he e is a g owing need o digi al maps o a ious and speci ic pu -
poses. An example o his is, o example, a collec ion o maps o cycling, o ien ee ing,
e c. The au ho s encoun e ed he issue o he equi emen o special ca og aphic sym-
bols in p ojec s [46] (ma king o a eas on he map, whe e he op imal GNSS me hod is
ecommended) [47] (symbols ep esen ing selec ed p ope ies o s akeholde s) and [48]
(c ea ion o ou pu maps o classi ica ion su aces abo e unde g ound gas pipelines). A
simila p oblem was sol ed in he c ea ion o maps o c isis managemen [49].
These maps use e y speci ic map ea u es o a gi en pu pose. The ad an age o he
p oposed solu ion is i s simplici y, so he ca og aphic symbol can be desc ibed by he
end-use , who is no an expe in he ield o in o ma ion echnology. The p oposed
p ocedu e can be conside ed as an al e na i e o he me hods published so a . I is
he e o e a me hod ha is accessible o he wides possible public using digi al maps o
i s ac i i ies.
6. Conclusions and Fu u e Wo k
This wo k is ocused mainly on he possibili y o con e ging ca og aphic symbol
exp ession on s a e map wo ks published in he Czech Republic and neighbo ing coun-
ies. The c ea ion o a single symbol se is a e y leng hy p ocess in ol ing se e al is-
sued and es ed se s, which can be g adually adap ed o e lec he needs o he coun ies
conce ned. A he same ime, i is necessa y o use he expe ience om symbol se s ha
ha e al eady been published and used o se e al yea s. The g adual con e gence o
symbol se s be ween s a es depends p ima ily on he accessibili y o indi idual s a e o -
ganiza ions. Bu gi en he in ol emen o coun ies in he Eu opean Union and in ini ia-
i es such as INSPIRE and Eu oGeog aphics, in e es in his de elopmen can be ex-
pec ed in a leas some coun ies. Poland, Ba a ia, and Spain, in pa icula , ha e al eady
shown in e es in his coope a ion.
ISPRS In . J. Geo-In . 2022, 11, 105 21 o 23
I is ela i ely clea om he esul s o he compa ison o he symbols used in he
coun ies conce ned ha c ea ing a comple e uni e sal se o symbols o all coun ies
would be a e y demanding and p obably ime-consuming p ocess. These a e mainly
ca ego ies o bo de s and communica ions, whe e each s a e applies a di e en di ision,
hie a chy, and de ini ion o indi idual elemen s. This canno simply be uni ied, as ad-
minis a i e di isions a e usually deeply oo ed in he his o ical de elopmen o he s a e
i sel . Uni ica ion o a leas app oxima ion in his ca ego y would equi e longe nego-
ia ions and he in ol emen o ele an s a e o ganiza ions. In o he ca ego ies, i would
be possible, in ag eemen wi h he compe en au ho i ies o he indi idual s a es, o ad-
jus he displayed objec s and he de ail o hei di e en ia ion and a leas pa ially uni y
hem. In hese a eas, e en wi hin he de elopmen o symbols in indi idual coun ies,
he e a e o en changes, as ollows om he analysis o he de elopmen o symbol se s
used his o ically in he Czech Republic.
The ca og aphic symbol key, which was c ea ed in his wo k in coope a ion wi h
he Czech O ice o Su eying and Cadas e and Mili a y Geog aphical and Hyd ome-
eo ological O ice CZ, has so a been de eloped p ima ily o he needs o he Czech
s a e map wo k. Howe e , i is impo an ha i was c ea ed p ecisely and wi h de ailed
addi ional in o ma ion desc ibing all he g aphic a iables o he symbols. A he begin-
ning o 2020, ial p oduc ion o ZTM5, ZTM10, and ZTM25 began, and u he also
ZTM50 and ZTM100. These pilo map shee s will g adually check he p oposed ea u es.
Au ho Con ibu ions: D.B. elabo a ed li e a u e e iew, c ea e ma hema ical model, designed he
algo i hm, and implemen ed Py hon sc ip , P.A. has p o ided suppo ma e ials, conduc ed an
o e all edi o ial o he whole a icle and a p o essional ansla ion. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This wo k is suppo ed by he Speci ic Resea ch P ojec FAST-J-20-6374 o B no Uni e -
si y o Technology.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : Re iew boa d o Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, B no Uni-
e si y o Technology, Czech Republic. Da e o app o al: 1 Ma ch 2020.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : This s udy did no epo any da a.
Acknowledgmen s: We g ea ly app ecia e he ca e ul e iews and hough ul sugges ions by e-
iewe s.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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