INTL JOURNAL OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS, 2016, VOL. 62, NO. 1, PP. 23–31
Manusc ip ecei ed No embe 15, 2015; e ised Ma ch, 2016. DOI: 10.1515/ele el-2016-0003
Applica ion o High-Resolu ion 3D Scanning in
Medical Volume y
Adam Ch omy
Abs ac —This pape deals wi h applica ion o 3D scanning
echnology in medicine. Impo an p ope ies o 3D scanne s a e
discussed wi h emphasize on medical applica ions. Cons uc ion
o medical 3D scanne acco ding o hese speci ica ions is de-
sc ibed and p ac ical applica ion o i s use in medical olume y
is p esen ed. Besides olume y, such 3D scanne is usable
o many o he pu poses, like moni o ing o eco e y p ocess,
e gonomic splin manu ac u ing o in lamma ion de ec ion.
3D scanning in oduces no el olume ic me hod, which is
compa ed wi h s anda d me hods. The new me hod is mo e
accu a e compa ed o p esen ones. P inciples o his me hod
a e discussed in pape and i s accu acy is e alua ed and expe -
imen ally e i ied.
Keywo ds—medical olume y, medical 3D scanning, 3D scan-
ning, medical imaging, so - issues
I. INTRODUCTION
Cap u ing h ee-dimensional models has become mo e and
mo e impo an du ing las yea s, due o apid de elopmen
o 3D echnologies, especially 3D p in e s. They a e e y e-
quen ly eques ed de ices oday, i s ma ke is apidly g owing
and i s de elopmen also mo es o wa d e y as . Acco ding
o Google T ends, numbe o sea ch que ies ela ed o 3D
echnologie inc eased mo e han en imes du ing las h ee
yea s [1]. A chi ec u al models o buildings, design p o o ypes
o new p oduc s, o e en 3D p in e s i sel a e 3D p in ed
oday. The e a e expe imen s wi h p in ing eal houses, ood,
o biop in ing [2]. All hese applica ions equi e he same –
compu e 3D model.
3D p in ing is no he only domain, whe e 3D models a e
use ul. They can be also used o s o ing isual in o ma ion
in compac and esis an o m, in which he objec s a e no
ageing. In his case, colou -co e ed 3D models seem o be
he bes modali y. E.g. The Me opoli an Museum o A
published models o i s exhibi s [3], o Sou h Ko ea a chi ed
i s UNESCO he i age a eas [4].
Finally, compu e 3D models a e, due o i s plas ici y,
becoming mo e and mo e used o isualiza ion o objec s,
which a e un eachable (con amina ed, dange ous o emo e
a eas) [5], [6] o en i onmen s, which a e in isible wi hou
in asi e su ge y (human inne s uc u es) [7]. Ano he objec s
a e isible, bu i s impo an de ails a e oo iny (human ou e
s uc u es) and i is necessa y o enla ge hem plas ically [8].
This wo k was suppo ed by he g an No. FEKT-S-14-2429 The esea ch
o new con ol me hods, measu emen p ocedu es and in elligen ins umen s
in au oma ion inanced om in e nal science und o B no Uni e si y o
Technology.
Au ho is wi h Facul y o Elec ical Enginee ing and Communica-
ion, B no Uni e si y o Technology, B no, Czech Republic (e-mail:
[email p o ec ed].cz).
The e a e se e al possibili ies o cap u ing such 3D models,
bu he mos equen me hod is 3D scanning, wha means
di ec cap u ing o 3D model wi h de ice in ended o his pu -
pose [9]. This echnology is sp eading in o he new domains
and mo e and mo e new applica ions a e announced each yea .
Bu s ill, he e a e mos ly echnical domains ge ing in ol ed.
The medicine is one o domains, whe e 3D models a e e y
a ely used, e en hough many oppo uni ies o po en ial 3D
scanning applica ions exis .
This pape deals wi h applica ions o 3D scanning ech-
nologies in medicine, wi h ocus on one o he a eas, whe e
3D scanning b ings signi ican ad an ages – on Medical
Volume y.
Obse ing pa ame e s o human body olumes has been one
o he mos impo an ac o s in diagnosis since beginnings o
medicine and has also se ed o e alua ion o sui abili y o
applied he apy. Bu i you a e isually obse ing only, all
hese geome ical changes can be use ul once he symp oms
a e la ge, wha ypically means ha he disease is al eady
de eloped.
To be able o e eal he disease in i s e y beginning, i
is no enough o obse e only, i needs o measu e and e en
wi h as high as possible esolu ion, wha p o ides possibili y
o ea ly de ec ion o iny changes o olumes, which e e o
symp oms o disease.
In his s udy, we a e ocused on applica ion o p ecise 3D
scanning o accu a e measu emen s o olume ic pa ame e s,
p ima ily body-pa olume. To know he exac alue o his
pa ame e is aluable o many pu poses – e.g. ea ly de ec ion
o pe iphe al oedemas [10], lymphedemas, ca cinomas [11]
o ib osis [12], i s moni o ing and con ol o i s e olu ion;
measu emen o in luence o s eng h exe cises on spo smen
[13] o supe ision o eco e y p ocess a e in asi e su ge ies
[14]. P esen s anda d me hods a e no accu a e enough, easily
usable, o equi e high ope a ional expenses.
P ecise 3D scanning has also one ex a ad an age – spa ial
esolu ion o such models can be also enla ged by one dimen-
sion and all hese models could be egis e ed in ela ion o
ime. Wi h 3D scanning, we a e no able o p ecisely measu e
only, we a e also able o see ends.
In his pape , he p esen olume ic me hods a e summa-
ized, hen cons i u ion o he bes sui able 3D scanne o
medical pu poses is discussed and i s p ac ical applica ion in
medical olume y is p esen ed. Finally, his new olume ic
me hod is compa ed wi h p esen ones, bo h heo e ically and
expe imen ally.
24 A. CHROMY
II. PRESENT VOLUMETRIC METHODS
Acco ding o [11], [13], [15]–[17], he mos equen ly used
olume ic me hods a e:
A. Ci cum e en ial measu emen s
Me hods o his g oup a e based on olume es ima ion
om measu emen s o ci cum e ence a se e al speci ic places.
E e y me hod uses some o m o su ace app oxima ion, wha
leads o lowe accu acy [16]. Repea abili y o measu emen s
signi ican ly depends on expe ience o pe son pe o ming
measu emen [18]. On he o he hand, no special equipmen
is equi ed, hey a e simple and use ul o non- lexible limbs
and pa ien s wi h bad mo o ic abili ies o wa e incompa ible
diseases [11].
The i s mos used me hod is F us um Sign Model based
on measu emen s o 2 ci cum e ences and app oxima ion by
unca ed cone be ween hem, wi h ela i e accu acy1abou
±8% o measu ed olume [18]. E en hough i s accu acy
is low, i s ex emely as (less han 1 min.), wha makes
i sui able o si ua ions, whe e quick es ima ion o olume,
wi hou emphasis on accu acy, is equi ed [19].
Second me hod called Disc Model es ima es olume as
sum o equidis an disks wi h dis ance o 5 cm, wi h ela i e
accu acy abou ±6% o measu ed olume [18], bu be awa e,
ha all hese accu acies mus no been conside ed as de ini i e
since signi ican ly depends on pe sonal expe iences.
B. Wa e Displacemen Volume y
The mos used olume ic me hod, conside ed as golden
s anda d [13], is based on quan um o wa e o e lowing
om ully illed con aine when measu ed limb is inse ed.
I is equen ly used because o i s good accu acy, e y
good epea abili y and negligible dependency on ope a o ’s
expe iences compa ing o ci cum e en ial measu emen s. The
bigges disad an ages a e, ha i equi es good lexibili y and
good mo o ic abili ies o measu ed limb (shi e ing o limb
signi ican ly in luences esul ), he e is possible isk o c oss-
in ec ion, some pa ien s ha e o a oid wa e because o hei
disease and i is e y ime consuming [11], [15]. Acco ding o
[13], [18], [20], i s ela i e accu acy is in e sely p opo ional
wi h measu ed objec olume and a ies om ±2% in case o
lowe leg measu emen s (abou 2700 cm3) o ±8% in case o
inge measu emen s (abou 25 cm3).
C. Op oelec onic Volume Measu emen
The e a e se e al comme cially a ailable single-pu pose
olume ic de ices using his me hod. The measu emen p in-
ciple is based on ho izon ally mo able ame equipped wi h
in a ed ligh emi e s and ecep o s. This ame is mo ing
along axis o examined limb. Ligh beams a e in e up ed by
he olume o measu ed limb and he shadow is cap u ed a
ecep o s in wo pe pendicula axes. By mo ing he ame,
many measu emen s a e pe o med and olume is hen cal-
cula ed om hese alues [18]. Acco ding o [20] ela i e
1 e m ” ela i e accu acy” in his pape means ela i e unce ain y wi h 95%
con idence (2σ)
accu acy o such de ice is ±2% o measu ed olume (in case
o measu emen s in ange om 1000 o 3000 cm3), bu he
epea abili y is much be e since he measu ed alue is no
oo dependan on pe sonal expe iences o mo o ic abili ies o
pa ien [16]. Disad an age o his me hod is, ha expensi e,
single-pu pose de ice is equi ed and esul an bene i s a e
no oo signi ican compa e o Wa e Displacemen Volume y,
which is much cheape [10].
D. 3D Sonog aphy, CT and MRI
In e y occasional cases, mos ly o esea ch pu poses, he
olume is compu ed om 3D models p o ided by hese h ee-
dimensional imaging modali ies [21]–[24]. Each o hem is
able o p o ide 3D model o body pa , bu each o hem
has signi ican disad an ages disallowing i s usage in common
heal h ca e. Ul asonog aphy, due o i s di e gence o sound-
beam, has oo poo esolu ion (abou 5 mm) o be be e
han simple Ci cum e en ial o Wa e displacemen me hods
[25]. Among his, i has oo noisy image [26]. Compu ed
Tomog aphy (CT) eaches up o 0.2 mm spa ial esolu ion
in ou pu 3D model [27], bu ionizing adia ion abso bed by
pa ien du ing one scan is up o 15 mS , wha is one hi d o
allowed exposi ion o wo ke s wi h ionizing sou ce pe yea
and o common people exceeds allowed hygiene limi s e en
15 imes [28]. Fo his eason, use o his modali y is allowed
as a e as possible and epea ed scanning is comple ely ou
o he ques ion. Finally, Magne ic Resonance Imaging (MRI),
al hough i s esolu ion is app ox. 1 mm, canno be widely
used because o i s high cos s, ime consuming examina ions,
pacemake o pie cing disallowing [29].
Applica ion o 3D scanning in medicine b ings no el olume -
ic me hod, which eaches o be e accu acy han men ioned
olume ic me hods, good epea abili y, easy use and low
ope a ional cos s.
III. 3D SCANNNERS
The e a e plen y o 3D scanne s wo king on a ious p in-
ciples, so hei e iew would ake a whole book. Bu wha
hey ha e common is, ha we can make a lis o modules,
which each scanne mus ha e somehow implemen ed. Ra he
hen e alua ing each model o 3D scanne , we discuss each
a ailable implemen a ion o e e y module wi h emphasize on
medical applica ion o 3D scanne . By choosing he mos
sui able implemen a ion o each unc ional block, we can
make an image, how he ideal medical 3D scanne should
be ealized.
The e a e blocks, which each scanne consis s o :
A. Raw Da a Cap u ing
The mos o scanne s measu e dis ance o su ace om
senso . In case o con ac scanne s, his dis ance is gi en by
leng h o ouch p obe. This can be e y p ecise, bu ouching
he examined objec can be damaging o us a ing (in case
o human body scanning) [30].
Con ac less echniques a e mos ly using he lase beam
(lase scanne s). Solu ion wi h measu ing he ime o ligh o
APPLICATION OF HIGH-RESOLUTION 3D SCANNING IN MEDICAL VOLUMETRY 25
lase quan um p o ides wide measu ing ange (up o hund eds
o me e s), bu i s p ecision is limi ed by esolu ion o ime-
measu ing uni (up o 1mm) [31]. Ano he lase scanne
p inciple is iangula ion, ha ing opposi e abili ies: i s accu-
acy is e y high (up o 1µm [32]), bu i s measu ing ange
is limi ed (hund eds o millime es [33]). The in e e ome ic
lase scanne eaches up o 1pm esolu ion, bu i s ange is
up o hund eds o µm [34].
S uc u ed-ligh 3D scanne s p ojec a pa e n o ligh on
he subjec and look a i s de o ma ion in cap u ed image [35].
The ad an age o his me hod is high speed o scanning since
each ime he en i e image is analysed ins ead o one poin
[36]. Ano he ad an age is he p ecision, which is e en be e
han lase iangula ion [37].
S e eopho og amme ic scanne s use wo came as o es-
ima e 3D posi ion o poin s om di e ences be ween wo
images. I is also qui e as wi h accu acy up o 1mm [38].
Di e en ype o aw da a cap u e MRI and CT, whe e he
alue ele an o densi y o ma e ial, is measu ed in e e y
place o examined egion. MRI measu emen s a e e y slow
( ens o minu es), bu inne s uc u es o human body a e
isualized (wi h spa ial esolu ion app ox. 1.5mm3) [21],
[22]. Sligh ly as e and mo e accu a e (app ox. 0.6mm3) is
CT [27], bu i s impo an disad an age is ionizing adia ion.
B. Mo ing he Senso
In o de o build a 3D model o a bi a ily complex objec ,
he senso mus be posi ioned o se e al iew-poin s, om
which all de ails on he su ace o objec a e isible [39].
The hand-held scanne s a e de ices, whe e mo ing o
senso along scanning ajec o y is ealised manually [40]. I
eaches he bes lexibili y, bu he ask o senso localiza ion
(see nex sec ion) is complica ed [41].
The majo i y o 3D scanne s use mo o ized senso mo ing,
mos ly composed om p ecise elec ic s eppe d i e [42] o
se omo o [43]. I p o ides au oma ic mo emen s along op i-
mal, p e- es ed ajec o ies and empowe s also easie senso
localiza ion. I also minimizes he p oblem wi h scanning
anges, which can be e y na ow in some cases (e.g. iangu-
la ion lase scanne s) and o s ay manually in his ange can
be di icul . Disad an age is, ha lexibili y o mo emen is
limi ed by he kinema ic concep ion o axes, along which he
senso mo es [44]. The bes lexibili y eaches he a icula ed
kinema ic chain wi h a leas 6 DOF. When adding 7 h deg ee
o eedom, he singula i y p oblems a e minimized [45].
C. Senso Localiza ion
To be able o esol e posi ion o measu ed poin in coo -
dina e sys em, i is necessa y o know he p ecise posi ion o
senso in 6 DOF2(among aw da a i sel ).
This ask is simple in cases, when mo o ized senso posi-
ioning is used, since he senso mus be connec ed o mo e-
able axis by join s3, which posi ion can be simply measu ed
23 coo dina es unambiguously de ine posi ion o poin and ano he 3
coo dina es unambiguously de ine i s o ien a ion
3Join in his sense can be also linea ly ansla ional, no only o a ional
by encode s, esol e s [46], se omo o ic eed-back [43], e c.
Using di ec kinema ics, i s posi ion can be unambiguously
compu ed wi h high p ecision [47].
F ee hand-held scanne s use he image egis a ion o es-
ima e i s loca ion al e a ion om change o scene be ween
las wo scans [48]. Many scanne s use some me hod based
on ICP [49], usually op imized [50] o modi ied o speci ic
applica ion [51]–[53]. This app oach has wo disad an ages:
The absolu e accu acy is e y low, due o cumula i e cha ac e
o localizing algo i hm, which sums pa ial e o s [54]. I can
also ail in uni o m scenes like a plane, cylinde , sphe e, e c.
This p oblem can be pa ly minimized by ex e nal localizing
sys em based on ine ial measu emen uni (IMU) [41], o
ully sol ed by use o passi e kinema ic chain wi h join
measu emen s [55].
D. Planning T ajec o y o Senso
The e a e 3 ypes o scanning ajec o y planning: online,
s a ic and adap i e.
Online planning is ypical o hand-held scanne s, since
he exac ajec o y is c ea ed jus when scanning and is
unknown be o e [40]. The esul depends on ope a o skills (i
he mee s he measu ing ange, i scanning jus he egion o
in e es , e c.). The o he special example o online planning
is au onomous planning o ajec o y based on ex a sys em
measu emen s (e.g. o e iew lase scanne ) [56]. E en hough
many publica ion ha e been published on his opic, he
solu ion a e s ill no enough obus o be commonly used [57].
S a ic planning uses p ede ined and p e- es ed scanning
ajec o ies. They a e simple and obus in sense o no isk o
unexpec ed beha iou o posi ioning sys em [58]. On he o he
hand, hei use is non- lexible and limi ed e.g. wi h senso s
wi h na ow measu ing ange. T ajec o ies mus be equen ly
ede ined also in case o sligh di e ences o scanned objec s.
Adap i e planning combines bo h me hods abo e. The gen-
e al concep o ajec o y is s ic ly de ined, bu sligh , on-line
compu ed de ia ions acco ding o scanned objec a e allowed
(Fig. 1) [58]. Since he changes o ajec o y a e allowed jus
in de ined deg ee o eedom and also limi ed, he e is no isk
o unexpec ed mo ing and he algo i hm is mo e lexible.
E. Compu a ion o 3D Poin Posi ion
The con ac scanne s dispose wi h he easies way o 3D
poin compu a ion, since he posi ion o ouched poin is
di ec ly he senso loca ion, only shi ed by he leng h o p obe
[30].
Fig. 1. Illus a ing di e ence be ween S a ic planning and Adap i e planning.
26 A. CHROMY
The mos o 3D scanne ypes use geome ic ans o ma-
ions o build he 3D model. This echnique can be used,
when cap u ed aw da a con ains any spa ial in o ma ion (e.g.
dis ance measu ed by lase scanne ) o a e spa ially o de ed
( oxels o CT and MRI).
In case o s e eopho og amme y, he ans o ma ion ap-
p oach canno be used, since he e is no spa ial in o ma ion
in he aw cap u ed da a. The h ee-dimensional ep esen a ion
o scanned objec mus be in e ed om wo images cap u ed
wi h wo came as wa ching he same scene om di e en
iews [48].
F. S o ing and Visualiza ion o 3D Models
The e a e wo basic app oaches o s o ing h ee-dimensional
da a:
3D G id di ides spa ial a ea o scanned objec o egula ly
o de ed same-size elemen s called oxels. Each cube con ains
p obabili y o occupancy by objec (Occupancy G id [59])
o o he alue desc ibing he oxel locali y (E idence G id
[60]), e.g. densi y in case o MRI o CT. All objec s in scan
a e hen app oxima ed by numbe o same cubes, wha is a
om eali y. Also he memo y equi emen s a e e y high.
On he o he hand, compu a ions o e such model a e simple
and as . I s use ul o models in low esolu ion, which a e
equen ly upda ed and ebuild, e.q. in case o 3D li e iew.
This ep esen a ion is used in s anda d medical ile o ma
DICOM, used o s o ing da a om CT and MRI.
Poin Cloud in i s aw o ma is uno de ed se o h ee-
dimensional ec o s de ining posi ion o poin s in space [60].
In p ac ical applica ions, hey con ains also ex a in o ma ions
abou his poin (colou , ma e ial, e c.). This o ma allows
o desc ibe he wo ld by geome ic shapes, wha is mo e
au hen ic app oxima ion han g ids. The memo y equi emen s
a e signi ican ly lowe han g ids. Disad an age o his o ma
is highe compu a ional load and mo e complex analysing
o model. I s use ul o models, whe e p ecision and high
esolu ion is equi ed, bu hey a e no upda ed oo o en [61].
IV. MEDICAL 3D SCANNER
The uni e sal 3D scanning de ice sui able o medical
pu poses and usable in e e yday p ac ice shall ha e ollowing
abili ies:
•High accu acy – essen ial pa ame e o being able o
dis inguish e en iny changes o human body caused by
oedemas, muscle a ophy o muscle s eng hening.
•Flexibili y – since de ice should be uni e sal, we shall
be capable o scanning en i e body as same as i s iny
de ails. Because o ha , he 3D scanne mus be e y
lexible.
•Low ope a ional cos s – o allow i s e e yday use, i s
ope a ion shall be inexpensi e.
•Simple manipula ion – de ice mus be as much as possi-
ble au oma ed, no dis u bing he pe sonnel wi h complex
se ings be o e each scanning.
•High speed – he scanning p ocedu e mus be e y as .
In o he cases, he pe sonnel would no ha e ime o use
i and would p e e es ima ion ins ead o measu emen .
•No limi a ions – de ice should be usable wi h any pa ien .
The e should be no limi a ions acco ding o me al pa s,
heal h s a e, e c.
•Ha mless ope a ion – using he de ice shall no be ha m-
ul o bo h pa ien and pe sonnel in any ci cums ances.
To ul il all hese equi emen s, he design o medical 3D
scanne shall be as ollows:
Da a cap u ing senso shall be s uc u ed ligh 3D scanne
o iangula ion lase scanne , due o p ecision easons. As a
esul o his, compu a ion o 3D poin posi ion shall be based
on geome ic ans o ma ions. Senso mo ion shall be mo-
o ized om eason o p ecise senso localiza ion, au oma ic
mo emen and keeping in measu ing ange. The kinema ic
chain shall be a icula ed, due o he lexibili y equi emen .
T ajec o y planning shall be adap i e, in o de o each some
deg ee o au onomy wi h keeping he mo ion unde he con ol.
Cap u ed da a shall be s o ed in o m o ex ended poin cloud,
since i does no a ec model accu acy. The p oblem wi h
compu a ional equi emen s is no se ious, since he model is
once cap u ed and a e wa ds modi ied occasionally.
Because such de ice is no comme cially a ailable, we
c ea ed ou own 3D scanne [62] mee ing he speci ica ions
abo e: Robo ic 3D Scanne .
A. Robo ic 3D Scanne
Robo ic 3D scanne is a 3D modelling sys em based
on no el cons i u ion, which uses combina ion o 6 DOF
indus ial obo ic manipula o and iangula ion-based lase
scanne connec ed wi h con olling and da a p ocessing com-
pu e (Fig. 2). Lase scanne measu es dis ance om pa ien
su ace, when obo ic manipula o con ols scanne posi ion
and o ien a ion. F om in o ma ion abou posi ion, di ec ion o
iew and dis ance o su ace, each poin posi ion in 3D space
can be compu ed. This solu ion combines high lexibili y wi h
high p ecision and eliabili y.
Fig. 2. Robo ic manipula o wi h lase scanne combines high accu acy wi h
lexibili y.
APPLICATION OF HIGH-RESOLUTION 3D SCANNING IN MEDICAL VOLUMETRY 27
Fig. 3. Analyzing so wa e allowing measu emen s o egion o in e es .
High accu acy is eached by using p ecise manipula o wi h
accu a e lase scanne and high lexibili y is caused by p o-
g ammable scanning ajec o y in six deg ees o eedom and
by eplaceabili y o lase scanne , wha p o ides possibili y o
scanning bo h iny and la ge s uc u es.
I is 3D modelling sys em, use ul o many di e en medical
applica ions beside olume ics: moni o ing o issue eco e y
p ocess, pose measu emen s o ehabili a ion pu poses o
e gonomic splin s design; bu also a o he domains om
a chi ing o his o ical ma e ials in museums, h ough design,
models o compu e games and indus ial inspec ion o 3D
objec cloning.
Robo ic 3D Scanne p o ides h ee-dimensional model o
pa ien body-pa , which can be analyzed in ou sel -de eloped
analyzing so wa e (Fig. 3). The big ad an age is he pos-
sibili y o selec ion o egion o in e es . The e a e se e al
pa ame e s a ailable o be measu ed:
•Dis ances [mm] – be ween de ined poin s (di ec ly, along
he su ace), ci cum e ences o ROI.
•Angles [deg] – angle be ween h ee de ined poin s (e.g.
e eb ae posi ions)
•Su ace a ea [mm2] – en i e model o ROI
•Volume [mm2] – en i e model o ROI de ined by cu ing
plane o de lec ed cu ing su ace
De ailed desc ip ion o Robo ic scanne ’s p inciples and
unc ions, ele an ans o ma ion equa ions o analysing so -
wa e capabili ies can be ound a [44] o [8].
V. NEW VOLUMETRIC METHOD
Con a y o F us um Sign Model, Disc Model, Wa e Dis-
placemen Me hod and Op oelec onic Volume e s, wha a e
he single-pu pose me hods o de ices, his me hod applies
mul i-pu pose Robo ic 3D Scanne [44] in o de o measu e
olume. Likewise he MRI o CT, i is no a de ice de eloped
o measu e olumes only, i is a uni e sal 3D scanning de ice
applicable o many o he a ious pu poses.
Robo ic 3D Scanne Volume y use he same measu ing p o-
cedu e as olume y ealized by MRI, CT o Ul asonog aphic
olume y. The same measu ing p ocedu e is applied also in
case o using any o he gene ic 3D scanne , he only di e ence
a e p ope ies o ou pu alues (accu acy, epea abili y, egion
selec abili y, e c.).
Fig. 4. Main p inciple o p oposed olume ic me hod.
Me hod p inciple can be di ided o se e al s eps, as shown
on Fig. 4.
Fi s s ep is cha ac e ized by c ea ing a p ecise 3D model o
measu ed limb o any o he in e es ed body pa . This model is
s o ed in poin -cloud o m, which elimina es losses o de ailed
ea u es and inc eases accu acy o he me hod 4.
Such models a e isualized o ope a o , who de ines egions
o in e es (ROI) whe eo olume wan o be measu ed (Fig. 3).
This abili y is an impo an ad an age on con a y o some
s anda d me hods (e.g. Wa e Displacemen Volume y), whe e
ROI is de ined by me hod i sel .
The olume o selec ed ROI is hen compu ed. Robo ic
3D Scanne Volume y uses Signed Volume o Te ahed on
Me hod [63], which accu acy is limi ed only by posi ioning
e o o poin s o cap u ed 3D model. G id-based s o ing
sys ems (MRI, CT, Sono) compu es olume as sum o oxels5
belonging o ROI. Resul ing accu acy is hen limi ed by g id
esolu ion.
A. Majo Ad an ages o This Me hod
The e a e se e al majo ad an ages o his me hod, com-
pa ed o s anda d ones:
•The highes accu acy compa e o s anda d me hods (see
sec ion V-B).
•Accu acy is independen on skills o hospi al s a , like
i is no in case o Ci cum e en ial measu emen s.
•Fas measu ing p ocess compa ed o all he me hods
excep he Op oelec onic olume e s.
•No equi emen s on pa ien like a Wa e Displacemen
Me hod (mobili y and lexibili y o limb) o MRI (no
pie cing, no pace-make s).
•Mul i-pu pose imaging modali y, no single-pu pose de-
ice as Op oelec onic olume e s.
•Selec i i y o measu ed a ea (possible o de ine egion o
in e es ).
•Low ope a ion expenses compa e o CT o MRI.
•No ionizing adia ion like a CT.
B. Accu acy o Measu emen
As men ioned abo e, esul ing olume is compu ed om
h ee-dimensional model o objec su ace. When using poin -
cloud o m and Signed Volume o Te ahed on Me hod o ol-
ume compu a ion, he only indispensable sou ce o unce ain y
is hen unce ain y o measu ing he posi ion o single poin
4MRI and CT p inciples do no allow o use a poin -cloud o m o s o ing
in o ma ions, he g id- ype memo y mus be used, wha leads o dec ease o
me hod accu acy.
5Voxel is he smalles a ailable olume elemen in g id ep esen a ion. In
mos ealiza ions, i is a cube wi h leng h o side gi en by spa ial esolu ion.

28 A. CHROMY
Fig. 5. Volume ic unce ain y: De i ing heo e ical accu acy om lase
scanning unce ain y.
in 3D model (∆Xmax). As long as he Robo ic 3D Scanne is
p ope ly calib a ed, he only conside able sou ces in luencing
scanne ’s accu acy a e obo ic manipula o accu acy (∆M) and
lase scanne accu acy (∆S). Rela ion be ween hese symbols
has been de i ed in [8] as ollows6:
∆Xmax = 3 (∆M+ ∆S)(1)
Compu e model o objec is composed om many single
poin s close o each o he on i s su ace, as shown on Fig. 5.
E e y poin is measu ed wi h unce ain y ∆Xmax, so he
maximal absolu e olume ic unce ain y ∆Vis an spa ial a ea
ma ked on Fig. 5 wi h dashed lines and exp essed as:
∆V=S·∆Xmax (2)
whe e Sis su ace a ea o he measu ed objec [m2].
Rela i e accu acy (δV) is hen de ined as:
δV=S
V·∆Xmax (3)
whe e Vis olume o he measu ed objec [m3].
Since Robo ic 3D Scanne is wo king wi h a ious
manipula o s and lase scanne s, also inal accu acy δV
will a y o di e en cons i u ions. Fo body-pa olu-
me ic measu emen s, we use lase scanne Mic oEpsilon
ScanCONTROL2750-100 wi h accu acy ∆S=±0.027 mm
[64] and obo ic manipula o Epson C3 wi h accu acy o end-
poin placemen ∆M=±0.013 mm [65]. Acco ding o (1),
Robo ic 3D Scanne ’s accu acy in his case is ∆Xmax =
±0.12 mm and acco ding o (3), eal olume ic measu emen
unce ain y (δV ) o p oposed de ice is:
δV =S
V·1.2·10−4(4)
VI. COMPARISON WITH STANDARD METHODS
Rela i e accu acies o all compa ed me hods a e summa-
ized in Table I. Since ela i e accu acy o se e al me hods
is no a cons an , i is no possible o clea ly compa e hem
6This equa ion encapsula es also he unce ain y o Robo ic 3D Scanne
calib a ion p ocedu e and i is a e y pessimis ic es ima ion – see [8].
TABLE I
METHODS COMPARISON: RELATIVE ACCURACIES OF STANDARD
METHODS AND THE NEW METHOD.
Me hod Rela i e Accu acy δV
F us um Sign Model 8 %
Disc Model 6 %
Wa e Displacemen Me hod om 2 % (a 2700 cm3)
up o 8 % (a 25 cm3)
Op oelec onic Volume e s 2 % (1000 −3000 cm3)
3D Ul asonog aphy (5.0·10−3·S/V ) %
Magne ic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (1.0·10−3·S/V ) %
Compu ed Tomog aphy (CT) (2.0·10−4·S/V ) %
Robo ic 3D Scanne (1.2·10−4·S/V ) %
di ec ly. Because he alue o accu acy is a unc ion o
measu ed objec shape (mo e p ecisely unc ion o su ace-
o- olume a io), compa ison will be made on wo e e ence
objec s:
•p ecise cuboid – o be able o e i y compu ed accu acy
expe imen ally (see sec ion VII),
•human hand – o be able o compa e p oposed me hod
wi h s anda d ones in hei s anda d wo king condi ions.
Rela i e accu acy p og essions o pa icula me hods a e
isualized on Fig. 6 ( o e e ence cuboid) and on Fig. 7 ( o
human hand). These p og essions encapsula e he in luence o
su ace-a ea- o- olume a ios (S/V ) on ela i e accu acy o
me hod.
I is clea om bo h igu es, ha accu acy o Robo ic 3D
Scanne each he bes alue in e e y si ua ion. The second
mos accu a e me hod is compu ing he olume om CT cap-
u ed model, bu due o high doses o ionizing adia ion, i is
used e y a ely. The hi d bes me hod – Wa e Displacemen
Volume y – does no ha e such se ious limi a ions. F om his
eason i is he mos used s anda d me hod, bu i s accu acy
is app oxima ely 4 imes lowe han accu acy o Robo ic 3D
Scanne Volume y.
VII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Theo e ical es ima ion o accu acy de i ed in sec ion V-B
was expe imen ally e i ied on se o e e ence objec s wi h
Fig. 6. Me hods compa ison: Rela i e measu emen accu acy δVand i s
dependency on size o cuboid (i s olume).
APPLICATION OF HIGH-RESOLUTION 3D SCANNING IN MEDICAL VOLUMETRY 29
Fig. 7. Me hods compa ison: Rela i e measu emen accu acy δVand i s
dependency on size o human hand (i s olume).
known dimensions and olume. The i s e e ence objec
was a p ecise cuboid om blackened s eel manu ac u ed
by p ecision-enginee ing company and consequen ly e i-
ied in op ical measu ing chambe . De ining dimensions o
cuboid a e 29.996 ±0.001 mm,39.990 ±0.001 mm and
49.993±0.001 mm, wi h pa allelisms o co esponding planes
0.005±0.001 mm,0.008±0.001 mm and 0.007±0.001 mm,
and wi h maximal pe pendicula i y 0.007 ±0.001 mm (ϑ=
22◦C, φ = 46%).
Acco ding o [66], ue olume o he e e ence objec V e
is:
V e = 59.969 ±0.005 cm3(5)
Volume o his e e ence objec was 10 imes measu ed by
Robo ic 3D Scanne Volume ic Me hod. A each measu e-
men , same scanning ajec o y, bu di e en o ien a ion o
e e ence objec inside scanning a ea was used. The mean
alue and unce ain y ype A [67] we e de e mined om
measu ed da a:
Vmeas = 60.43 ±0.30 cm3(6)
Assuming he equa ion (4), heo e ical ela i e accu acy in
case o measu emen o objec wi h his size is δ heo y =
±1.88 %, so he measu ed alue Vmeas should be compa ible
wi h in e al de ined by ue alue V e and ange δ heo y:
V heo y = 59.97 ±1.13 cm3(7)
This expe imen p o es alidi y o equa ion (4) o simila -
sized objec s since Vmeas is compa ible wi h V heo y.
To be able o e i y wide ange o olumes beyond he p e-
cise me al e e ence objec , we used also he bigge e e ence
cuboids. These objec s we e less-p ecise and made om wood
(due o manu ac u ing expenses), bu i s dimensions we e
known oge he wi h unce ain y o dimension measu emen s.
Resul s o hese measu emen s we e e alua ed exac ly he
same way.
All esul s o e i ica ion a e summa ized in Table II and
Fig. 8. All he ele an esul s a e compa ible, so he heo e -
ically de i ed ela i e accu acy de ined by equa ion (4) was
e i ied and seems o be alid.
Figu e 8 shows heo e ical accu acy (”Decla ed accu acy”)
and ue accu acy7wi h e o ba s p esen ing a iance o mea-
su emen s (”T ue accu acy”). En i e se o measu ed alues
s ayed below he decla ed accu acy, wha shows, ha his
accu acy es ima ion is e y pessimis ic, and eal accu acy
seems o be be e (”Appa en eal accu acy”).
TABLE II
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF METHOD ACCURACY.
Re . V e δV V heo y Vmeas Compa-
Obj. [cm3] [%] [cm3] [cm3] ibili y
#1 59.97 1.88 60.0±1.1 60.4±0.3YES
#2 536.01 0.89 536.0±4.8 535.1±2.6YES
#3 973.59 0.73 973.6±7.1 974.8±2.3YES
#4 1734.71 0.63 1734.7±11.0 1737.7±3.0YES
#5 2540.44 0.59 2540.4±15.0 2544.4±3.0YES
VIII. CONCLUSION
Despi e apid de elopmen o 3D scanning, i s boom im-
pac s mo e o less only echnically-o ien ed domains. Bu he e
a e many oppo uni ies also in o he a eas, like a medicine.
This pape analyses needs o medicine in sense o 3D scan-
ning and in e ences equi emen s on medical 3D scanning.
Acco ding his speci ica ion, medical 3D scanne has been
de eloped and i s con ibu ion has been demons a ed on one
o i s applica ions – medical olume y.
P oposed no el me hod o olume ic measu emen s
eaches up o he bes accu acy compa ed o all s anda d
me hods. Acco ding o pessimis ic heo e ical e alua ions o
pe o mance, i s ela i e accu acy a ies om ±1 % o
±0.5 %, depending on complexi y o scanned limb su ace,
speci ically on he su ace-a ea- o- olume a io. Bu du ing
7compu ed as ela i e di e ence be ween ue ( e e ence) alue and mea-
su ed alue
Fig. 8. Compa ing e i ica ion measu emen s and heo e ical me hod
accu acy.
30 A. CHROMY
e i ying expe imen s, ela i e e o was e en 4 imes lowe .
The only a ea, whe e his me hod is no sui able is measu e-
men o objec s smalle han 1 cm3, whe e measu emen e o
eaches up o ±10 %.
In addi ion o high accu acy, p oposed Robo ic 3D Scanne
is mul i-pu pose de ice ha ing wide a e o usage also ou side
o medical domain. I can be used in escue obo ics [68]
o expe imen al biology [69]. In u u e wo k, i could be
de eloped wi h mo e senso s wi h da a usion [70], wha
would allow no only moni o ing he oedema, bu also ind
he cen e o in lamma ion due o augmen ed eali y [71].
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