

Ci a ion: Manakho , A.M.;
Pe myako a, E.S.; Si niko a, N.A.;
Tsyganko a, A.R.; Aleksee , A.Y.;
Soloma ina, M.V.; Baidyshe , V.S.;
Popo , Z.I.; Blaho á, L.; Eliáš, M.;
e al. Biodeg adable Nanohyb id
Ma e ials as Candida es o
Sel -Sani izing Fil e s Aimed a
P o ec ion om SARS-CoV-2 in
Public A eas. Molecules 2022,27, 1333.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
molecules27041333
Academic Edi o s: Alejand o Baeza,
Dimi ios Bikia is and Ca los Alemán
Recei ed: 30 Decembe 2021
Accep ed: 11 Feb ua y 2022
Published: 16 Feb ua y 2022
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
molecules
A icle
Biodeg adable Nanohyb id Ma e ials as Candida es o
Sel -Sani izing Fil e s Aimed a P o ec ion om SARS-CoV-2 in
Public A eas
An on M. Manakho 1,* , Eliza e a S. Pe myako a 1,2 , Na alya A. Si niko a 1, Alphiya R. Tsyganko a 3,
Alexande Y. Aleksee 4, Ma ia V. Soloma ina 4, Vic o S. Baidyshe 5, Zakha I. Popo 6, Lucie Blaho á7,
Ma ek Eliáš7, Lenka Zajíˇcko á7, And ey M. Ko alskii 2, Alexande N. She eyko 2,
Philipp V. Ki yukhan se -Ko nee 2, Dmi y V. Sh ansky 2, Da id Neˇcas 7and Anas asiya O. Solo ie a 1,*
1Resea ch Ins i u e o Clinical and Expe imen al Lymphology—B anch o he ICG SB RAS, 2 Timako a s .,
No osibi sk 630060, Russia; [email p o ec ed] (E.S.P.); [email p o ec ed] (N.A.S.)
2Resea ch Labo a o y o Ino ganic Nanoma e ials, Na ional Uni e si y o Science and Technology “MISiS”,
Leninsky P ospek 4, Moscow 119049, Russia; and [email p o ec ed] (A.M.K.);
[email p o ec ed] (A.N.S.); [email p o ec ed]u (P.V.K.-K.); [email p o ec ed] (D.V.S.)
3Nikolae Ins i u e o Ino ganic Chemis y SB RAS, 3 Acad. La en ie A e., No osibi sk 630090, Russia;
[email p o ec ed]
4Resea ch Ins i u e o Vi ology, The Fede al Resea ch Cen e o Fundamen al and T ansla ional Medicine,
2 Timako a s ., No osibi sk 630060, Russia; [email p o ec ed] (A.Y.A.); [email p o ec ed] (M.V.S.)
5Depa men o Compu e Enginee ing and Au oma ed Sys ems So wa e, Ka ano Khakas S a e Uni e si y,
P . Lenin 90, Abakan 655017, Russia; [email p o ec ed]
6Emanuel Ins i u e o Biochemical Physics RAS, Kosygina 4, Moscow 119334, Russia; [email p o ec ed]
7Cen al Eu opean Ins i u e o Technology CEITEC-BUT, Pu kyˇno a 123, 61200 B no, Czech Republic;
[email p o ec ed].cz (L.B.); ma [email p o ec ed].cz (M.E.); [email p o ec ed] (L.Z.);
[email p o ec ed] (D.N.)
*
Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (A.M.M.); [email p o ec ed]u (A.O.S.); Tel.: +7-915-8494059 (A.M.M.)
Abs ac :
The COVID-19 pandemic has aised he p oblem o e icien , low-cos ma e ials enabling he
e ec i e p o ec ion o people om i uses ansmi ed h ough he ai o ia su aces. Nano ibe s can
be a g ea candida e o e icien ai il a ion due o hei s uc u e, al hough hey canno p o ec om
i uses. In his wo k, we p epa ed a wide ange o nano ib ous biodeg adable samples con aining Ag
(up o 0.6 a .%) and Cu (up o 20.4 a .%) exhibi ing a ious we abili y. By adjus ing he magne on
cu en (0.3 A) and implan e ol age (5 kV), he deposi ion o TiO
2
and Ag
+
implan a ion in o
PCL/PEO nano ibe s was op imized in o de o achie e implan a ion o Ag
+
wi hou damaging
he nano ib ous s uc u e o he PCL/PEO. The op imal condi ions o implan sil e we e achie ed
o he PCL-Ti0.3-Ag-5kV sample. The coa ing o PCL nano ibe s by a Cu laye was success ully
ealized by magne on spu e ing. The an i i al ac i i y e alua ed by widely used me hodology
in ol ing he cul i a ion o Ve oE6 cells was he highes o PCL-Cu and PCL-COOH, whe e he
Ve oE6 iabili y was 73.1 and 68.1%, espec i ely, which is signi ican ly highe compa ed o SARS-
CoV-2 samples wi hou sel -sani izing (42.8%). In e es ingly, he samples wi h implan ed sil e and
TiO
2
exhibi ed no an i i al e ec . This di e ence be ween Cu and Ag con aining nano ibe s migh
be ela ed o he di e en concen a ions o ions eleased om he samples: 80
µ
g/L/day o Cu
2+
e sus 15
µ
g/L/day o Ag
+
. The high an i i al ac i i y o PCL-Cu opens up an exci ing oppo uni y
o p epa e low-cos sel -sani izing su aces o an i-SARS-CoV-2 p o ec ion and can be essen ial o ai
il a ion applica ion and acemasks. The ough cos es ima ion o he p oduc ion o a biodeg adable
nanohyb id PCL-Cu acemask e ealed ~$0.28/piece, and he business case o he p oduc ion o
hese acemasks would be highly posi i e, wi h an In e nal Ra e o Re u n o 34%.
Keywo ds: SARS-CoV-2; nano ibe s; an i i al coa ing; plasma; XPS; sil e ; coppe
Molecules 2022,27, 1333. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/molecules27041333 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/molecules
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 2 o 21
1. In oduc ion
The ecen COVID-19 pandemic has shown ha pa hogens can sp ead apidly ac oss
he wo ld, ha ing a ca as ophic impac on he heal h o human beings. As no single
solu ion p e en ing he sp eading o i al in ec ions exis s, mul iple-ba ie p o ec ion
mechanisms a e equi ed o block o a leas slow down he speed o i us ansmission [
1
].
Al hough nume ous e o s o slow down he sp eading o he i us ha e been de eloped,
including accines [
2
], diagnos ic echnologies and de elopmen s in su eillance measu es
o SARS-CoV-2-posi i e pa ien con ac acing [
3
], he apid g ow h o new pa ien s has
no slowed down, and addi ional measu es a e necessa y o comba he pandemic c isis.
Since he ansmission o i al in ec ions o en occu s h ough ae osol (o en conside ed
he mos dange ous, as i can sp ead in ec ious pa icles in high i e s) [
4
], he il a ion
and sepa a ion o submic on-sized con aminan s a e one o he main objec i es o mode n
nano echnology. Ul a- hin ibe s ob ained by he elec ospinning p ocess ha e shown
g ea po en ial in he applica ion o hese ma e ials as ac i e il e laye s due o hei
unique physical and chemical p ope ies, namely low basic weigh , small po e size, high
pe meabili y, high speci ic su ace ( om 1 o 100 m
2
/g, depending on he ibe diame e and
in a- ibe po osi y), good in e connec ion o po es and po en ial o inco po a ing ac i e
chemical species o unc ionaliza ion a he nanoscale [
5
]. These ma e ials can be used o
p o ec agains ae osol nanopa icles; chemicals (such as ne e agen s and mus a d gas) and
biological h ea s, including bac e ial spo es, i uses, e c. The abili y o ul a ine ibe il e s
o e ec i ely il e pa icles la ge han 10 nm has p e iously been demons a ed, making
hem sui able o a wide ange o il a ion applica ions, including he use o nano ibe s in
masks and espi a o s.
The il a ion e iciency inc eases when he ibe diame e and dis ance be ween ibe s
a e dec eased o he nanome e scale due o he inc eased con ac p obabili y be ween
ae osol pa icles and ibe su ace. Mo eo e , he slip low e ec diminishes he ic ion
be ween ae osol pa icles and he ul a- hin ibe s, leading o a small p essu e d op.
Omo i e al. made high-e iciency ai il e s wi h a hyb id nano ibe /mic o ibe
s uc u e using we pape p ocessing. The hyb id il e s exhibi ed high pe o mance wi h
a goodness Q = 0.043 (Q is a widely used index indica ing il a ion e iciency due o
p essu e d op) o ul a ine ibe s wi h an a e age diame e o 180 nm while il e ing
100-nm pa icles [6].
Ska ia e al. compa ed he il e ing pe o mance o comme cially a ailable masks
wi h a nano ibe -based il e p o o ype (Secu e Fi , PT) unde de elopmen [
7
]. They
showed ha he nano ibe il e was able o il e mo e e ec i ely han comme cial masks.
They showed ha , unlike comme cial acemasks, he p o o ype nano ibe il e p oduced
signi ican ly educed he mask’s esis ance o ai low and esul ed in mo e exhaled ai om
he acemask.
Ano he p oblem wi h il e media is seconda y con amina ion, whe e s opped i al
and bac e ial pa icles mig a e in he il e laye , eaching he espi a o y o gans. This can
be sol ed ei he by s e ilizing he il e o he euse o c ea ion o sel -cleaning ma e ials.
Mos nano ibe il e s, such as polyac yloni ile (PAN) [
8
], poly(
ε
-cap olac one) (PCL) [
9
]
and poly( inylidene luo ide) (PVDF) [
10
], wi hs and wa e washing and s e iliza ion wi h
alcohol. Recen ly, Ullah e al. [
11
] compa ed he cleaning e iciency o a su gical mask
il e wi h a nano ibe il e in 75% e hanol o e alua e hei eusabili y. Unlike su gical
masks, he il e ing mechanism o he nano ibe il e does no depend on s a ic cha ge bu
is based on s uc u al cha ac e is ics such as po e size and dis ibu ion. Since he nano ibe
mo phology was no a ec ed by disin ec ion, he nano ibe -based il e s also e ained hei
abili y o e ec i ely il e as hey did p io o use, unlike su gical masks.
Lee e al. de eloped a ibe il e o med om a polybenzimidazole (PBI) solu ion
wi h high a il a ion e iciency (PM2.5~98.5%) a a signi ican ly educed p essu e d op
o 130 Pa [
12
]. This il e showed he mal s abili y a e ho pla e ea men a 400
◦
C o
1 h and e ained i s o iginal pe o mance a e se e al cleaning cycles. The O
2
nanomask
p oduced by Viaex Technologies can be s e ilized by a washing machine [13].
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 3 o 21
Howe e , he de elopmen o sel -sani izing su aces by in oducing an ibac e ial
and an i i al coa ings o ma e ials is highly desi ed [
14
,
15
]. An ibac e ial coa ings and
ma e ials a e widely s udied and employed, while he an i i al o i ucidal p ope ies
o he ma e ials a e less known [
16
]. While bac e ia a e single-celled li ing o ganisms,
i uses a e no conside ed o be ‘ali e’ due o hei eliance on a hos o ep oduce and
su i e [
1
]. Ne e heless, many ma e ials ha e bo h an i i al and an imic obial p ope ies,
e en hough he e icacy can di e .
The pe sis ence o i uses on su aces depends on ma e ials p ope ies (po osi y, hy-
d ophobici y, oughness, e c.); physical ac o s ( empe a u e, humidi y, e c.) and biological
ac o s (s uc u e o he i us o p esence o mic obial bio ilm on a su ace) [
17
,
18
]. The e-
o e, de eloping a ma e ial wi h p ecisely selec ed p ope ies o he a ge ed applica ion
is c ucial while c ea ing an i i al su aces. Fo example, i one is looking o de elop a
sel -sani izing acemask o il e he i uses o an in ini e pe iod, i is essen ial o abso b
as many i uses as possible and des oy hei s uc u e by i ucidal agen s. In con as ,
sel -sani izing laye s o e e yday su aces would ins ead equi e an iadhesi e p ope ies
combined wi h simila i ucidal agen s. Thus, as supe hyd ophobic su aces s imula e
he abso p ion o i uses (due o in e ac ions be ween he hyd ophobic ou e su ace o
p o eins and solid su aces), he il e s o acemasks should p e e ably possess a hyd opho-
bic na u e, while sel -sani izing su aces should be supe hyd ophilic [
19
]. As o po osi y,
i uses, including SARS-CoV-2, can su i e o a mo e ex ended pe iod on a po ous su ace.
An ac i e i us was ound on a acemask a e se en days, while no i us was ound on
smoo h su aces a e he same pe iod.
Vi ucidal (an i i al) agen s can be based on di e en subs ances: me al ions o oxides,
pep ides, o ganic zwi e ions, e c. [
1
,
5
,
20
]. Va ious me als, including sil e , gold, coppe ,
zinc and o he s, ha e an ibac e ial and an i i al p ope ies. The biocidal p ope ies o
sil e a e well-documen ed, and he popula i y o Ag-based an ibac e ial agen s lies in i s
low oxici y and biocidal e ec a low concen a ions [
21
,
22
]. Al hough he an ibac e ial
e ec mechanism o bo h coppe and sil e is well-known and ho oughly in es iga ed,
hei i ucidal p ope ies a e less-explo ed. I is assumed ha he i ucidal e ec o hese
me als can be based on he des uc ion o he i al RNA genome (genomic damage) o
memb ane dis up ion. I was shown ha he i ucidal p ope ies o coppe ely p ima ily
on he elease o coppe ions. Bo h Cu(II) and Cu(I) ions con ibu e o i us inac i a ion.
Addi ionally, he eac i e oxygen species p oduced by sil e o coppe may also de-
s oy i uses. The an ipa hogenic con ac killing/inac i a ing pe o mance o coppe cold
sp ay su aces and coa ings was e iewed in Re e ence [
23
]. Man lo e al. showed ha
he Lumino e Coppe Touch su aces inac i a ed 99% o SARS-CoV-2 in 2 h [
20
]. T emil-
iosi e al. [24] s udied he ac i i y o polyco on issues modi ied wi h sil e nanopa icles
agains G am-posi i e bac e ia, G am-nega i e bac e ia, ungi and SARS-CoV-2 i us. I
was shown ha he Ag-modi ied issue showed 99.99% ac i i y agains ungi and bo h
ypes o bac e ia and 99.6% ac i i y agains he SARS-CoV-2 i us.
Minoshima e al. e alua ed he an i i al ac i i y o di e en coppe and sil e com-
pounds and demons a ed ha he an i i al mechanism o hese me als agains in luenza
i uses is media ed by he inac i a ion o hemagglu inin (HA) and neu aminidase (NA)
su ace p o eins o he i uses [
25
]. The ac ion o Cu
2
O signi ican ly di e ed om ha o
o he ionic coppe and sil e compounds and showed a subs an ial inac i a ion o i uses
wi h and wi hou an en elope. The au ho s concluded ha u ilizing ino ganic chemicals
con aining coppe and sil e as an i-in luenza ma e ials would po en ially educe he isk
o i al ansmission in he en i onmen . A high po en ial o hese ma e ials in explo ing a
combina ion o coppe and sil e wi h biocidal coa ing chemicals such as pho oca aly ic
TiO
2
nanopa icles indica es ha using Cu
2
O o ea bo h public and li ing spaces may
help limi o e en p e en he sp ead o i uses. Indeed, he combina ion o di e en
i ucidal and bac e icidal agen s (so-called nanohyb id composi es) ha e a g ea po en ial
o boos he i us deac i a ion [
26
], because s a e-o - he-a sel -sani izing coa ings equi e
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 4 o 21
a leas wo hou s o inac i a e SARS-CoV-2, which can be conside ed as oo slow o an
inac i a ion p ocess.
Mo eo e , he p esen ed p oblem o s anda d acemask p o ec ion e iciency can be
sol ed by applying no el nanoma e ials, including biodeg adable nano ibe s wi h mul iple
i ucidal agen s. Indeed, a p esen , a la ge olume o polyp opylene acemasks ( ha
should be conside ed a biohaza d) a e disposed o e e y day, while hey a e no capable
o s opping he sp eading o he i us. A he same ime, he scien i ic communi y has
al eady s a ed looking o ma e ials o acemasks wi h a high deg ee o p o ec ion, as
summa ized in se e al wo ks [3,18,27–30].
This wo k de eloped no el biodeg adable nanohyb id ma e ials consis ing o PCL
o PCL/PEO nano ibe s coa ed by a Cu laye o TiO
2
laye deco a ed wi h Ag nanopa -
icles, as schema ically shown in Figu e 1. Fu he mo e, we es ed he Cu-coa ed PCL
co e ed by COOH plasma polyme laye con aining eac i e ca boxylic g oups. We ex-
plo ed biodeg adable nanohyb id ma e ials’ an i i al p ope ies agains SARS-CoV-2. Ou
app oach was based on a scalable, en i onmen - iendly and economically iable obus
echnology consis ing o he elec ospinning o nano ibe s and hei coa ing by magne on
spu e ing, and hus, i has a high po en ial o u u e comme cializa ion.
Figu e 1.
Scheme o he mul is ep p ocess o an ibac e ial and an i i al nano ibe s (NFs) p epa a ion
based on he elec ospinning o polyme s, magne on spu e ing o Cu o TiC-CaO-Ti
3
PO
x
a ge s
and implan a ion o sil e . SEM-EDX mapping (in colo ed ci cles) is shown o he quali a i e
ep esen a ion o syn hesized ma e ials.
2. Resul s
2.1. Simula ion o Ag+Implan a ion in o PCL Ma ix
The implan a ion o sil e ions in o a e y so ma ix such as he polyme has o
be ca e ully adjus ed. Thus, i s o all, we s udied he pene a ion o Ag
+
ions in o he
PCL ma ix (as i is he main componen o PCL/PEO mixed nano ibe s and o he
sake o simplici y wi h assumed nea ly simila esul s o pu e PCL and PCL/PEO 75:25
hyb id nano ibe s).
The PCL uni cell was aken om Re e ence [
31
] and elaxed in VASP; a e which, i
was used o c ea e a slab supe cell.
To simula e he i adia ion o a ilm o ini e hickness, a PCL slab wi h a size o
22.7 nm ×3.94 nm ×5.31 nm
, consis ing o 64,800 a oms, was cons uc ed. Pe iodic bound-
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 5 o 21
a y condi ions we e applied in he di ec ion o he y and z axes, and he i adia ion was
ca ied ou along he x-axis. Be o e i adia ion, he slab was elaxed o 100 ps a cons an
p essu e (NPT he mos a ), hen a a cons an empe a u e (NVT he mos a ) equal o
T = 300 K.
The me al a om was placed andomly a a dis ance o 1.8 nm om he PCL slab su ace,
mainly in he cen e o he YZ plane o he supe cell (Figu e 2). The a om was gi en an
ini ial eloci y componen no mal o he slab plane in acco dance wi h he ene gy unde
conside a ion. In he simula ion, a a iable ime s ep was used, which was selec ed om
he condi ion ha he maximum displacemen o a oms did no exceed 0.001 nm. This
p ocedu e made i possible o a oid un easonably la ge mo emen s o a oms and kep
he simula ion s able. Fo example, a he mos signi ican ene gies o he me al a om
conside ed, he minimum s ep was 0.012 s.
Figu e 2. A diag am o he Ag±implan a ion model wi h cha ac e is ic dimensions.
To simula e he dissipa ion o ene gy in o an in ini e olume o ma e ial, a 0.5-nm- hick
egion was isola ed om he side o he PCL slab o he a oms o which empe a u e con ol
was applied (NVT he mos a , T = 300 K). An NVE he mos a was applied o he emaining
a oms o he sys em, including he me al a om. The simula ion con inued while he ene gy
o he me al a om exceeded he a e age he mal ene gy o he PCL slab.
The ene gies o he inciden Ag a om om 500 eV o 2400 eV we e conside ed. A se ies
o compu e expe imen s was made o each selec ed ene gy, consis ing o i e simula ions.
The a e age alues a e shown in Figu e 3.
Figu e 3. Dependence o he pene a ion dep h o he Ag a om in o PCL on i s ini ial ene gy.
In he ene gy ange unde conside a ion, a powe law dependence o he pene a ion
dep h on he a om’s ene gy is ob ained, desc ibed by he linea equa ion L = 9.0
×
10
−3
E in
con as o he powe equa ion (L = 4.07
×
10
−2
E
0.7739
) in Re e ence [
32
] o Cu pene a ion

Molecules 2022,27, 1333 6 o 21
o PCL. Du ing he pene a ion in o he PCL, he me al a om can change he mo emen
di ec ion due o collisions wi h polyme a oms, he pene a ion angle o he sil e a om is
andom and he a e age de ia ion angle o all simula ions is 2.86 deg ees, which a e wo
imes smalle in compa ison wi h Cu a om [32] due o a omic weigh di e ence.
2.2. Mo phology o Biodeg adable Nanohyb id Ma e ials
The SEM mic og aphs o PCL/PEO-Ti-Ag nano ibe s a e p esen ed in Figu e 4. I
can be seen ha Ag
+
implan a ion a 15 kV (Figu e 4b) led o a signi ican des uc ion o
nano ib ous ma e ial as compa ed o PCL/PEO- e . The samples p epa ed a 5 and 8 kV
exhibi ed mo phology simila o he p is ine PCL/PEO- e . The Cu-coa ed PCL nano ibe s
(PCL-Cu) exhibi ed no changes (no shown he e). The a ia ion o ibe s diame e s was
e alua ed om he SEM image analysis and shown in Figu e 5. I is e iden ha he mean
alues o all nano ibe s (excep he PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-Ag15kV) we e simila o he e e ence
alues o he p is ine nano ibe s. The PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-Ag15kV sample was no analyzed
because o he signi ican deg ada ion o ibe mo phology (Figu e 4b).
Figu e 4.
SEM mic og aphs o samples PCL/PEO- e (
a
), PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-Ag15kV (
b
), PCL/PEO-
Ti0.3-Ag-8kV (c) and PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag-5kV (d).
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 7 o 21
Figu e 5. The ibe diame e s o di e en samples e alua ed om he SEM image analysis.
2.3. Chemical Cha ac e iza ion o Biodeg adable Nanohyb id Ma e ials
The PCL and PCL/PEO composi ions a e well-known and epo ed elsewhe e [
33
,
34
].
The modi ied nano ibe s a e o much highe in e es , and he composi ions o all he
samples e alua ed by XPS a e summa ized in Table 1. The inco po a ion o TiO
2
and
Ag in he PCL/PEO-Ti-Ag samples and signi ican inco po a ion o Cu in PCL-Cu we e
al eady e iden om he su ace’s o e all a omic composi ion. Howe e , unde s anding
he chemical na u e o i anium and sil e equi es a de ailed analysis o Ti2p and Ag3d
XPS spec a.
Table 1. Composi ion o he samples (in a .%) de i ed om XPS analysis.
Sample C (a .%) O (a .%) Ti (a .%) Ag (a .%) Cu (a .%)
PCL/PEO- e 75.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-Ag15kV 31.9 49.5 18.0 0.6 0.0
PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag-8kV 77.2 21.1 1.3 0.4 0.0
PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag-5kV 70.3 27.9 1.1 0.7 0.0
PCL-Cu 50.6 29.0 0.0 0.0 20.4
PCL-Cu-COOH 73.1 26.5 0.0 0.0 0.4
XPS Ti2p signal o he Ti laye is shown in Figu e 6a. Due o he be e - esol ed Ti2p
3/2 signal as compa ed o he Ti2p 1/2 coun e pa , he i s peak was used o u he
XPS analysis. The XPS Ti2p 3/2 peak was i ed using h ee componen s (Figu e 6a):
TiC (
BE = 455.3 eV
, FWHM = 1.2 eV), TiN (BE = 456.6 eV FWHM = 1.8 eV) and TiO
2
(
BE = 458.5 eV
, FWHM = 1.2 eV), indica ing he p esence o ca bide, ni ide and oxide
s a es on he Ti su ace. As shown be o e, he s uc u e o he Ti2p spec um o a laye
deposi ed in such condi ions does no a y wi h he cu en alues [35,36].
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 8 o 21
Figu e 6.
XPS Ti2p spec a and hei cu e i ing o samples PCL/PEO-Ti0.5 (
a
), PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-
Ag15kV (b), PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag5kV (c) and PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag5kV (d).
The implan a ion o Ag ions a e he i ania deposi ion led o signi ican changes o
he Ti2p en i onmen . A e Ag
+
implan a ion a 15 kV, he nano ibe su ace was ully
co e ed by he i anium oxide laye composed o TiO
2
(majo componen , BE = 458.4 eV,
FWHM = 1.1 eV
) and TiO (mino componen , BE = 457.3 eV, FWHM = 1.9 eV), as shown
in Figu e 6b. A simila phase composi ion o he Ag ion-modi ied laye was seen in PCL-
Ti0.3-Ag8kV and PCL-Ti0.3-Ag5kV (Figu e 6c,d). Hence, he implan a ion o Ag ions leads
o signi ican changes in he i ania laye . A simila e ec o i anium oxida ion upon Ag
+
implan a ion was ound be o e o laye s deposi ed a signi ican ly highe ion ene gies and
less sensi i e subs a es [37].
The implan a ion a 15 kV also led o a signi ican deg ada ion o he C1s spec um
(Figu e 7b), which can be seen om he compa ison o C1s signal coming om PCL-Ti0.5-
Ag15kV wi h a spec um o PCL/PEO- e . The C1s spec um o PCL/PEO- e was i ed
wi h a sum o h ee componen s: CH
x
(BE = 285 eV, FWHM = 1.1 eV), C–O (
BE = 286.4 eV
,
FWHM-1.1 eV) and C(O)O (BE = 289 eV, FWHM = 1.1 eV). The spec um o PCL/PEO-
Ti0.5Ag-15kV exhibi ed e y high FWHM o CH
x
equal o 2.0 eV. The C(O)O con ibu ion
disappea ed, and a new componen a ibu ed o C=O (BE = 288.3 eV, FWHM = 1.7 eV) was
obse ed. Hence, despi e he e y high concen a ion o Ti (18 a .%) and ela i ely signi i-
can concen a ion o Ag (0.6 a .%), his sample should no be selec ed, as i s nanos uc u e
du ing he deposi ion p ocess was no p ese ed, as e ealed by SEM.
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 9 o 21
Figu e 7.
XPS C1s spec a and hei cu e i ing o samples PCL/PEO- e (
a
), PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-
Ag15kV (b), PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag5kV (c), PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag5kV (d), PCL- e (e) and PCL-Cu ( ).
The deposi ion o he Ti laye a lowe cu en and Ag
+
implan a ion a 8 and 5 kV
allowed o p ese e he nano ib ous s uc u e and a oid signi ican deg ada ion o he
ca bon en i onmen . As shown in Figu e 7c,d, he PCL-Ti0.3-Ag8kV and PCL-Ti0.3-Ag5kV
spec a we e simila o PCL/PEO, wi h only small di e ences in he ca bon en i onmen s.
The main di e ence be ween hese wo samples was he in ensi ies o he Ag signals. As
shown in Figu e 8a and Table 1, he concen a ion o Ag was highes in he PCL-Ti0.3-
Ag5kV sample. All sil e a oms we e bonded o oxygen in Ag
2
O, as i can be concluded
om he symme ical shape o he Ag 3d 5/2 and Ag 3d 3/2 lines and he posi ion o BE
o Ag 3d 5/2 o 368.2 eV [38].
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 16 o 21
4.3. Deposi ion o TiO2Coa ing and Ag Ion Implan a ion
The deposi ion expe imen s we e pe o med using a acuum se -up wi h a magne on
spu e ing uni equipped wi h he MEVVA- ype ion implan e [
35
,
46
]. The i ania ilms
(~20 nm hick) we e deposi ed by magne on spu e ing o a composi e TiC-CaO-Ti
3
PO
x
a ge in a gaseous mix u e o A and 15% N
2
. The applied magne on cu en was 0.5
o 0.3 A, he magne on ol age was ~450 V and he bias ol age was kep a
−
50 V
(samples deno ed as PCL/PEO-Ti). The a ge - o-subs a e dis ance was ixed o 120 mm.
Sil e ions we e implan ed using a MEVVA- ype implan e ope a ing wi h he accele a ion
ol ages o 15, 8 and 5 kV and he cu en o 20 mA. He ea e , hese samples a e deno ed
as PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-Ag15kV o Ti cu en o 0.5A and Ag ion implan a ion ol age o 15 kV;
PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag-8kV and PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag5kV o Ti cu en o 0.3 A and ol ages o
8 kV and 5 kV, espec i ely [46].
4.4. Plasma COOH Coa ing
The COOH plasma polyme laye s we e deposi ed using a acuum sys em UVN-
2M equipped wi h o a y and oil di usion pumps. The plasma was igni ed using adio
equency (RF) powe supply Ci o 1310-ACNA-N37A-FF (Come , Flama , Swi ze land)
connec ed o an RFPG-128 disk gene a o (Beams & Plasmas, Moscow, Russia ins alled
in he acuum chambe . The du y cycle and he RF powe we e se o 5% and 500 W,
espec i ely. The esidual p essu e o he eac o was below 10−3Pa.
CO
2
(99.995%), A (99.998%) and C
2
H
4
(99.95%) gases we e ed in o he acuum cham-
be . The gas lows we e con olled using a Mul i-Gas Con olle 647C (MKST, Newpo , RI,
USA). The low a es o A , CO
2
and C
2
H
4
we e se o 50, 16.2 and 6.2 sccm, espec i ely.
The p essu e in he chambe was measu ed by a VMB-14 uni (Tokamak Company, Dubna,
Russia) and D395-90-000 BOC Edwa ds con olle s. The dis ance be ween he RF elec ode
and he subs a e was se o 8 cm. The deposi ion ime was 15 min, and i led o he g ow h
o ~100-nm- hick plasma coa ings. The plasma-coa ed PCL-Cu nano ibe s a e e e ed o as
PCL-Cu-COOH h oughou he ex .
4.5. Chemis y and Mo phology Analysis
The mic os uc u es o nano ibe s and deposi ed laye s was s udied by scanning
elec on mic oscopy (SEM) using a JSM-7600F Scho ky ield emission scanning elec on
mic oscope (JEOL L d., Tokyo, Japan) equipped wi h an ene gy-dispe si e X- ay (EDX)
X-Max 80 P emium de ec o (Ox o d Ins umen s, Abingdon, UK) ope a ed a 15 kV.
The chemical composi ion o sample su aces was de e mined by X- ay pho oelec on
spec oscopy (XPS) using an Axis Sup a spec ome e (K a os Analy ical, Manches e , UK)
equipped wi h a monoch oma ic Al K
α
X- ay sou ce. The maximum la e al esolu ion
o analyzed a ea was 0.7 mm. The spec a we e i ed using CasaXPS so wa e a e
sub ac ing he Shi ley- ype backg ound. The binding ene gies (BE) o all ca bon and
oxygen en i onmen s we e aken om he li e a u e [
47
,
48
]. The BE scale was calib a ed
by se ing he CHxcomponen a 285 eV.
4.6. Modeling o Ag A om I adia ion o PCL Su ace
The classical molecula dynamics me hod in he LAMMPS [
49
] so wa e package was
applied o he simula ions o PCL i adia ion by Ag a oms. All in e a omic in e ac ions in
he sys em we e desc ibed by ReaxFF po en ials [
50
]. The dime ene gies we e calcula ed
by he selec ed po en ial (see Table 4) o es ima e he pa ame e s o he in e ac ion o sil e
a oms wi h polyme a oms. The compa isons we e made wi h simila calcula ions by he
DFT me hod [
50
,
51
] in he Vienna Ab ini io Simula ion Package (VASP) [
52
–
54
] using he
PBE exchange co ela ion unc ional. Despi e ha he ReaxFF po en ials unde es ima e
he ene gies o indi idual dime s, hey quali a i ely desc ibe changes in he ene gy o
in e ac ions o Ag a oms wi h Ag, C, H and O, since he ene gy dec eases om Ag-Ag
o Ag-O bo h in he case o DFT and in he case o ReaxFF calcula ions. In addi ion, he
di e ence in bond leng hs be ween DFT and ReaxFF is negligible.

Molecules 2022,27, 1333 17 o 21
Table 4.
Dime binding ene gy calcula ed by DFT and ReaxFF, he ene gy di e ence be ween DFT
and ReaxFF and bond leng h in angs oms.
Dime E, eV (DFT) E, eV (ReaxFF) ∆E, eV R, ´
Å (DFT) R, ´
Å (ReaxFF)
Ag-Ag −2.17 −1.56 −0.61 2.56 2.64
Ag-C −5.60 −4.63 −0.53 1.95 2.02
Ag-H −6.77 −4.71 −0.41 1.62 1.48
Ag-O −7.09 −5.63 −0.29 1.95 2.15
4.7. Ion Release and We abili y Measu emen s
Samples (PCL/PEO-Ti0.5-Ag15kV, PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag-8kV and PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag-
5kV) wi h a size 10
×
10 mm
2
we e imme sed in 50 mL o deionized wa e a oom
empe a u e o 1, 3 and 6 and 24 h, 3, 5 and 7 days o measu e he elease o Ag
+
ions om
he modi ied nano ibe s. The concen a ions o Ag ions in he collec ed deionized wa e
we e de e mined by induc i ely coupled plasma mass spec ome y (ICP-MS) using a X-
Se ies II spec ome e (The mo Fishe Scien i ic, Wal ham, MA, USA).
The sample we abili y was assessed by measu ing he wa e con ac angle (WCA).
The measu emen s we e ca ied ou on an Easy D op K uss (K uss, Ge many) de ice. Fo
each sample, a leas i e WCA measu emen s we e pe o med.
4.8. An i i al Tes s
The
in i o
s udy o an i i al ac i i y o samples PCL- e , PCL-Cu, PCL-Cu-COOH
and PCL/PEO-Ti0.3-Ag-5k (wi h maximum sil e con en de e mined by XPS analysis),
was ca ied ou in he cul u e o Ve oE6 cells (A
Т
CC CCL81, was aken om he Na ional
Collec ion o Smo odin se Resea ch Ins i u e o In luenza, Russian Fede a ion). This cell
line was chosen because i is a highly exp essing ACE2 ecep o , which is he hos a ge o
SARS-CoV-2 and is commonly used o he de e mina ion o an i i al agen s [55,56].
Ve oE6 cells we e seeded in o a 24-well cul u e pla e (TPP, T asadingen, Swi ze land)
and cul u ed in DMEM/F12—Dulbecco’s Modi ied Eagle’s Medium wi h modi ica ion
F12 (Cap ico n, Ge many) con aining 10% e al bo ine se um (Cap ico n, Ebsdo e g und,
Ge many) and 100-IU/mL gen amicin a 37
◦
C in a 5% CO
2
a mosphe e o 24 h. A e
cul i a ion, he cell monolaye was washed wice wi h Hank’s solu ion (Biolo , Sain -
Pe e sbu gh, Russia). PCL- e , PCL-Cu and PCL-Cu-COOH samples we e s e ilely placed
o a monolaye o Ve oE6 cells a a dis ance o 1 o 2 mm om he cell monolaye . A
sus aining medium DMEM/F12 (Cap ico n, Ge many) wi h 2% e al bo ine se um (Cap i-
co n, Ge many) and 100 IU/mL gen amicin con aining he SARS-CoV-2 i us s ain a
a dilu ion o 100 was placed in he wells and incuba ed a 37
◦
C o 72 h in a 5% CO
2
a mosphe e. Un ea ed nonin ec ed cells and un ea ed i us-in ec ed cells we e used as
nega i e and posi i e con ols o in ec ion, espec i ely. A Ve oE6 cell cul u e in ec ed
wi h he SARS-CoV-2 s ain in a dilu ion simila o he expe imen al samples was used
as a con ol o he i us ac ion. A isual assessmen o he iabili y o he cell monolaye
was ca ied ou unde an in e ed mic oscope (Zeiss P imoVe , Obe kochen, Ge many,).
Cell iabili y was assayed by he MTT me hod using he MTT Cell P oli e a ion Ki (Roche
Diagnos ics, Mannheim, Ge many). The solu ion op ical densi y was measu ed wi h a
pla e eade ELx808 (BioTek Ins umen s Inc., Winooski, VT, USA) a he wa eleng h o 540
nm. Fo each es sample and con ols, independen measu emen s o he solu ion op ical
densi y we e ca ied ou du ing he MTT es . Fo s a is ical analysis, mean alues and
hei s anda d de ia ions we e calcula ed.
4.9. Techno-Economic Assessmen
The cos es ima ion o he p epa a ion o he PCL- e samples was based on he
consump ion o he elec ospinning solu ion e alua ed in he lab, i.e., 20 mL pe one sample
(20 cm
×
20 cm). The sol en and polyme cos s we e employed om he da a a ailable in
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 18 o 21
alibaba.com. The ace ic and o mic acids’ p ice was 0.7 and 0.5 $/kg, while he p ice o PCL
was 6.5 $/kg. The esul ing p ice o elec ospinning solu ion was $0.024 pe one acemask.
The coppe a ge pe 1 acemask was es ima ed om he li e ime o Cu a ge : one a ge is
enough o deposi 12,000 nm coa ing on o he 20 cm
×
20 cm sample. The p ice o 1 a ge
was $50. The consump ion o elec ici y was 0.25 kWh pe 1 piece. The p ice o elec ici y
was conside ed as 0.1 $/kWh.
In o de o es ima e CAPEX we e used open-sou ce da a o elec ospinning and
magne on spu e ing equipmen . The NPV and IRR we e calcula ed using MS Excel
embedded unc ions. The cos o elec ospinning machine Nano Fibe labs (Foschan, China)
was aken om he a ailable op ions a alibab.com and equaled $80,000. The cos o he
magne on spu e ing machine was conside ed as $300,000 (HC VAC, Dongguan Ci y,
Guangdong P o ince, China).
5. Conclusions
We p epa ed a wide ange o nano ib ous biodeg adable samples con aining Ag and
Cu and exhibi ing a ious we abili y. The deposi ion o TiO
2
ollowed by Ag
+
implan a ion
in o PCL/PEO nano ibe s was ho oughly in es iga ed and op imized in o de o achie e
implan a ion o Ag
+
wi hou damaging o he nano ib ous s uc u e o he PCL/PEO
ma e ials. The op imal condi ions o sil e ion implan a ion we e achie ed o PCL/PEO
coa ed by TiO
2
a he cu en o 0.3 A ollowed wi h he Ag
+
ion implan a ion a a ol age
o 5 kV, as i allowed o in oduce 0.6 a .% o sil e wi hou damaging he nano ib ous
s uc u e o he sensi i e PCL/PEO mixed nano ibe s. The coa ing o PCL nano ibe s by
Cu laye was success ully pe o med by magne on spu e ing. The an i i al ac i i y was
he highes o PCL-Cu and PCL-COOH samples, and no an i i al ac i i y was ound
o samples coa ed by TiO
2
wi h implan ed sil e . This di e ence be ween Cu and Ag
con aining nano ibe s migh be ela ed o he di e en ions eleased om he samples.
The high an i i al ac i i y o PCL-Cu opens an exci ing oppo uni y o p epa e low-cos ,
sel -sani izing su aces o an i-SARS-CoV-2 p o ec ion and can be highly essen ial o ai
il a ion applica ion and acemasks. The ough es ima ion o he cos s uc u e o PCL-Cu
p oduc ion e ealed ha manu ac u ing o one acemask would cos $0.28. I hese PCL-Cu
acemasks we e sold a $1/piece, he Ne P esen Value and In e nal Ra e o Re u n would
each $790,000 and 34%, espec i ely. Hence, he p oduc ion o biodeg adable nanohyb id
acemasks also has high comme cial po en ial.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, A.M.M., D.V.S. and A.O.S.; me hodology, A.O.S. and
A.M.M.; biological es ing A.R.T., A.Y.A. and M.V.S.; XPS expe imen s: L.B.; Cu coa ing, M.E.; plasma
coa ings, E.S.P.; in es iga ion, E.S.P., N.A.S., A.R.T., A.Y.A., M.V.S., V.S.B., Z.I.P., L.B., M.E., A.M.K.,
A.N.S., P.V.K.-K. and D.N.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, A.M.M., A.O.S. and Z.I.P.; w i ing—
e iew and edi ing, L.Z. and M.E.; modeling V.S.B. and Z.I.P.; da a ea men , D.N.; A.N.S. and
P.V.K.-K. deposi ion o TiO
2
and Ag implan a ion. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
The epo ed s udy was unded by Russian Founda ion o Basic Resea ch RFBR (p ojec
numbe 20-52-26020) and he Czech Science Founda ion (p ojec numbe GACR 21-12132J). M.E.,
L.Z., D.N. and L.B. acknowledge unding by CzechNanoLab Resea ch In as uc u e suppo ed by
MEYS CR (LM2018110). Pa o his wo k pe o med by D.V.S., A.N.S. and P.V.K.-K. (SEM analyzes
and TiO
2
deposi ion) was ca ied ou du ing he implemen a ion o he s a egic p ojec : “Biomedical
ma e ials and bioenginee ing”, wi hin he amewo k o he S a egic Academic Leade ship P og am
“P io i y 2030” a NUST «MISiS».
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a is a ailable upon a easonable eques .
Molecules 2022,27, 1333 19 o 21
Acknowledgmen s:
Z.I.P. and V.S.B. a e g a e ul o he In o ma ion Technology Cen e o No osibi sk
S a e Uni e si y o p o iding access o he clus e compu a ional esou ces. The wo k was pe o med
using he equipmen o he Cen e o Collec i e Use «P o eomic Analysis» FRC FTM, suppo ed by
unding om he Minis y o Science and Highe Educa ion o he Russian Fede a ion (ag eemen
No. 075-15-2021-691).
Con lic s o In e es :
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he design
o he s udy; in he collec ion, analyses o in e p e a ion o he da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip
o in he decision o publish he esul s.
Sample A ailabili y:
Samples o he modi ied PCL nano ibe sa e a ailable om he au ho s upon
a eques .
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