sus ainabili y
A icle
E ec o Agg ega e and Binde Type on he Func ional and
Du abili y Pa ame e s o Ligh weigh Repai Mo a s
Ma ina Záleská1, Milena Pa líko á1, Ma in Vyš aˇ il 2and Zbyšek Pa lík1,*


Ci a ion: Záleská, M.; Pa líko á, M.;
Vyš aˇ il, M.; Pa lík, Z. E ec o
Agg ega e and Binde Type on he
Func ional and Du abili y Pa ame e s
o Ligh weigh Repai Mo a s.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/su132111780
Academic Edi o s: Nelson Soa es and
Luisa Dias Pe ei a
Recei ed: 7 Oc obe 2021
Accep ed: 22 Oc obe 2021
Published: 25 Oc obe 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Depa men o Ma e ials Enginee ing and Chemis y, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing,
Czech Technical Uni e si y in P ague, Tháku o a 7, 166 29 P ague, Czech Republic;
ma ina.zaleska@ s .c u .cz (M.Z.); milena.pa liko a@ s .c u .cz (M.P.)
2Ins i u e o Chemis y, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, B no Uni e si y o Technology, Žižko a 17,
602 00 B no, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed].cz
*Co espondence: pa likz@ s .c u .cz; Tel.: +420-224-354-371
Abs ac :
The subjec ma e o he wo k p esen ed he e is he de elopmen and e alua ion o
no el ligh weigh mo a s ha mee he unc ional and echnical c i e ia imposed on epai mo a s.
In a b oad expe imen al campaign, lime, na u al hyd aulic lime, and lime–cemen mo a s we e
designed and es ed. Ligh weigh agg ega e, expanded pe li e, g anules om expanded glass and
zeoli e we e used as ull eplacemen s o qua z sand. The ha dened mo a s we e es ed a he
ages o 28 days and 90 days. The conduc ed es s and analyses we e ocused on he assessmen
o s uc u al, mechanical, hyg ic and he mal pa ame e s. The sal c ys alliza ion esis ance and
e ec o sal p esence on he hyg oscopici y o he in es iga ed mo a s we e also in es iga ed.
The use o ligh weigh agg ega es in he composi ion o mo a s esul ed in hei high po osi y, low
densi y, sa is ac o y mechanical pa ame e s, imp o ed wa e apo ansmission capabili y and wa e
abso p ion. The mo a s wi h expanded pe li e and glass g anula e we e anked among he mal
insula ion mo a s o classes T1 and T2, espec i ely. The use o ligh weigh agg ega es enabled he
de elopmen o mo a s wi h g ea du abili y in e ms o sal ac ion, which was almos independen
o binde ype. The abili y o accommoda e wa e apo was inc eased by he e ec , i.e., he use
o ligh weigh agg ega es and he p esence o sal in mo a s inc eased po ous space. Taking in o
accoun he compa ibili y, unc ional, and echnical c i e ia, lime- and na u al hyd aulic lime-based
ligh weigh mo a swe e classi ied as epai mo a s, p o iding imp o ed he mal pe o mance. The
lime–cemen ligh weigh plas e s can be ecommended only o epai o building s uc u es whe e
cemen and lime–cemen ma e ials we e o iginal applied.
Keywo ds:
epai mo a s; ligh weigh agg ega e; hyg o he mal pe o mance; ene gy e iciency
enhancemen ; sal c ys alliza ion esis ance
1. In oduc ion
In Eu ope, housing and building s ocks a e conside ed highly unique as well as
di e se; howe e , mos o buildings a e old and no ene gy-e icien . The hea ing and
cooling o buildings is esponsible o almos 40% o he o al ene gy consump ion in
Eu opean Union (EU). EU achie emen o i s ene gy and clima e a ge s is associa ed wi h
i s ambi ion o eno a e building s ock, gi ing p io i y o ene gy e iciency. A p esen , he
eno a ion ea men s and p ocedu es in he EU add ess ene gy pe o mance o exis ing
s ock o building only e y a ely, wi h he weigh ed annual ene gy eno a ion a e a
abou 1% [1,2].
G ea po en ial in e ms o ene gy use educ ion can be ound in he eno a ion o
cul u al he i age buildings. Gene ally, he simples and mos equen ly-used solu ion o
imp o ing he en elope o buildings is he Ex e nal The mal Insula ion Composi e Sys em
(ETICS) [
3
]. Howe e , despi e i s unques ionable ad an ages, in he case o many olde
and his o ical buildings ETICS is o en banned by he cul u al he i age au ho i ies due
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su132111780 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 2 o 17
he emphasis on p o ec ion and p ese a ion o he o iginal a chi ec u al s yle and inbuil
ma e ials [
4
]. The imp o emen o hyg o he mal pe o mance o building en elopes can
also be sol ed by using he mal insula ion ende ing and plas e ing mo a s, which a e an
impo an means o dealing wi h ene gy e iciency issues in he building ield, especially in
epai and eno a ion p ocesses [5].
The main equi emen s o epai plas e s include in pa icula high po osi y, limi ed
wa e abso p ion, high wa e apo pe meabili y, high lexibili y, good adhesion, du abili y,
and compa ibili y wi h he subs a e [
6
,
7
]. The selec ion o ma e ials compa ible wi h
his o ical s uc u es is he e o e e y impo an and needs a complex solu ion. The binde s
mos equen ly used in es o a ion a e ai lime and na u al hyd aulic lime [
8
–
10
]; ne e -
heless, lime–cemen mo a s can be also conside ed o his applica ion [
11
] aking in o
conside a ion he na u e o o iginally applied ma e ials. The basic unc ional equi emen s
imposed on epai mo a s a e in oduced in he EN 998-1 [
12
]; howe e , he equi ed
pa ame e s a e summa ized in mo e de ail in he WTA di ec i e 2-9-04/D [
13
]. Acco ding
o he WTA (In e na ional Associa ion o Science and Technology o Building Main enance
and Monumen s P ese a ion), he epai mo a s should ha e a comp essi e s eng h
c
in he ange o 1.5–5 MPa, wa e apo di usion esis ance ac o
µ
< 12, 24-h wa e
abso p ion Wa> 0.3 kg·m−2, and po osi y ψ> 40%.
Taking in o accoun he a o emen ioned p oblems wi h high ene gy demand o
ope a ion o his o ical and he i age buildings, he impo an cha ac e is ics o eno a ion
mo a s should also include hei he mal insula ion pa ame e s. In he li e a u e he e a e
many pape s aiming o he use di e en insula ing ma e ials as agg ega e o ibe s in plas e
composi ion in o de o educe he mal conduc i i y and hus imp o e he mal insula ion
pe o mance [
4
,
7
,
14
–
23
]. I has been epo ed ha he use o ligh weigh agg ega es o
ibe s leads o a dec ease in he mal conduc i i y and mechanical esis ance and an inc ease
in he po osi y o ha dened mo a s. The imp o emen o bo h wa e apo pe meabili y
and so p ion pa ame e s was also e e enced. Le us no e ha in he case o he mal
p ope ies, emphasis mus also be placed on hei dependence on mois u e con en [
7
]
which is subs an ial, especially o ma e ials applied on damp subs a es o subjec ed
di ec ly o mois u e sou ces.
Fo epai mo a s, long ime pe o mance and main enance o unc ional quali ies,
i.e., du abili y issues, a e o pa icula impo ance. The du abili y o plas e s is closely
ela ed o hei esis ance o wa e , eezing, and wa e -soluble sal s, as sal c ys alliza ion
is one o he mos common causes o damage o inbuil ma e ials in his o ical and he i age
buildings. The cyclic c ys alliza ion and dissolu ion o sal s occu s in he po es; he e o e,
he high po osi y o mo a s posi i ely a ec s hei abili y o abso b p essu es linked wi h
sal c ys al g ow h [
24
–
26
]. Howe e , i is no only o e all po osi y ha has an impo an
ole in he suscep ibili y o mo a s o sal decay, bu also po e size dis ibu ion [25].
As equi emen s o epai mo a s in e ms o hei unc ional, du abili y and sus ain-
abili y pa ame e s a e s ill inc easing, con inuous esea ch and de elopmen is necessa y.
Gi en he easons abo e, and aking in o accoun he need o he mal insula ion epai
ende s and plas e s, his esea ch is aimed a he assessmen o bo h binde ype and
ligh weigh agg ega e ype on he unc ional and du abili y pa ame e s o epai mo a s.
On he basis o ou e iew o he li e a u e, he ai lime, na u al hyd aulic lime and lime–
cemen blend we e chosen as binde s, and expanded pe li e and zeoli e as ligh weigh
agg ega e. A new comme cially-deli e ed expanded glass g anula e (Lia e ) was es ed as
a p ospec i e du able and he mal insula ion ille . Comp ehensi e analysis o he mac o-
and mic o-s uc u al, mechanical, anspo and s o age he mal and hyg ic p ope ies o
he p epa ed mo a s was conduc ed, oge he wi h assessmen o hei du abili y in e ms
o sal c ys alliza ion esis ance. Among he conduc ed es s and analyses, measu emen
o wa e apo adso p ion iso he ms o mo a s ha we e subjec ed o sal c ys alliza-
ion ep esen s qui e c ucial and unique in o ma ion o he applica ion o he de eloped
ma e ials in sal -laden mason y.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 3 o 17
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Ma e ials
Mo a specimens we e cas om h ee ypes o binde s: hyd a ed lime CL 90-S ( ˇ
Ce -
o y Schody, Inc., Tmaˇn, Czech Republic, membe o he Lhois g oup), na u al hyd aulic
lime (NHL 3.5, Zemen - und Kalkwe ke O e bein GmbH & Co. KG, G oßenlüde -Müs,
Ge many), and Po land cemen CEM I 42.5 R ( ˇ
Ceskomo a skýcemen , Inc., Rado ín,
Czech Republic, membe o he Heidelbe gCemen G oup). Washed qua z sand ( he
ine ac ion 0/2 mm om Fil aˇcnípísky, L d., Chlum u Doks, Czech Republic), non-
hyd ophobized expanded pe li e (EP 150 PB, ac ion 0/2 mm om PERLIT PRAHA, L d.,
P ague, Czech Republic), expanded glass (Lia e , ac ion 0/2 mm om Lia e GmbH &
Co. KG, Ilmenaou, Ge many), and na u al zeoli e ( ac ion 0/2 mm om Zeocem, Inc.,
Bys é, Slo akia) we e applied as ine-g ained agg ega es.
2.2. Chemical Composi ion and Phase Analysis o Ini ial Ma e ials
The chemical composi ion o ini ial ma e ials p esen ed in oxide o m is in oduced
in Table 1. I was assessed wi h an Axios X- ay Fluo escence (XRF) spec ome e wi h
2.4 kW (Mal e n Panaly ical, Mal e n, UK) and Supe Q V4.0 so wa e. The mine alogical
composi ion o ma e ials (Table 2) was ob ained by Empy ean X- ay Di ac ion (XRD)
spec ome e (Mal e n Panaly ical, UK). The quan i a i e phase analysis was pe o med
acco ding o he Rie eld me hod using he undamen al pa ame e s app oach. The in e nal
s anda d (CaF
2
) me hod was used o de e mine he amo phous phase con en in he ini ial
ma e ials. Da a e alua ion was execu ed by he HighSco e Plus so wa e e sion 4.8
(Mal e n Panaly ical, UK). The acqui ed da a show he hyd a ed lime was, as usual, ully
c ys alline wi h li le MgO con amina ion. In con as , NHL 3.5 and cemen , wi h a ypical
ep esen a ion o siliceous and aluminum mine als, con ained a signi ican amoun o
amo phous phases. The basic physical p ope ies and pa ame e s o he used binde s
can be ound in he au ho s’ p e ious wo k [
27
]. The applied silica sand was highly pu e
wi hou any clay o eldspa hic con aminan s. The chemical composi ion o expanded
pe li e (EP), expanded glass (EG), and na u al zeoli e (ZEO) showed a high con en o SiO
2
and Al
2
O
3
supplemen ed by he expec ed highe con en o Na
2
O and CaO in he case o
EG. The ligh weigh agg ega es con ained la ge amoun s o hyd aulic oxides (SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
,
Fe
2
O
3
)—EP 86%, EG 73%, ZEO 80% espec i ely, which oge he wi h hei high con en
o amo phous phase (90.8%, 97.7% 30.2%) c ea es a e y s ong p esump ion in a o o
pozzolanic eac i i y.
2.3. Physical P ope ies o Ligweigh Agg ega es
The chosen physical p ope ies o he ligh weigh agg ega es used, as impa ed by
he manu ac u e s, a e summa ized in Table 3. The low powde (loose bulk) densi y and
he he mal conduc i i y o EP and EG ep esen good p e equisi es o he design and
de elopmen o highly po ous he mal insula ion mo a s.
Table 1. Chemical composi ion o ini ial ma e ials (w .%).
SiO2Al2O3Fe2O3CaO MgO K2O Na2O P2O5TiO2SO3LOI 1
Lime 0.92 0.71 0.39 68.09 1.33 0.48 0.11 0.05 0.10 0.19 27.94
NHL 3.5 12.76 4.12 1.47 59.87 2.79 1.13 0.09 0.15 0.05 0.15 15.28
Cemen 21.26 5.08 3.64 61.48 0.86 0.91 0.12 0.08 0.29 2.42 4.17
Qua z sand 98.50 0.38 0.15 0.01 0.03 0.09 0.01 0.04 0.09 0.02 0.12
EP 68.02 16.04 1.91 4.54 0.41 2.50 4.62 0.14 0.10 0.02 0.33
EG 70.27 2.16 0.49 9.43 2.11 0.84 13.82 0.12 0.18 0.21 0.13
ZEO 67.46 11.73 1.37 2.84 0.73 3.02 0.50 0.03 0.17 0.01 11.57
1Loss on igni ion.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 4 o 17
Table 2. Mine als o ming he ini ial ma e ials (w .%).
Mine al Lime NHL 3.5 Cemen Qua z Sand EP EG ZEO
Ali e – – 50.6 – – – –
Albi e −– – – 1.9 – 2.6
Alumina e −2.7 3.9 – −– –
Ano hi e −– – – 3.2 – –
Bio i e −– – – 2.8 – 1.9
B ownmille i e – 1.4 8.6 – – – –
B uci e 0.5 – – – – – –
Calci e 1.8 6.2 – – −– –
Clinop iloli e – – – – – – 50.5
C is obali e – – – – – – 9.3
Gypsum – – 3.8 – – – –
Illi e – – – – – – 2.0
La ni e – 22.5 4.9 – – – –
Po landi e 97.1 41.3 – – −– –
Qua z −– – 98.3 0.4 2.2 3.4
Sanidine −– – – 0.6 – –
S au oli e −– – 1.5 −– –
Amo phous
phases −25.1 28.4 – 90.8
97.7
30.2
Table 3. Selec ed pa ame e s o used agg ega es impa ed by p oduce s.
P ope y EP EG ZEO
Loose bulk densi y (kg·m−3)179 310 1020
Wa e abso p ion (l·m−3)348 25 270
The mal conduc i i y (W·m−1·K−1)0.04 0.07 0.16
The mal s abili y (◦C) 900 750 450
Wa e apo di usion esis ance ac o , µ- alue (–) 3 5 –
Capilla y e apo a ion (g·h−1)0.36 – –
Comp essi e s eng h (MPa) 0.3 3 30
pH (–) 7 7 7–8
2.4. Assessmen o Pozzolanic Ac i i y o he Applied Agg ega es
Pozzolanic ac i i y o he agg ega es (Table 4) was es ed by a modi ied Chapelle es
me hod acco ding o he s anda d NF P 18–513 [
28
]. The limi o consumed Ca(OH)
2
o
he conside a ion o he ma e ial as pozzolana ac i e (650 mg
·
g
−1
[
29
]) was exceeded a e
2–3 days o ea men in he case o EP; EG was he mos pozzolana ac i e o he h ee
examined agg ega es, and ZEO did no mee he condi ion o pozzolanici y e en a e
5 days o ea men . I was seen ha he pozzolanic eac ion o he agg ega es e ol ed
o e ime.
Table 4. Pozzolanic ac i i y o used agg ega es.
Pozzolanic Reac ion Time
(Days)
Pozzolanic Ac i i y
(mg Ca(OH)2/g)
EP EG ZEO
1 259 676 409
2 468 972 428
3 997 1077 453
4 1072 1172 601
5 1137 1234 646
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 5 o 17
2.5. Pa icle Size Dis ibu ion Analysis
The pa icle size dis ibu ion o ligh weigh agg ega es (Figu e 1) was de e mined by
Mas e size 2000 lase pa icle analyze (Mal e n Panaly ical, UK). To p e en seg ega ion
o agg ega e pa icles, hey we e dispe sed in ace one solu ion.
Figu e 1. Pa icle size dis ibu ion o sand and ligh weigh agg ega es.
2.6. Mic os uc u e o Agg ega es
The mic os uc u e o agg ega e pa icles (Figu e 2) was in es iga ed using scanning
elec on mic oscope (SEM) Tescan Mi a3 (TESCAN B no, L d., B no, Czech Republic).
Agg ega e g ains we e embedded wi h epoxy esin, and a e ha dening, a sample wi h a
ac u e su ace was ob ained by b eaking he ma e ial. EP and EG agg ega e we e e y
po ous, wi h mo e massi e pa i ions be ween he po es in he EG. The po e walls in
he EP mic os uc u e we e hin and easily damaged. In con as , he mic os uc u e o
ZEO was dense, composed o lea sha p-edged c ys als. The shape o EG pa icles was
sphe ical, unlike EP and ZEO which had an i egula asymme ical shape. The loose bulk
densi y o pa icula ligh weigh agg ega es (Table 3) comple ely e lec ed he di e ences
in hei mic os uc u e.
2.7. Sample P epa a ion and Cu ing
The mo a specimens (40 mm
×
40 mm
×
160 mm p isms and ci cula pla e samples
wi h a diame e o 120 mm and hickness o 30 mm) we e p epa ed wi h a cons an binde -
o-agg ega e olume a io o 1:1.15. The binde /agg ega e a io o 1:1.15 was chosen
a e con e sion o he 1:4 weigh a io in he e e ence lime mo a . This weigh a io is
commonly used in he p epa a ion o lime ende s in esea ch and p ac ice. The dosage o
mixing wa e was adjus ed o main he no mal consis ency and simila wo kabili y o he
mo a s ( low 160
±
5 mm; measu ed by he low able es in acco dance wi h s anda d
EN 1015-3 [
30
]). Na u al zeoli e was no ea ed wi h wa e be o e he p epa a ion o
mo a samples, which esul ed in highe amoun s o mixing wa e necessa y o achie e
he equi ed esh mo a consis ency. The weigh composi ion o he designed mo a s is
gi en in Table 5. Ha dened mo a specimens we e demolded a e 48 h and hen cu ed
in a we chambe a empe a u e T= (22
±
3)
◦
C and a ela i e humidi y RH = (95
±
5)%
o 26 days. The samples we e hen s o ed unde labo a o y condi ions a T= (22
±
3)
◦
C,
RH = (50
±
5)%. Du ing he en i e ageing pe iod, he samples we e placed on plas ic g ids
o make hei su ace as accessible as possible o ca bona ion. The planned es s we e
pe o med o samples aged 28 and 90 days, espec i ely. In he pa icula es , a minimum
o i e samples we e es ed.

Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 6 o 17
Figu e 2.
Mic os uc u e o used agg ega es aken by SEM. (
a
) EP, magni ica ion 150
×
; (
b
) EG
magni ica ion 150
×
; (
c
) ZEO magni ica ion 150
×
; (
d
) de ail o EP, magni ica ion 5000
×
; (
e
) de ail o
EG, magni ica ion 5000×; ( ) de ail o ZEO, magni ica ion 5000×.
Table 5. P opo ioning o mo a mix u es.
Lime (g) NHL 3.5 (g) Cemen (g) Qua z Sand (g) EP (g) EG (g) ZEO (g) H2O (mL)
LQ 100 – – 400 – – – 120
LEP 100 – – – 142 – – 35
LEG 100 – – – – 74 – 125
LZEO 100 – – – – – 246 153
NHLQ – 100 – 340 – – – 75
NHLEP – 100 – – 120 – – 5
NHLEG – 100 – – – 62 – 75
NHLZEO – 100 – – – – 208 115
LCQ 50 – 50 280 – – – 72
LCEP 50 – 50 – 100 – – 18
LCEG 50 – 50 – – 52 – 75
LCZEO 50 – 50 – – – 173 105
2.8. Tes ing o Ha dened Mo a s
As basic mac o-s uc u al pa ame e s, bulk and speci ic densi y, and o al open po os-
i y we e de e mined. The d y bulk densi y
ρb
(kg
·
m
−3
) measu emen was a anged in
compliance wi h he Eu opean s anda d EN 1015-10 [
31
]. Fi s ly, he samples we e acuum
d ied (Vacucell, BMT, B no, Czech Republic) a 60
◦
C un il achie ing o hei mass equi-
lib ium (sample mass di e ence was <0.1%). The helium pycnome e Pycnoma ic ATC
(Po o ec, Ho heim, Ge many) was used o explo e he speci ic densi y
ρs
(kg
·
m
−3
). The
known alues o bulk and speci ic densi y o a gi en sample we e employed o he o al
open po osi y
ψ
(-) calcula ion [
32
]. The expanded combined unce ain ies o he bulk den-
si y, speci ic densi y, and po osi y de e mina ion we e 1.4%, 1.2%, and 2.0%, espec i ely.
Fo he cha ac e iza ion o mechanical pa ame e s, he es ing o lexu al and comp es-
si e s eng h oge he wi h he dynamic modulus o elas ici y was pe o med acco ding o
he s anda d EN 1015-11 [
33
]. A i s , he cu ed p isms wi h dimensions o (
40 ×40 ×160
)
mm we e loaded wi h 50 N
·
s
−1
in he h ee-poin bending es o de e mine he lexu al
s eng h
(MPa). The sample agmen s sizes o (40
×
40) mm we e used o he comp es-
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 7 o 17
si e s eng h
c
(MPa) measu emen . The used uniaxial comp ession o ce (100 N
·
s
−1
) was
applied on he c oss sec ion o he specimens. To speci y he dynamic modulus o elas ici y
E
d
(GPa), he Vikasonic appa a us (Schleinbinge Ge ä e, Buchbach, Ge many) was em-
ployed. The expanded combined unce ain ies o he mechanical pa ame e s assessmen
we e 1.4%, 1.4%, and 2.3% o
,
c
, and E
d
, espec i ely. Fo he measu emen o
and
E
d
, 5 s anda d p isms we e used. In he comp essi e s eng h es , eigh hal es o b oken
p isms om he lexu al s eng h measu emen we e examined.
The wa e and wa e apo anspo p ope ies o he es ed mo a s we e desc ibed
wi h he appa en mois u e di usi i y and he wa e apo esis ance ac o . The one-
dimensional wa e suc ion expe imen was pe o med on he 40 mm cubes acco ding o
he EN 1015-18 [
34
] o assess he wa e abso p ion coe icien A
w
(kg
·
m
−2·
s
−1/2
). This
alue, oge he wi h he known sa u a ed mois u e con en , was used o he appa en
mois u e di usi i y
κapp
(m
2·
s
−1
) calcula ion acco ding o he o iginal p ocedu e p oposed
by Kuma an [
35
]. The expanded combined unce ain y o he wa e abso p ion es s was
1.2%, and ha o he appa en mois u e di usi i y was 2.9%.
Acco ding o he EN ISO 12572 [
36
], he expe imen o wa e apo anspo was
a anged o de e mine he wa e apo esis ance ac o
µ
(-) [
36
]. The ci cula samples
o 120 mm in diame e and 30 mm o hickness we e sealed o he cups and placed in he
clima ic chambe . In he case o he d y-cup expe imen , he cup con ained ac i a ed silica
gel o ensu e (5
±
2)% ela i e humidi y. In he we -cup es , he cup was illed using
a sa u a ed KNO
3
solu ion o achie e (93
±
2)% ela i e humidi y. The co esponding
ela i e humidi y in he clima ic chambe was 50%. The expanded combined unce ain y
o he wa e apo esis ance ac o assessmen was 2.8%.
The he mal analyze ISOMET 2114 (Applied P ecision, B a isla a, Slo akia), ope a -
ing on he ansien impulse echnique p inciple, was employed o esea ch he hea ans-
po and s o age pa ame e s o he es ed mo a s [
37
]. Fo he measu emen o he he mal
conduc i i y
λ
(W
·
m
−1·
K
−1
) and he olume ic hea capaci y c
(J
·
m
−3·
K
−1
), he su ace
p obe was placed on he ho izon al sample su ace wi h he dimensions (
70 ×70 ×70
) mm.
The expanded combined unce ain y o he he mal conduc i i y and olume ic hea ca-
paci y measu emen was 3%.
The s anda d EN 12370 [
38
] was ollowed in o de o assess he sal c ys alliza ion
esis ance o he in es iga ed mo a s. The eal saliniza ion o mason y ma e ials was
simula ed by sodium chlo ide (NaCl) and sodium sul a e (anhyd ous Na
2
SO
4
) sal solu-
ions, and wi h espec o s anda d ecommenda ions, he concen a ion o each sal was
chosen o be 2% (weigh sal /weigh d y specimen). O en-d ied 90-day specimens ha ing
dimensions o (40
×
40
×
40) mm we e exposed o 10 c ys alliza ion cycles; each cycle was
comp ised o sample imme sion in o sal solu ion o 2 h and subsequen d ying in an o en
a 70
◦
C o a leas 16 h. A e ha , specimens we e emo ed om he o en and cooled o
2 h. Each sample was placed in i s own polyp opylene powde ja which was wa e and
wa e apo p oo sealed. Fo he e alua ion o he sal c ys alliza ion e ec , loss o gain
o sal exposed specimens was de e mined a e 10 c ys alliza ion cycles ollowed by 24 h
sample leaching in 200 mL o dis illed wa e a 80 ◦C, ollowed by d ying in an o en.
The so p ion iso he ms we e in es iga ed o he 90-day mo a s a e he c ys alliza-
ion es , whe e he o al imme sion ime in dis illed wa e o in a NaCl/Na
2
SO
4
solu ion
wi h a concen a ion o 2 w .%/weigh o sample was 20 h. To cha ac e ize he wa e
apo adso p ion capaci y, he so p ion iso he ms we e de e mined. The measu emen was
ca ied ou on o en-d ied agmen s o samples which we e placed in a clima ic chambe
a a empe a u e o (23
±
1)
◦
C. The desicca o es me hod was pe o med acco ding o
he ISO 12571 [
39
]. The equilib ium ela i e humidi y o 11%, 43%, 75%, 85%, and 98%
was main ained wi h he use o sa u a ed solu ions o LiCl, K
2
CO
3
, NaCl, KCl, and K
2
SO
4
,
espec i ely. Samples we e pe iodically weighed un il hey achie ed a cons an mass and
he g a ime ic mois u e con en u(kg
·
kg
−1
), and he dependence o ela i e humidi y
was calcula ed.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 8 o 17
3. Resul s and Discussion
Whe e applicable, he acqui ed s uc u al, mechanical, hyg ic, and he mal da a
measu ed o 28-days and 90-days mo a s was e alua ed as speci ied in he EN 998-1 [
12
]
and he WTA di ec i e 2-9-04/D [13].
3.1. S uc u al Pa ame e s
The mac o-s uc u al pa ame e s o he in es iga ed mo a s a e in oduced in Table 6.
The ligh ening e ec o he used al e na i e agg ega es was qui e appa en . Among he
con ol mo a s, lime–cemen mo a exhibi ed he lowes po osi y in bo h examined cu ing
ages. The po osi y o LQ mo a was only sligh ly highe han ha o na u al hyd aulic
lime-based mo a . Quan i a i ely, all ligh ened mo a s yielded po osi y >40.0%, which is
he limi imposed on epai mo a s by WTA di ec i e 2-9-04/D [
13
]. Simila ly, he bulk
densi y o mo a s wi h inco po a ed ligh weigh agg ega es was well below 1400 kg
·
m
−3
.
This c i e ion is also in oduced in WTA di ec i e 2-9-04/D [
13
]. The d op in bulk densi y
was in compliance wi h he inc ease in he po osi y, whe eas hese wo pa ame e s we e
esul s o wo combined e ec s: (i) low loose bulk densi y o ligh weigh agg ega es,
i.e., hei high po osi y, and (ii) s uc u al changes in he mo a s due o he inco po a ion
o ligh weigh agg ega es. In gene al, applica ion o ligh weigh agg ega es ga e less dense
mo a s mee ing he demands o epai mo a s. In espec o he p esumed applica ion o
he de eloped mo a s in sal and mois u e laden mason y, hei high po osi y will enable
sa e sal accumula ion and e apo a ion o s o ed wa e .
Table 6. The undamen al s uc u al pa ame e s o he ha dened mo a s.
Ma e ial ρb
(kg·m−3)
ρb
(kg·m−3)
ρs
(kg·m−3)
ρs
(kg·m−3)
Ψ
(%)
Ψ
(%)
28 Days 90 Days 28 Days 90 Days 28 Days 90 Days
LQ 1749 ±21 1779 ±25 2589 ±31 2599 ±31 32.4 ±0.6 31.6 ±0.6
LEP 612 ±9 641 ±9 1378 ±17 1419 ±17 55.6 ±1.1 54.9 ±1.1
LEG 616 ±9 633 ±9 1593 ±19 1661 ±20 61.3 ±1.2 60.7 ±1.2
LZEO 1139 ±16 1147 ±16 2237 ±27 2248 ±27 49.1 ±1.0 48.9 ±1.0
NHLQ 1757 ±25 1809 ±25 2584 ±31 2601 ±31 32.0 ±0.6 30.5 ±0.6
NHLEP 588 ±8 608 ±9 1519 ±18 1523 ±18 61.3 ±1.2 60.3 ±1.2
NHLEG 682 ±10 701 ±10 1658 ±20 1672 ±20 58.9 ±1.2 58.1 ±1.2
NHLZEO 1161 ±16 1179 ±17 2120 ±25 2123 ±25 45.2 ±0.9 44.5 ±0.9
LCQ 1815 ±25 1851 ±26 2521 ±30 2529 ±30 28.0 ±0.6 26.8 ±0.5
LCEP 635 ±9 707 ±10 1618 ±19 1726 ±21 60.8 ±1.2 59.0 ±1.2
LCEG 758 ±11 778 ±11 1628 ±20 1636 ±20 53.4 ±1.1 52.5 ±1.1
LCZEO 1231 ±17 1240 ±17 2109 ±25 2110 ±25 41.6 ±0.8 41.2 ±0.8
3.2. Mechanical Pa ame e s
In Table 7, he esul s o he es ing o he mechanical pa ame e s o he ha dened
mo a s a e in oduced. The alues o he expanded combined unce ain y a e oo low o
be p esen ed. The imp o emen in he mechanical s eng h and s i ness wi h he cu ing
age is well appa en o all es ed mo a s. The highes s eng h and s i ness we e eco ded
o he e e ence lime–cemen mo a LCQ. Acco ding o he EN 998-1 [
12
], i is anked in
ca ego y CS IV. The ligh ened lime–cemen mo a s LCEG and LCZO belong o ca ego y
CS III, and LCEP was classi ied in o s eng h class CS II. Na u al hyd aulic lime mo a s
a e classi ied in ca ego y CS II and lime mo a s in class CS I. Bo h he Eu opean s anda d
EN 998-1 [
12
] and WTA di ec i e 2-9-04/D [
13
] p esc ibe o epai mo a s s eng h class
CE II, which c i e ion was sa ely me by NHL mo a s. In espec o he mechanical
s eng h, cemen –lime mo a s excep LCEP canno be ecommended o applica ion as
epai mo a s due o hei incompa ibili y wi h o iginal ma e ials o his o ical mason y.
Howe e , hey can ind use in epai and es o a ion o hose buildings whe e cemen –lime
mo a s we e o iginally used. This is in ag eemen wi h he p e ailing opinion o he
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 9 o 17
cul u al he i age au ho i ies and hose in e es ed in enewal and conse a ion o olde and
his o ical building s ock [
40
–
42
]. Since ancien imes, mo a s o di e en composi ion and
s uc u e ha e been used and hese ha e been s ongly in luenced by he unc ion and
a ailabili y o local aw ma e ials [
43
]. Among hem, lime mo a s en iched by a ious
mine al admix u es and agg ega es ha e been used since be o e Roman imes in mos
cons uc ion and unde di e en en i onmen al condi ions. The e o e, in o de o mee
compa ibili y equi emen s o he mo a aking in o conside a ion he s uc u al, his o ical,
and en i onmen al con ex [
44
–
46
], de elopmen o he lime-based epai mo a s is o
pa icula impo ance. Usually, he comp essi e s eng h o lime mo a s does no comply
wi h he equi emen s o he CS II ca ego y; howe e , he e a e many examples based
on analysis o his o ical mason y whe e much lowe comp essi e s eng h alues a e
ecommended o he epai o adi ional lime ende ing and plas e ing mo a s. Fo
example, Noguei a e al. [
47
] ecommended o epai pu poses mo a s wi h a 90-day
comp essi e s eng h in he ange o 0.4–2.5 MPa. Simila comp essi e s eng h alues
we e also adop ed by Veiga a al. [
48
]. To his e ec , he de eloped lime mo a s can be
conside ed e icien o es o a ion pu poses, especially in es o ing o lime-based mo a
cons uc ed buildings.
Table 7. The mechanical p ope ies o he ha dened mo a s.
Ma e ial
(MPa)
(MPa)
c
(MPa)
c
(MPa)
Ed
(GPa)
Ed
(GPa)
28 Days 90 Days 28 Days 90 Days 28 Days 90 Days
LQ 1.1 1.5 1.4 2.0 4.4 4.8
LEP 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.7 1.0
LEG 0.6 0.8 0.7 1.0 1.8 2.8
LZEO 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.7 3.4 3.6
NHLQ 1.2 1.9 4.2 5.3 4.6 5.2
NHLEP 0.9 1.8 3.1 4.0 1.3 1.9
NHLEG 1.0 1.8 3.3 4.6 4.0 4.4
NHLZEO 1.1 1.9 4.3 5.5 3.9 4.8
LCQ 2.5 2.8 7.8 8.9 10.9 11.2
LCEP 1.2 2.0 2.9 3.7 1.8 2.3
LCEG 1.7 1.9 5.3 7.3 3.8 5.0
LCZEO 1.6 1.9 5.2 5.7 4.2 4.8
The c i e ion o he modulus o elas ici y o mo a s in ended o be used in epai
applica ions is no in oduced in ei he he EN 998-1 [
12
] o WTA di ec i e 2-9-04/D [
13
].
This p oblem was add essed, e.g., by Papayianni [
49
], who has sugges ed a epai mo a s
modulus o elas ici y in he ange 2–6 GPa. This was sa ely me by all he s udied mo a s
excep ma e ial LEP, whose s i ness was oo low, and he e e ence lime–cemen mo a
LCQ, which was oo igid o epai applica ions. Simila E
d
alues we e also epo ed by
To es a al. [
50
], who achie ed, o na u al hyd aulic lime mo a s wi h ce amic esidues
used as pozzolan and/o agg ega e, a dynamic elas ici y modulus om 1.5 GPa o 7.7 GPa.
Acco dingly, Ga ijo e al. [
51
] and G ilo a al. [
52
] ob ained o na u al hyd aulic lime
mo a s a dynamic elas ici y modulus o 4.7 GPa and 4.1 GPa espec i ely. Mo eo e ,
Ga ijo e al. [
51
] ha e also analyzed ae ial lime mo a wi h an elas ici y modulus o
app ox. 2.4 GPa.
3.3. Hyg ic P ope ies
The alues o he wa e apo esis ance ac o ob ained in he we -cup and d y-
cup es s a e in oduced in Table 8. The di e ences in he wa e apo esis ance ac o
ob ained o he 28-day and 90-day mo a s a e small, mos ly in he ange o he expanded
combined unce ain y. In he we -cup a angemen o he es , wa e apo ansmission
was accele a ed, which is ypical o he pe o mance o po ous building ma e ials [
53
,
54
].
As he su ace o he po es is pa ially o ully occupied by wa e molecules, i.e., su ace
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 11780 16 o 17
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