sus ainabili y
A icle
Human Resou ces du ing COVID-19: A Mon hly Su ey on
Men al Heal h and Wo king A i udes o Czech Employees and
Manage s du ing he Yea 2020
Ma cel Rol P ei e


Ci a ion: P ei e , M.R. Human
Resou ces du ing COVID-19: A
Mon hly Su ey on Men al Heal h
and Wo king A i udes o Czech
Employees and Manage s du ing he
Yea 2020. Sus ainabili y 2021,13,
10055. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
su131810055
Academic Edi o s: Emanuele
Cannizza o, Tiziana Ramaci,
Massimiliano Ba a ucci, Ful io
Plescia, Haywan ee Ramkissoon,
Lo i Aleya and Ch is ian
Vandenbe ghe
Recei ed: 29 July 2021
Accep ed: 3 Sep embe 2021
Published: 8 Sep embe 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho .
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Depa men o Managemen , Facul y o Business and Managemen , B no Uni e si y o Technology,
612 00 B no, Czech Republic; p ei e @ u b .cz
Abs ac :
This s udy in es iga es he e ec o COVID-19 lockdowns and non-lockdown phases on
manage s and employees in he Czech Republic in he yea 2020. The Czech Republic came h ough
he i s COVID-19 wa e in sp ing 2020 wi h low case numbe s, bu became one o he coun ies wi h
he highes case incidences in he second au umn wa e in Eu ope. The s udy ocused on examining
he di e ences o pe cep ions on digi al eadiness o he company, wo king s yle, and men al heal h
a iables o wo king pe sonnel in lockdown and non-lockdown phases. Da a was ob ained by an
online su ey conduc ed mon hly om Ma ch-2020 o Decembe -2020 wi h he same ques ions
each mon h. Collec ed da a consis ed o esponden s’ basic in o ma ion on he ac ual si ua ion, on
pe cep ions on company and echnology and on pe cep ions o he own men al s a e in he gi en
mon h, e ie ed om a pool o employees and manage s om he Czech Republic machine and
equipmen manu ac u e s’ indus y. S a is ical analysis was conduc ed wi h he K uskal-Wallis es
o o dinal a iables o check o signi ican di e ences in pe cep ions du ing 2020. Resul s show ha
manage s in gene al and elecommu ing-expe ienced wo ke s in pa icula a e be e able o adap o
o ced home o ice, while elecommu ing-inexpe ienced employees s uggle o adap posi i ely e en
wi h inc easing company suppo and wi h an inc easing digi al eam communica ion.
Keywo ds:
human esou ce; elecommu ing; COVID-19; home-o ice; lockdown; s ess; men al heal h
1. In oduc ion
In 2020, he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) announced he COVID-19 epidemic
o be a pandemic [
1
,
2
]. Se e al coun ies all o e he wo ld began o ake coun e measu es
by applying e.g., lockdowns [
3
]. Eu opean coun ies ook measu es agains he pandemic
by es ic ing p i a e, social, and wo k li e. Social and wo k li e was locked down o
p e en a u he sp eading o he i us [
4
]. Following I aly, which ook he lead in absolu e
numbe s o in ec ed people in his i s COVID-19-wa e in Eu ope, se e al o he coun ies
applied simila measu es [
5
]. Full o pa ial lockdowns (also e e ed o as shu downs) we e
imposed [
6
]. Imposed go e nmen ules o keep dis ance among employees and o keep
dis ance be ween employees and company ex e nals as well as he immedia e dec ease
in demand om cus ome s o ced companies and go e nmen s o ind a solu ion o he
si ua ion [
7
]. In o de o p e en employees om mee ing each o he di ec ly, employees
we e sen home o elewo k om home (also e e ed o as home o ice), belonging o he
go e nmen s’ s ay-a -home o de s o hei popula ion [
8
]. The lockdowns had economy-
wide impac s and a ec ed employees and manage s om small, middle-sized, and big
companies a he same ime by sending hem on o ced home o ice.
Sending employees in o a home o ice amewo k exposed hese employees o a ame-
wo k simila as i is known om p e iously-s udied elecommu ing [
9
], whe e wo ke s did
no ha e a ixed wo kplace [
10
]. Companies and company managemen had o ake mea-
su es in o de o adjus hei business p ocesses acco ding o new equi emen s. Companies
ha we e used o wo k only in a daily o ice amewo k missed IT-in as uc u e [
11
] and
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su131810055 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 2 o 20
we e o ganiza ionally no p epa ed o a widesp ead home o ice wo king [
12
]. Employees
ha we e no used o wo king a home we e now o ced o do so. Wi hou planning and
mos ly wi hou aining, employees we e sen on home o ice wi hou knowledge o a home
o ice in as uc u e [
13
]. Also, manage s we e o ced in o home o ices, ha ing o ca e o
a whole eam being sen o sudden home o ice wi hou p epa a ion [
14
]. Addi ionally,
schools closed, sending child en home, whe e hei pa en s wo ked in home o ices [15].
Wi h he mo emen o a sudden home o ice amewo k and he imposu e o coun y-
wide lockdowns, wo ke s had o adap o he new li ing and wo king s yle s yle [
16
].
People showed signi ican ly-inc eased endencies owa ds dep ession, psychical s ess,
and anxie y [
17
]. The policy o social dis ancing did no allow o p i a e physical con ac
bu allowed only o digi al ways o main ain ela ionships. Addi ionally, wo ke s had o
swi ch o a digi al en i onmen o wo king pu poses. This also included he me e digi al
con ac wi h u he o ganiza ion and eam membe s [
14
]. Wo ke s ans e ing om a
daily home o ice job we e exposed o changes in an e en highe le el han wo ke s coming
om a elecommu ing amewo k. Howe e , depending on he coun y o ope a ion,
di e en ulese s we e a ailable o choose which way elewo k, home o ice, and u he
ins umen s could be applied [
18
]. The Ge man ins umen o “Ku za bei ” (English
ansla ion: Sho wo k) allowed companies o send hei employees on paid aca ion o a
ce ain ex en while he Ge man s a e ook o e pa o he sala y [
19
]. Simila ins umen s
we e applied in o he Eu opean coun ies [
20
]. Also, pa o he Czech indus y wo ked in a
amewo k o sho wo k, while he majo conce n was wi h he dis up ion o supply chains
and coo dina ion issues wi h in e na ional colleagues no being p esen and in e na ional
p oduc ion halls being closed [21].
The Czech Republic was able o come h ough he i s pandemic wa e in sp ing
2020 wi h a low case incidence a e and wi h a lockdown. Be ween May 2020 and Oc obe
2020, he Czech Republic wen in o a non-lockdown phase. In au umn 2020, i became
he Eu opean coun y wi h he highes case incidence a es and a second lockdown began
in Oc obe -2020. Social con ac s had o be educed [
22
]. Simila elecommu ing ame-
wo ks in wo k a e known o ha e ambiguous impac s on di e en employees. While one
pa o employees sees elecommu ing as bene icial and conduci e o eedom, he o he
pa claims highe o ganiza ional p essu e and a eeling o loneliness and missing social
in e ac ion [
23
]. I is a ques ion how he sudden ansi ion in o home o ice changed he
wo king s yle and he pe cep ion o aspec s o home o ice o e ime h ough lockdown
and non-lockdown phases in 2020. Hence, he s udy in his pape is conduc ed o ha e
a look on whe he pa e ns o pe cep ions du ing lockdown a e signi ican ly di e en
om hose in non-lockdown phases and whe he he e is a di e ence in manage s and
employees. The eason o look on he Czech Republic is due o he ac ha i wen h ough
wo lockdown phases in he yea 2020. Thus, he esea ch objec i e in gene al is o analyse
he impac o o ced home o ice du ing he yea 2020 in lockdown and non-lockdown
phases on manage s and employees. The exis ing li e a u e sugges s ha , al hough al eady
men ioned in he 1980, esea ch did no ocus on manage s on elecommu ing bu a he
on how manage s should wo k wi h elecommu ing employees [
24
] simila o he COVID-
19 pandemic, whe e men al heal h issues we e usually discussed o employees, no o
manage s [25]. Hence, i is he pu pose o his pape o con ibu e o he exis ing esea ch
gap in his ield.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1.1. Telecommu ing and Home O ice
Telecommu ing amewo ks we e subjec o s udies p io o he COVID-19 c isis.
The e m elecommu ing is used o employees ha a e no bound o o ices and may wo k
om whe e e hey a e a he gi en momen [
26
]. On he con a y, home o ice is bound o
he home o each indi idual. Fo some indi iduals a highe deg ee o indi idualism and
libe y in li e allows o a lowe deg ee o psychical s ess in home o ice [
27
]. Fo indi id-
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 3 o 20
uals wi h a lowe deg ee o discipline he p oduc i i y and wo k quali y may dec ease.
Indi iduals ha we e o ced in o home o ice due o measu es aken agains he COVID-19
pandemic we e ound o su e a lack o mo i a ion o wo k alone [
28
]. Fu he mo e, hei
homes migh no ha e e en been equipped wi h he equi ed IT in as uc u e o allow o
o ganizing a wo king a mosphe e [29].
S udies on elecommu ing show an ambiguous pic u e. A nega i e ou come o an
ex ensi e home o ice wo king is inc eased isk o social isola ion [
30
], as well as a highe
isk o psychical dep essions [
31
], independen om he age o he wo ke [
10
]. A s udy by
Ben ley e al. show ha social isola ion may be p e en ed by communica ion and suppo
om wi hin he company [
32
]. The equi ed social in e ac ion wi h colleagues and he es
o he eam has o be p o ided and guided by he company manage s. In o de o educe
he eeling o isola ion, esea ch sugges s o enhance echnical suppo o he wo ke o
p o ide he wo ke wi h he eeling o belong o he eam [14].
Lengen e al. p opose an app oach ha is based on a suppo om manage s o
hei wo ke s bound in home o ice. Technical suppo is a basis o mee ing he echnical
equi emen s o he employees [
14
]. Howe e , he se o ac i i ies and measu es p oposed
shows an app oach ha is wo king on a bu eauc a ic and egula wo king en i onmen . I
includes he suppo om ained medical and psychological pe sonnel and om o icial
go e nmen channels. Due o he ci cums ances and he ex e nal p essu e, p io psycho-
logical p epa a ion could no be g an ed o he employees be o e hey wen in o hei home
o ices [21]. I was obse ed ha his led o a disengagemen wi h hei wo k [33].
Resea ch o he las yea s has shown ha elecommu ing, including home o ice
jobs, is subjec o s igma isa ion, accompanied by p ejudices. P omo ion chances seem
o dec ease o employees wo king in a elecommu ing en i onmen in compa ison wi h
o ice jobs [
34
]. S udies showed ha only a mino i y o manage s was coming om a
elecommu ing wo king backg ound o was wo king in elecommu ing in he momen ha
hey we e sen on home o ice [
35
]. Besides he lowe deg ee o p es ige hese manage s
we e also o ced o home o ice wi hou p epa ed suppo , bu should suppo hei own
subo dina es [14].
Al eady in 1987, a s udy ound ha manage s and employees we e hesi an in ac-
cep ing elecommu ing o hei wo k. Assuming lacking company suppo and missing
social in e ac ion we e he wo main issues, manage s had a mo e nega i e a i ude [
24
].
In o de o adop a elecommu ing amewo k, companies ha e o unde go majo cul u al
change [
36
]. This equi es manage s o be p ope ly p epa ed and ained o manage hei
eam in a bidi ec ional elecommu ing ela ionship [
37
]. As elecommu ing also means o
pu us in o he elecommu e s by elimina ing non-s op isible con ol [
38
]. As manage s
on elecommu ing is a esea ch opic no widely p esen in cu en li e a u e, he
COVID-19
pandemic p o ides he sugges ion ha home o ice ha ms manage s mo e han hei em-
ployees as a as men al heal h is conce ned [
25
]. Manage s ha e been ound o ha e a
highe isk o dep ession and s ess in gene al, being anxious o being isola ed, and no
being suppo ed by he company [
24
]. The COVID-19 pandemic makes i di icul o
manage s s i ing o a s able en i onmen , o cing hem o go suddenly o unp epa ed
home o ices.
The COVID-19 pandemic enhanced he speed o ansi ion om o ice jobs o home
o ice o a as amoun o people [
39
]. Wi h he COVID-19 pandemic, he speed o ansi ion
was inc eased [
40
]. Due o i s sudden na u e, he p epa a ion phase o he ansi ion
had o be omi ed [
41
]. While esea ch an icipa ed he shi owa ds a highe deg ee o
elecommu ing and home o ice wo k in se e al esea ch s udies be o e he pandemic
2020 [42–44]
, he o ganiza ional p econdi ions we e in a as numbe o cases non-exis en .
Following he abo e-men ioned, he ollowing hypo hesis a e s a ed:
Hypo hesis 1
(
H1
)
.
Employees and manage s ha ing been on elecommu ing be o e will show a
lowe deg ee o nega i e impac s om o ced home o ices.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 4 o 20
Hypo hesis 2
(
H2
)
.
Manage s will show a highe inclina ion owa ds dep ession and nega i e
adap i e beha iou in home o ices han o he employees.
Hypo hesis 3a
(
H3a
)
.
A highe deg ee o company p epa edness will go in line wi h a posi i e
sel -pe cep ion o he si ua ion.
Hypo hesis 3b
(
H3b
)
.
A highe deg ee o company p epa edness will lead o a highe deg ee o
desi ed home o ice days o he pe sonnel.
2.1.2. Wo kplace Digi aliza ion
The applied changes e oked challenges o employees and manage s in companies.
While digi aliza ion o wo kplaces was p edic ed o come wi h he ealiza ion o indus y
4.0 [
45
], he COVID-19 pandemic and he go e nmen al coun e measu es aken acili a ed
he digi aliza ion [
46
]. The use o digi al in as uc u e o wo k, communica ion, lea ning,
cus ome - ela ions, and u he a eas equi ed manage s and employees o adap o he
new ci cums ances. These changes had o be implemen ed suddenly, while esea ch o
he ansi ion owa ds 4.0 assumed g adual changes [
47
]. Wi h he sudden shi o home
o ices, i ook companies ime o egain con ol o e he si ua ion and hei businesses.
In ha ime p i a e households’ ene gy consump ion inc eased, while esea che s no ed
also an inc eased demand o emo e and dis ance p oduc ion ope a ion, in o de o be
able o wo k om home [48].
Companies ha we e coming om a digi al backg ound and companies ha we e
wo king wi h digi al pla o ms [
9
] we e able o wi hs and he p essu e [
49
] a ising om
go e nmen -imposed es ic ions. Companies ha al eady had expe ience in digi aliza ion
wo k, p ocesses, and in as uc u e we e able o make be e use o he new amewo k [
50
].
The end owa ds digi alizing businesses and p ocesses ha began p io o he c isis was
sped up [
51
]. Va ious s udies in he p e-COVID-19-pandemic e a indica ed ha home o ice
and lexible wo king hou s may be able o inc ease mo i a ion, e iciency, and sa is ac ion
om wo k [14,52].
Al eady in July 2020, Dwi edi e al. emphasized he needs o companies o make use
o he new oppo uni ies o digi aliza ion a ising om he pandemic shock. Resea ch ound
employees we e aking he po en ials o combining p i a e li e and wo k wi h g a i ude [
9
].
On he con a y, due o social dis ancing policies he si ua ion may also lead o he cu ing
and de e io a ion o social ela ions [
44
]. Social dis ancing is an icipa ed o be he measu e
o educe in ec ion sp eading [
53
], while he cos o his measu e has o be bo ne by socie y
and economy.
Keeping in mind he addi ional equi emen s on coo dina ion and elewo k, hese
equi emen s we e likewise pu on he shoulde s o manage s and employees [
54
]. Em-
ployees o a ce ain ex en welcomed he newly a ising oppo uni ies and he lexibili y [
9
].
A he same ime, s udies ound he amoun o daily wo king hou s o inc ease [
55
]. Nega-
i e aspec s o elecommu ing include highe wo king ime and a dec ease in mo i a ion o
one pa o he wo king popula ion [
28
]. A esea ch s udy o IBM showed ha i depends
on he ype o job and he en i onmen i sel whe he he home o ice wo k shows nega i e
e ec s [
56
]. Howe e , o ganiza ional and echnical suppo is belie ed o play a majo ole
o he well-being o he employee on elecommu ing and on home o ice wo k [14].
S udies ound ha manage s ha e o adap o he digi alized wo king
en i onmen [57]
.
While he change in cul u e was ound al eady in he 1980s o play a majo ole in he
accep ance and success o digi alized wo king amewo ks [
24
], as was also sugges ed in
la e yea s [
36
], he ole o leade ship has o e ol e i sel o mee he new equi emen s [
58
].
A u he cha ac e is ic o he so-called digi al leade ship is ha decisions and isk assess-
men s ha e o be made wi h highe speed [
57
]. As wo kplace digi aliza ion p omo es
wo ke au onomy [
59
], manage s a e s uggling o ind mechanisms o egain ull con ol
o e hei wo ke s [
38
]. On he o he hand, manage s we e also assumed o ha e o p o-
mo e he implemen a ion phase o elecommu ing wi h hei own wo k [
60
]. Thus, in he
COVID-19 pandemic, manage s should ely e en mo e on company suppo o be able o
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 5 o 20
ul il hei usual managemen asks and o u he suppo hei subo dina es. S i ing o
s abili y [
25
], manage s a e dependen on company suppo and migh he e o e show a
di e en pe cep ion owa ds he le el o g an ed suppo .
Companies in se e al coun ies in Eu ope applied he ins umen o sho wo k in
o de o cope wi h he a ising cos [
61
]. Missing colleagues and eam membe s in he
o ganiza ion pu a u he bu den on he wo ke s on home o ice. The dis up ion and he
di e en app oaches in he o ganiza ion led o a u he eeling o missing o ganiza ion
and missing suppo [
23
]. The au umn wa e o he COVID-19 pandemic as he second
wa e in Eu ope s uck in se e al coun ies. Companies and go e nmen s had he po en ial
o p epa e o his du ing he summe pe iod. Hence, i is a ques ion whe he and o wha
ex en his shows o in he pe cep ion o employees and manage s wi h ega d o echnical
suppo and wi h ega d o company p epa edness o he si ua ion.
Following he abo e-men ioned, he ollowing hypo hesis is s a ed:
Hypo hesis 4a
(
H4a
)
.
Employees and manage s will ha e a signi ican ly di e en pe cep ion on
company p epa edness in lockdown and non-lockdown phases.
Hypo hesis 4b
(
H4b
)
.
Employees and manage s will ha e a signi ican ly di e en pe cep ion on
company eadiness in lockdown and non-lockdown phases.
2.1.3. Men al Heal h
Wi h he equi emen o a as and sudden ans e o digi aliza ion o secu e a home
o ice amewo k, he si ua ion pu employees and manage s unde p essu e. This led o
dep essions and u he men al diseases [
62
]. I is known om elecommu ing amewo ks
ha a subs an ial pa o employees is su e ing om men al diseases. These employees
communica e wi h hei company exclusi ely by phone o by no ebook, as hey do no ha e
a ixed wo king place [
10
]. This pa o employees is supposed o no be able o p o i om
he amewo k, su e ing om he nega i e aspec s o elecommu ing and home o ice, such
as social isola ion and dep ession [
44
]. Fo he pa o socie y ha is no inclined o su e
om he nega i e aspec s, such a amewo k may seem bene icia y o bo h sides [
9
,
14
,
52
].
Resea ch om Canada sugges s ha du ing he COVID-19 pandemic he sel -e alua ed
pe cep ion o p o essionals inc eased by 100%. Resea ch conduc ed in se e al A abic coun-
ies (Oman, Saudi-A abia, Jo dan, I aq, and Egyp ) came o he conclusion ha 57% o
he popula ion assumed hemsel es o be dep essi e, wi h no signi ican di e ences in
he coun ies [
63
]. A F ench su ey ound ou ha employees in COVID-19- ela ed p o-
essions su e ed om dep ession, anxie y, and s ess (DAS). While his was explained by
he p oximi y o COVID-19 pa ien s and he ea o ge ing in ec ed hemsel es due o
hei p o ession in medical ca e [
17
], u he s udies assumed ha o he p o essions and
s uden s su e om DAS [
64
]. P e ious esea ch also sugges s a signi ican di e ence in
gende , wi h young women unde 30 yea s ha ing a highe isk o ge ing dep essed han
males in he same age ca ego y [
65
]. Enhancing ac o s o dep ession ound we e being
young and being single [
66
] and being single and li ing alone [
67
]. Simila esul s we e
ound du ing he SARS epidemic in Malaysia wi h medical s uden s [68].
O he app oaches o explain he wo sening men al s a e du ing COVID-19 pandemic
co e he indings ha he amily si ua ion, including physical abuse, plays a highe ole
han he isola ion a home [
69
]. I alian esea ch ound signi ican e idence ha he li ing
si ua ion and he s yle o a la a e u he ac o s o conce n in os e ing dep ession [
70
].
Se e al esea ch s udies u he ound pas heal h issues o an indi idual o o a amily
membe p omo ed DAS [
71
–
73
], wi h a u he boos du ing go e nmen -o de ed social
isola ion [
74
]. Ha ing amily membe s wi h cu en COVID-19 heal h issues p o ided an
addi ional isk ac o o hese people [75,76].
Ano he g oup known o su e dep ession a e manage s. This g oup has been ound
o belong he g oup wi h he highes suicide a es in a s udy conduc ed om 2012 o
2015 [
77
]. Also, in he ea ly phase o he COVID-19 pandemic, manage s we e ound o
su e om DAS, while he managemen seemed o su e mo e han hei colleagues on

Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 6 o 20
lowe le els [
25
]. Manage s a e also belie ed o ha e an impac on he men al heal h o hei
s a [
78
] and migh eel in hei ole ha hey ha e o show hei s eng h. Illnesses may
ake he ene gy equi ed o cope wi h he daily job challenges, gene a ing he possibili y
o all in o dep ession. Taking in o accoun ha he inclina ion owa ds DAS seems o
ise wi h he o ganiza ional le el [
25
], his sugges s only op manage s o ha e a highe
inclina ion owa ds men al heal h issues han hei employees while ying o keep up hei
pe o mance [
79
]. Manage s end o ge in o s ess wi h sudden changes and seem o need
a s able wo king en i onmen o a oid s ess and dep ession [
80
]. Howe e , he e is s ill a
esea ch gap exis ing, as men al heal h is usually discussed in he o ganiza ional iew o
he managemen unc ion [
81
]. Requi ing s abili y, i should be assumed ha wi h ising
company suppo and home o ice eadiness manage s will s abilize and do no end o
change hei way o wo king again, aking hei p e ious wo king s yle. Hence, being sen
suddenly o home o ices b ough manage s ou o hei com o zone, bu i is assumed
ha wi h ising company suppo du ing he pandemic hey would se le in o he home
o ice amewo k like hei subo dina es [24].
Go e nmen -o de ed social isola ion b ough manage s and employees in o home
o ices. Bo h we e exposed o isk ac o s which inc ease he likelihood o dep ession and
om DAS du ing hei ime in home o ice wo k in digi alized en i onmen s. People
who we e able o adop posi i e adap i e s yles in he si ua ion we e able o cope wi h
hese isks [
82
,
83
]. People employing nega i e maladap i e s yles ha e been ound o
easily su e om DAS [
84
,
85
]. Cogni i e and beha iou a oidance as one o he nega i e
maladap i e s yles was ound o lead o inc eased dep ession and s ess [
86
]. F equen ly-
changing en i onmen s [
87
] may in luence he wo k and pe cep ion o he wo k and
he ci cums ances o manage s and employees [
88
]. Hence, his a icle has he objec i e
o examine whe he manage s and employees show a di e ence in hei s ess le els
and sel -pe cep ion o men al heal h and whe he he e is a di e ence in lockdown and
non-lockdown phases.
Thus, he ollowing hypo heses a e s a ed:
Hypo hesis 5a
(
H5a
)
.
Highe company suppo le els will lead o a lowe deg ee o missing
social in e ac ion.
Hypo hesis 5b
(
H5b
)
.
Highe company suppo le els will compensa e he nega i e impac on
he wo ke s’ psyches.
Hypo hesis 6
(
H6
)
.
A highe a ing o he con ac wi h he eam will lead o a lowe pe cep ion o
nega i e impac s du ing he o ced home o ice wo k.
Hypo hesis 7
(
H7
)
.
Employees and manage s will show he same desi e o wo k in home o ices
wi h ising company suppo .
2.2. Theo e ical F amewo k
The pu pose o his pape is o analyse he ou come o COVID-19 pandemic-en o ced
home o ice wo k on manage s and employees. Many employees and manage s we e
o ced in o home o ices and isola ion om socie y as pa o social dis ancing. Howe e ,
o he s had al eady been wo king in dis ance-wo king amewo ks, such as elecommu ing.
Resea ch s udies globally showed a a ie y o nega i e impac s on di e en segmen s
o socie y, including wo ke s [
17
,
64
]. Among he nega i e impac s ound we e a highe
deg ee o dep ession, anxie y, and s ess, an inc eased eeling o social loneliness, and a
highe s ess le el also du ing wo k while being pa o a digi alized and decen alized
eam. Howe e , posi i e adap a ion beha iou and posi i e ci cums ances and amewo ks
migh be able o lowe he impac s o he a o e-men ioned. Hence, i migh be assumed
ha posi i e amewo k impac s such as company suppo and o ganisa ion should be
able o help manage s and employees.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 7 o 20
The esea ch amewo k u he assumes ha he e a e di e ences be ween employees
being sen o o ced home o ice om a daily o ice job and employees sen o home o ice
om a elecommu ing amewo k. Telecommu ing is assumed o p o ide highe indi idual
eedom du ing wo k pai ed wi h a highe indi idual esponsibili y o discipline. While
his amewo k migh also con ain ull home o ice wo kdays, i also allows o wo k
a els, aining on he job, and u he pe sonal in e ac ion. Thus, i migh be assumed
ha employees and manage s ha had been wo king in elecommu ing should ha e ewe
issues when adap ing o o ced home o ice wo k. Wi h his, hese segmen s o employees
and manage s should ha e been able o adop a posi i e adap i e beha iou , gene a ing a
lowe le el o s ess, loneliness, and u he nega i e impac s.
Wi h his, he assumed es ablished heo e ical amewo k may be ound in
Figu e 1,
sugges ing a amewo k whe e, due o lockdowns, manage s and employees used o
elecommu ing would be able o show lowe le els o nega i e impac s and a highe
mo i a ion o wo k han people coming om a daily o ice job. People coming om a daily
o ice job migh be able o no all in o nega i i y in cases whe e hey we e p o ided wi h a
high le el o company suppo . The es ablished heo e ical amewo k sugges s ha he
ank o he wo ke (manage o employee) and he exis ing o non-exis ing elecommu ing
expe ience should ha e an impac on he sel -pe cep ions on home o ice amewo k and
men al heal h o he wo ke s. Howe e , by expe iencing a high le el o company suppo
e en wo ke s om daily o ice jobs should end owa ds lowe nega i e impac s on hei
wo k and hei men al heal h. Telecommu ing-expe ienced wo ke s should be able o
accus om o o ced COVID-19 home o ice due o he p oximi y o elecommu ing and
home o ice amewo ks. G aphically, his is shown in Figu e 1.
Figu e 1. Es ablished heo e ical amewo k (own p ocessing).
The esea ch in his pape ocuses on he de elopmen o sel -pe cep ions o manage s
and employees du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in he Czech Republic. As he Czech
Republic wen h ough wo lockdowns du ing he yea 2020, his esea ch pape has
he objec i e o obse e he de elopmen o hese sel -pe cep ions in lockdown and non-
lockdown imes. Acco ding o he esea ch amewo k, he o ced home-o ice amewo k
should lead o a wo sening o he psychic s a e in lockdown and non-lockdown imes.
In o de o examine his, he esea ch moni o ed sel -pe cep ions du ing he yea 2020 in
he machine builde indus y. Due o he na u e o he machine builde business, la ge
companies wi h mo e han 250 employees sui he amewo k, as does ha ing people in
he usual amewo k o elecommu ing, as well as in daily o ice jobs.
2.3. Me hodology
The main a ge o his esea ch s udy is o ga he da a on he impac o he COVID-19
pandemic on manage s and employees in he Czech Republic wi h espec o he esea ch
ques ions. The esea ch was conduc ed wi h he help o a ques ionnai e ha was gi en o
se e al indus ial co po a es. The companies ecei ed he same ques ionnai e each mon h,
asking o he pe cep ions on lockdowns and on home o ice amewo ks.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 8 o 20
The Czech Republic was one o he i s coun ies o apply measu es agains he
COVID-19 pandemic. The i s lockdown was in oduced om Ma ch o May 2020. Du -
ing he summe pe iod, he measu es we e eleased as o e all epo ed COVID-19 in ec ion
numbe s emained on a low le el. A e a ise in au umn, he Czech Republic had o
in oduce a u he lockdown om No embe onwa ds [
89
,
90
]. Thus, ha ing applied
wo lockdowns al eady in 2020, he esul s o his s udy migh p o ide aluable da a and
u he insigh on he sel -pe cep ion o employees and manage s in lockdowns.
This esea ch s udy is conduc ed in o de o ha e a look on he pe cep ions o man-
age s and employees om he Czech Republic on hei wo king si ua ion du ing he yea
2020. I was an icipa ed ha changes may appea o e ime be ween lockdown and non-
lockdown pe iods. Hence, he s udy was conduc ed as a longi udinal s udy. Designed
as a longi udinal end s udy, i made use o da a ga he ed o e ime among a simila
popula ion wi h he same ques ions. This was done in o de o moni o and assess he
changes o pe cep ions o he s udy popula ion o e ime wi h he goal o answe ing he
p o ided esea ch ques ions.
2.3.1. Sample
The su ey was conduc ed in he ield o machine and equipmen manu ac u e s in
he Czech Republic, co esponding o ca ego y 28 o he NACE e . 2 classi ica ion. This is
due o he eason ha he la ge machine building companies wi h mo e han 250 employees
a e likely o ha e pa o hei employee base on elecommu ing, while o he s a e wo king
on a daily o ice job. The O bis da abase con ains da a on mo e han 74 million ac i e
companies in he whole wo ld, o which mo e han 3.1 million ac i e companies may be
ound in he Czech Republic. Acco ding o he da abase, 70 companies we e ound wi h
a leas 250 employees (Table 1). The companies add essed we e la ge manu ac u ing
en e p ises egis e ed in he Czech Republic. All o hese companies we e classi ied as
co po a es [
91
]. The sample was chosen among machine and equipmen manu ac u e s,
as hese companies make hei machines and equipmen on o de . Thus, hese companies
ha e a long o de cycle ime and hence p o ide a e exposed less o sho - ime de lec ions.
Table 1. Basic in o ma ion on whole s udy sample [91].
# C i e ion Numbe o Companies in Da abase Numbe o Companies in Selec ion
1 S a us: Ac i e companies in O bis da abase 74,628,856 74,628,856
2 Wo ld egion/Coun y/Region: Czech Republic 3,140,781 2,635,878
3 Numbe o employees: min = 250 99,334 1066
4 NACE e . 2, 28 293,608 38
App oaching he 38 companies in he able, he longi udinal s udy ques ionnai e
was e u ned by 174 people om 8 companies. The o al numbe o employees in hese
companies is 21,875. Only whi e colla wo ke s ha e been asked o ill in he ques ionnai e.
Acco ding o he s a ing company Manpowe G oup he pe cen age o popula ion o
whi e colla wo ke s is conside ed o be 38.4% in he Czech Republic [
92
]. A minimum
sample size o 161 e u ned ques ionnai es was calcula ed as equi ed. People e u ning
he ques ionnai e wo ked in hei company as o ice cle ks, sales pe sonnel, and manage s
on daily basis. Due o he lockdown, hese people we e sen o home o ices and did no
e u n o hei o ice on a egula basis un il he end o he yea 2020. The su ey was
conduc ed once pe mon h in o de o moni o he ongoing change o pe cep ions.
2.3.2. Va iables De ini ion
Due o he na u e o he dependen a iables, hese a iables unde lie he issue o
being biased. As he su ey asks o a sel -pe cep ion on di e en a iables based on a
i e-s ep Like scale, he answe s unde lie a sel -bias o he esponden s.
Su eys conce ning he ou comes o he COVID-19 pandemic, as a as DAS is con-
ce ned, made use o he Dep ession Anxie y S ess Scale (DASS) 21 [
93
,
94
]. This s anda d
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 9 o 20
scale also wo ks as a sel - epo ing ool [
95
] based on a mul i-ques ion sco e model. Sco es
a e based on a ou -s ep Like scale o 21 cha ac e is ics conside ed du ing he DAS a ing.
Beside he DAS sco e, Elbay e al. (2020) also moni o he wo king condi ions in hei
su ey, such as he wo king hou s (weekly wo king hou s as gi en in numbe alue)
and a a ing o (a) he suppo o colleagues and (b) he suppo o he managemen .
Fo he sel -e alua ion o hese condi ions by he espondees he su ey uses six-s ep
Like scales. These cha ac e is ics we e used as independen a iables o he de eloped
eg ession model o employees in heal h ca e. Fo highe - anked pe sonnel, he e a e
simila ques ions conce ning simila condi ions on a six-s ep Like scale.
As independen inpu a iables, he conce ned su ey used he gende (male/ emale)
and he ques ion whe he child en we e in he household o no . In addi ion o he
di e en ia ion done du ing he analysis be ween managing and wo king pe sonnel, hese
a iables a e also aken o e in o he esea ch ques ionnai e used in his pape .
Thus, no being p ima ily in e es ed in he esea ch o DAS, bu aking home o -
ice as he igge o ac ion, his su ey is based on he alida ed ques ionnai e om
Elbay e al. (2020), omi ing he DAS sco e ques ionnai e by in oducing sel -pe cep ion
o he pe cep ion o missing social con ac and o he pe cep ion o nega i e impac s on
he psyche.
In his esea ch, each o he ques ions was s a is ically e alua ed as a single cha ac e is ic:
1. Independen a iables
(a) x1: P o ession (manage , employee),
(b) x2: Gende ( emale, male),
(c) x3: Numbe o child en in household,
(d) x4: P e iously wo king in elecommu ing amewo k.
2. Dependen a iables
(i)
whe he he esponden was cu en ly in home o ice,
(ii)
whe he he esponden had al eady been sen on home o ice,
(iii)
how he esponden pe cei ed he company’s echnical suppo ,
(i )
how he esponden pe cei ed he company’s p epa edness o home o ice.
While ques ion conce ning (i) and (ii) we e answe ed on a Like scale wi h
alues 1 o 5, ques ion a ge ing (iii) and (i ) we e o boolean ype wi h he
possible answe s YES o NO.
( )
how many days did he esponden desi ed o wo k in home o ice a he poin
o asking,
( i)
how many hou s he esponden spen on he elephone du ing wo k,
( ii)
how many hou s he esponden spen on he compu e du ing wo k,
( iii)
wha was he main communica ion means (mobile, compu e ) wi h he company.
Ques ions ( ) o ( ii) we e answe ed on a Like scale wi h alues om 0 o
10 esembling he ac ual hou s. The alue 10 esembled 10 o mo e hou s
pe day. Ques ion ( iii) was o boolean ype.
(ix)
how he esponden pe cei ed he ac ual home o ice amewo k,
(x)
how he esponden pe cei ed he e m home o ice in gene al,
(xi)
how he esponden pe cei ed he ela ion wi h he o he colleagues,
(xii)
how he esponden pe cei ed he ela ion wi h i s supe io ,
(xiii)
how he esponden pe cei ed he impac o o ced home o ice on he own
men al s a e,
(xi )
whe he he esponden pe cei ed he deg ee o social in e ac ion as su icien .
Ques ions conce ning (ix) o (xi ) we e answe ed on a Like scale wi h
alues 1 o 5.
Ques ions ha we e answe ed on he base o a Like scale all had he same coding.
In o de o e alua e he cha ac e is ics in a u he s a is ical analyses, he answe s om
he Like scale we e ans e ed in o numbe alues, whe e 1 was s ongly disag ee, 2 was
disag ee, 3 was neu al, 4 was ag ee, and 5 mean s ongly ag ee.
Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 16 o 20
Figu e A2. Pe cep ion o missing social in e ac ion (own p ocessing).
Figu e A3. Desi e o wo k in home o ice (H-O) (own p ocessing).
Figu e A4. Pe cep ion o company’s echnical suppo le el (own p ocessing).
Figu e A5. Pe cep ion o company’s p epa edness o home o ice (H-O) (own p ocessing).

Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10055 17 o 20
Figu e A6. Pe cep ion o home o ice eadiness (own p ocessing).
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