i
Kla a Helene Mülle
HOW WHO WE FOLLOW INFLUENCES OUR INSTAGRAM
ADDICTION AND SELF-PRESENTATION ON THE APP
ii
NOVA In o ma ion Managemen School
Ins i u o Supe io de Es a ís ica e Ges ão de In o mação
Uni e sidade No a de Lisboa
HOW WHO WE FOLLOW INFLUENCES OUR INSTAGRAM ADDICTION
AND SELF-PRESENTATION ON THE APP
by
Kla a Helene Mülle
Disse a ion D a p esen ed as pa ial equi emen o ob aining he Mas e ’s deg ee in
In o ma ion Managemen , wi h a specializa ion in Ma ke ing In elligence.
Ad iso : P o . Diego Cos a Pin o
Co Ad iso : Yasmina El Fassi
May 2021
iii
ABSTRACT
As he numbe o Ins ag am use s and he ime spen on he applica ion con inues o
ise, so does he occu ence o Ins ag am addic ion. While p io esea ch has iden i ied he
co e mo i es and pe sonali y ai s connec ed o his addic ion, he e ec s o a use s’
ollowing, ha e no been s udied hus a . Howe e , mos o he ime spen on he applica ion,
use s b owse h ough he pos s o hei ollowed accoun s. The e o e, he cu en s udy
analyzed he e ec s ha he numbe and ypes o accoun s, and he opics o hei con en ,
ha e on a use s’ le el o Ins ag am addic ion as well as hei sel -p esen a ion on he
applica ion. The indings o he ques ionnai e (N = 212) e ealed ha he numbe o public
accoun s ollowed posi i ely co ela es wi h he le el o Ins ag am addic ion. Fu he mo e,
use s ha p ima ily ollow iends and acquain ances end o p esen hei eal sel , while
ollowe s o in luence s and celeb i ies p esen a mo e ideal and ake e sion o hemsel es
on Ins ag am. The eby, he use s’ li e-sa is ac ion and sel -es eem ha e a mode a ing ole on
he e ec s on sel -p esen a ion. These indings p o ide use ul insigh s o use s and could ac
as a basis o public policy di ec ed owa ds a heal hie use o social ne wo king si es.
KEYWORDS
Ins ag am; Following; Addic ion; Sel -p esen a ion; Sel -es eem
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 1
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 FOLLOWING ............................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 INSTAGRAM ADDICTION ............................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 SELF-PRESENTATION .................................................................................................................................... 6
3 OVERVIEW OF STUDIES ........................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 STUDY 1: IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS ................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 S udy Design & Me hod ..................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Sample Speci ica ion ........................................................................................................................ 10
3.1.3 P ocedu es & Resul s ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 16
3.2 STUDY 2: QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................................................................................... 17
3.2.1 S udy Design & Me hod ................................................................................................................... 17
3.2.2 Sample Speci ica ions ...................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.3 Measu emen Model ....................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.4 S uc u al Model .............................................................................................................................. 22
3.2.5 Hypo heses Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 24
4 GENERAL DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................... 28
4.1 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................... 28
4.2 THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................... 30
4.4 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 31
5 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 33
6 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................. 39
APPENDIX A: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................... 39
APPENDIX B: FULL SCRIPT OF IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW QUESTIONS – STUDY 1 ................................................................... 43
6.1 IC: SCALES AND MEASURES - STUDY 2 .......................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIX D: SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS .................................................................................................................... 47
D. 1 - S udy 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 47
D.2 - S udy 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 47
APPENDIX E: RESULTS SPSS ANALYSIS – STUDY 2 ..................................................................................................... 48
E.1 – Reg ession Analysis Types o Accoun s ollowed on Ins ag am Addic ion ........................................... 48
E.2 - Reg ession Analysis – Con en o Accoun s ollowed on Ins ag am Addic ion ..................................... 49
APPENDIX F: SMART PLS – PATH COEFFICIENT RESULTS – STUDY 2 .............................................................................. 51
F.1 - Di ec E ec s - Mean, STDEV, T-Values, P-Values ................................................................................. 51
F.2 - Indi ec E ec s - Mean, STDEV, T-Values, P-Values .............................................................................. 51
F.3 - S uc u al Equa ion Model including Indi ec Signi ican E ec s .......................................................... 52
APPENDIX G: COMPLETE QUALTRICS QUESTIONNAIRE - STUDY 2 ................................................................................. 53
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1 INTRODUCTION
Ten yea s a e he social media applica ion “Ins ag am” was launched, he pic u e-
based pla o m now eco ded o e one billion mon hly ac i e accoun s (Ins ag am Business,
2020). Consequen ly, making i he hi d mos popula social media pla o m, while he
numbe o use s con inue o g ow apidly. Especially young people a e using Ins ag am o
sha e pic u es and ideos wi h hei ollowe s, as well as ollow o he s’ pos s and engage
h ough commen s and likes.
Ins ag am’s dis inc i eness is he applica ions’ unique p edominan ly isual in e ace,
making i a Social Ne wo king Si e (SNS) wi h a high p ospec o in ensi e use (Mackson,
B ochu, & Schneide , 2019). The co e use g oup, aged be ween 18 and 30, use he applica ion
se e al imes h oughou he day, on a e age a o al o 53 minu es (Ennis-O'Conno , 2019).
As Ins ag am gained popula i y among use s, academic li e a u e on i expanded.
Many esea ch pape s ha e analyzed he use ’s mo i a ions behind using he pla o m, and
how exac ly hey engage wi h each o he h ough he applica ion (Huang & Su, 2018; Sheldon
& B yan , 2016). Fu he mo e, he causes and e ec s o ex ensi e Ins ag am use, also e e ed
o as Ins ag am addic ion, ha e been analyzed (Ki cabu un & G i i hs, 2018; Mackson, B ochu
& Schneide , 2019).
Besides, use s’ beha io on a a ie y o o he social media pla o ms has been
ex ensi ely s udied and analyzed. A unique aspec ha social media o e s, is ha use s’ ha e
ull con ol abou wha and how much hey sha e wi h hei connec ions, allowing hem o
p esen hemsel es in wha e e way hey wan . Na u ally, his encou ages use s o p esen
he mos posi i e aspec s o hei li e (Rosenbe g & Egbe , 2011). Howe e , he disc epancy
be ween use s’ o line- and online- sel may s ill a y signi ican ly. The e o e, Michikyan and
colleagues (2014) dis inguish be ween use s p esen ing hei eal-, ideal- and alse-sel , which
hey ha e disco e ed o be dependen on pe sonali y ai s such as neu o icism and
ex a e sion.
Howe e , mos use s only pos a ew imes a week, which means ha he es o hei
ime on Ins ag am, is spen b owsing h ough he pos s and p o iles o he ollowed accoun s.
No ably, no p io esea ch has in es iga ed he e ec s o he accoun s’ use s ollow and whose

2
con en hey consume on a daily, may ha e on hei Ins ag am usage. This s udy aims o ill
his gap h ough ho ough desc ip i e and explana o y esea ch.
The cu en esea ch p oposes ha all his ime spen b owsing has an e ec on he
use s’ le el o Ins ag am addic ion, as well as one how hey p esen hemsel es h ough hei
own pos s. Meanwhile, wha use s see while sc olling h ough hei news eed a e p ima ily
he pos s o he accoun s ha hey ollow, sugges ing ha hei expe ience on he app is
signi ican ly in luenced by ha me ic. The e o e, his esea ch analyzes he e ec s o he ype
o accoun s and opic o con en , use s a e ollowing, on hei le el o Ins ag am addic ion and
sel -p esen a ion on he applica ion. Speci ically, six hypo heses a e p oposed and e alua ed
h ough a mixed-me hod app oach. This in ol ed, quali a i e in-dep h in e iews and a
quan i a i e su ey analysis.
This esea ch aims o con ibu e o he exis ing li e a u e and o e u he
unde s anding o an applica ion ha plays a signi ican ole in he li es o he majo i y o
eme ging adul s. The esul s could o e deepe insigh s in o he long- ime e ec s ha come
om consuming di e en ypes and con en o ollowed accoun s. The eby, o e ing
p oposi ions o who and wha use s should ollow in o de o engage in a heal hie
consump ion, away om Ins ag am addic ion and alse sel -p esen a ion. Addi ionally, hese
insigh s could con ibu e o u u e imp o emen o he algo i hms and go e nmen al
egula ions on Ins ag am and o he simila social media pla o ms. This is discussed in g ea e
de ail in he ollowing sec ions.
The cu en pape begins wi h an ex ensi e e iew o he heo e ical backg ound and
con ex ual de elopmen o he dependen a iables: Ins ag am addic ion and sel -
p esen a ion, and he independen a iable o ollowing. A e wa ds, he heo y and models
applied in he cu en s udy a e in oduced, ollowed by he me hodology. Consequen ly, he
indings om he s udies a e p esen ed and ho oughly discussed. Las ly, p oposi ions o
u u e esea ch a e o e ed.
3
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 FOLLOWING
While p io esea ch has p o ided e idence o bo h posi i e and nega i e
consequences associa ed o SNS usage, passi e use in pa icula was ound o ha e nega i e
consequences on use s’ well-being (Chou & Edge, 2012; De V ies & Kühne, 2018; Lup, T ub &
Rosen hal, 2015; Tandoc, Fe ucci, & Du y, 2015). Such passi e use on Ins ag am is
cha ac e ized as sc olling h ough he pos s o ollowed and sugges ed accoun s and he eby
consuming hei con en . Since mos use s only pos a ew imes a mon h bu spend an
a e age o 53 minu es a day on he app (Ennis-O'Conno , 2019), he majo i y o hei ime on
Ins ag am is illed by his passi e consump ion.
When esea ching he ou comes ha b owsing on Facebook migh ha e on use s, Lin
and U z (2015) ound ha hey we e “signi ican ly in luenced by: he pe sonal ai s o he
use , he con en o he consumed pos s and he ela ionship be ween he pos e and eade ”.
Speci ically, Wilcox and S ephen (2013) ound ha i use s a e ocused on s ong ies while
b owsing Facebook, i enhances hei sel -es eem. When adap ing hese insigh s om
Facebook o Ins ag am, one mus conside ha he la e is less ocused on connec ing wi h
o line iends, and he e o e he pe cen age o ollowed accoun s ha use s’ do no ha e any
ies o is g ea e .
When explo ing he mos ollowed accoun s on Ins ag am, he p o iles o adi ional
celeb i ies a e pe manen ly a he op. Dja a o a and Rushwo h (2017) s a e ha indi iduals
a e likely o mimic he success o hei a o i e celeb i ies in hopes o ecei ing a simila deg ee
o posi i e eedback o ha hey obse e hem ob ain. Sugges ing, ha ollowing such
accoun s in luences a use s’ sel -p esen a ion on Ins ag am. Mo eo e , he ela i ely ecen
ise o In luence s blu s he line be ween celeb i y and no mal use s h ough s a egic
au hen ici y (Co e , 2019; Du y, 2017). In luence s a e he adminis a o s o accoun s ha
ha e g own a la ge numbe o ollowe s on Ins ag am o o he social media and equen ly
use his social capi al o gain access o inancial esou ces (Abidin, 2015). By con inually
p esen ing many pa s o hei li e in a c edible way, hey enable hei ollowe s o eel
connec ed o hem and s ay in e es ed in hei con en . Howe e , use s should s ay awa e o
4
he ac ha in luence s’ pos s a e pa o hei job and he e o e o en ca e ully hough
h ough. While ollowe s migh ela e o hem and hei con en , o en hei pos s p esen an
“ideal” unachie able by he o dina y pe son ha ollows hem (Aw & Chuah, 2021).
I mus also be no ed, ha while ollowing pos s o s ange s, in luence s and
celeb i ies, use s a e suscep ible o en y explicable h ough he a ibu ion heo y, which
desc ibes he endency o a ibu e o he s’ beha io o disposi ional a he han si ua ional
ac o s (Jones, 1979). Based on his heo y, Lup and colleagues (2015) sugges ha ollowing
and b owsing h ough he p o iles o celeb i ies and s ange s migh especially igge
assump ions and he eby nega i ely impac he well-being o he use . This no ion is also in
line wi h a s udy by Chou and Edge (2012) which disco e ed ha people wi h mo e s ange s
as Facebook “ iends”, a e mo e likely o belie e o he s’ ha e a be e li e and consequen ly
su e in ac ions on hei well-being. Hence, i can be assumed ha he ypes o accoun s
use s’ ollow play a g ea ole in hei Ins ag am expe ience. A comple e summa y o he
heo e ical backg ound ele an o his s udy is p esen ed in Appendix A.
2.2 INSTAGRAM ADDICTION
As consume s a e inc easingly spending subs an ial pa s o hei day on he in e ne ,
and especially on hei phones, he exp ession “In e ne addic ion” is easily h own a ound o
desc ibe his phenomenon. Al eady in 1996, Young s udied he end owa ds inc eased usage
and ound ha no he In e ne i sel is addic i e, bu ins ead, speci ic applica ions, play a
signi ican ole in he de elopmen o In e ne abuse. Nowadays, social media applica ions,
such as Ins ag am, a e he mos popula among use s and hus p esumably he mos p one o
cause such an addic ion. Th ough hei cons an a ailabili y, pe sis en cues, and a iable
ewa d mechanisms, social ne wo king si es (SNS) challenge and ede ine humans’ sel -
con ol abili ies, esul ing in a eeling o compulsion o go on he applica ion (B e e s & Tu el,
2019; Tu el & Qah i-Sa emi, 2016). He eby, i is impo an o no e ha he le el o Ins ag am
addic ion is no simply based on he ime spen on he applica ion, bu equi es mo e complex
es ing (Kim & Han, 2014). Pu posely, social media addic ion has been de ined as “being o e ly
conce ned abou social media, d i en by an uncon ollable mo i a ion o log on o o use social
5
media, and de o ing so much ime and e o o social media ha i impai s o he impo an
li e a eas” (And eassen & Pallesen, 2014, p. 4054; And eassen, Pallesen & G i i hs, 2017).
Due o he ac ha social media addic ion is a ela i ely new phenomenon, he
academic li e a u e on i is limi ed. The scan body o esea ch in ecen yea s has ocused on
unde s anding he sou ces o mo i a ion behind Ins ag am usage. The easons behind usage
a e ela ed o he ul illmen o a ious social needs and enabling o sel -adjus men (Huang
& Su, 2018). Mo e speci ically, Sheldon and B yan (2016) desc ibed ou key mo i es o he
use o Ins ag am: documen a ion, coolness/popula i y, c ea i i y and su eillance o ge ing
knowledge abou o he s. The la e being he p ocess o ollowing o he s’ accoun s and
he eby keeping up wi h hei li es, which he cu en esea ch ocuses on.
In e es ingly, i has been ound ha ce ain pe sonali y ai s a ec he excessi e use
o social media (e.g., And eassen e al., 2012, 2017; Hong, Huang, Lin, & Chiu, 2014; Ki cabu un
& G i i hs, 2017; Wilson, Fo nasie , & Whi e, 2010). Speci ically, a ious s udies obse ed ha
na cissism is co ela ed o highe le els o social media addic ion (And eassen e al., 2017;
Ki cabu un e . al., 2017; Ryan & Xenos, 2011). This can easily be explained due o he ac ha
social media pla o ms o e he pe ec oppo uni y o sha e ego-cen ic con en and ecei e
posi i e, eassu ing eac ions om o he use s h ough likes and commen s. Fu he mo e,
o he a iables such as lowe age, emale gende and low li e-sa is ac ion ha e been ound o
inc ease he likelihood o Ins ag am addic ion (And eassen e . al., 2017; Van Deu sen, Bolle,
Hegne , & Komme s, 2015). Based on hese o me indings he a o emen ioned a iables
we e conside ed as mode a o s in he cu en esea ch.
Th ough he ques ionnai e o S udy 2 his esea ch aims o examine he e ec s o he
numbe , as well as he di e en ypes and opics o he accoun s ollowed, on he use s’ le el
o Ins ag am addic ion. The eby, he ollowing h ee hypo heses will be es ed:
H1: A la ge numbe o accoun s ollowed has a posi i e e ec on he le el o Ins ag am
addic ion
H2: Following mo e public accoun s a ec s he le el o Ins ag am addic ion posi i ely
12
When i comes o he ac ual ime spen on Ins ag am, which was checked a he end
o he in e iew, on a e age he younge in e iewees on a e age spen a lo mo e ime on
he applica ion, in compa ison o he olde esponden s. The o e all a e age ime spen on
Ins ag am in he pas week was Mh/week= 8.3 hou s. Wi h 19.2 hou s, I ina C. ( , 19) spending
he mos ime on Ins ag am, which may be an indica ion o an Ins ag am addic ion. Howe e ,
when asked abou how she eels abou spending his amoun o ime on jus one applica ion
on he phone, she esponded:
“I am okay wi h ha , I ac ually hough i was e en mo e. Especially, a he momen ,
wi h he whole lockdown si ua ion, I eel like i is one o my bigges ime kille s and a
big way o keep in ouch wi h my iends’ li es.”
In e es ingly, e en hough hei hou s spen on he applica ions we e signi ican ly
lowe , mos esponden s abo e 23 yea s, men ioned ha hey would like o dec ease hei
ime spen on he applica ion. Some a e e en implemen ing ba ie s o access in o de o
lowe hei ime spen on he applica ion, as o example Helena ( , 24) who s a ed:
” I wan o a oid clicking on i [Ins ag am] unconsciously, so I pu i in o a olde on my
main sc een, hen i doesn’ di ec ly show and I ha e o ac i ely sea ch o i . I also ge
a no i ica ion when I spen mo e han 30min on he app, hen I y o s op o ha day.
Bu ha doesn’ always wo k, i eally is a big habi o mine”.
Las ly, when asked abou how hey would eel i hey we e unable o log in o Ins ag am
o he nex mon h (Q21), esponses a ied g ea ly om I ina C. ( , 20) who said she would
eel
“Oh wow, I hink I would die. Wi hou Ins ag am? No. I don' hink I ha e an addic ion,
so I guess I would su i e, bu ob iously I would miss i . Maybe i would be okay, i I am
busy and wi h people. Bu I would de ini ely no do i olun a ily.”
and Ma ga ida P. ( ,21) who s a ed:
“Some hing would be missing om my li e. Maybe I would end up spending mo e ime
on ano he applica ion, bu I would de ini ely miss Ins ag am a lo . Also, I would eel

13
like I am missing ou , like I wouldn´ know wha my iends, in luence s and e e yone
else I ollow a e up o, I don’ wan o eel ha o be hones .”,
o Tomas S. (m,24) who said:
“I would be ine. I ha e been in he si ua ion be o e, o example while a elling, and I
did no miss i much. Now wi h he lockdown, maybe i would be a bi ha de since
he e a e no ha many o he hings o do, bu s ill, I would ge on wi h my li e easily.”
These answe s may also be seen as an indica o o he le el o compulsion hey eel
owa ds Ins ag am usage and hus hei le el o addic ion. In gene al, h oughou he wen y
in-dep h in e iews especially younge and emale esponden s e ealed some signs o
Ins ag am addic ion, such as he desc ibed eelings o loss associa ed o p ohibi ed usage and
e y long ac ual ime spen on he applica ion.
Sel -P esen a ion:
A ew ques ions o he sc ip we e aimed a gaining insigh s on he in e iewees’ ype
o Sel -P esen a ion exhibi ed on Ins ag am (Q7, Q8, Q9, Q10, Q11 and Q20). Such as Q10:
“How do you hink ha a pe son ha only sees you Ins ag am pos s wi hou knowing you
would desc ibe you?” and Q11: “Do you hink ha his desc ip ion would ma ch you o line
sel as well?”. As o he ypes o con en pos ed, almos all esponden s indica ed ha hey
mainly pos pic u es o hemsel es. These answe s a e in line wi h he cu en pape s’
assump ion ha young Ins ag am use s p ima ily use he applica ion o sel -p esen a ion.
Besides, he mos common sel ies and pic u es o one-sel , abou hal o he esponden s also
indica ed ha hey like o pos pic u es wi h hei iends o amily. When asked abou hei
eason o pos on Ins ag am (Q8), many esponden s s a ed ha hey like sha ing good
aspec s o hei li e wi h hei iends and ollowe s, o ha e hem o look back on, bu abou
a qua e also men ioned ha hey enjoy ecei ing likes. When asked abou he p ocess ha
goes behind a pos , he esponden s answe s a ied g ea ly. While some ha e a sho p ocess,
such as Ra ael J. (m, 26):
14
“I end o pos on Ins ag am whene e I ake a pic u e ha I hink looks nice, o o a
memo y ha I would like o look back on. The e is no much o a p ocess, I ake a
pic u e, like i , some imes choose a il e on Ins ag am, w i e a sho cap ion abou he
day o memo y and click pos .”
Many o he s, especially younge emales, ha e a much longe p ocess behind hei
Ins ag am pos s, an example o his kind o p ocess is Sissi M. ( , 23), who s a ed:
“Uhm, so whene e I ealize ha I ha en’ pos ed in a while, maybe a ound a mon h, I
decide ha I wan o pos some hing new. Then I check my mos ecen pos s and hink
abou how I could show mysel in a di e en way. Tha could o example be a di e en
ou i , place o wea he . So hen i i is a nice day o pic u es, I d ess mysel up in a nice
ou i ha I would like o show my ollowe s and ask my boy iend o ake as many
pic u es o me as possible, in di e en angles and di e en places. Then I go h ough
hem and choose my a o i es, which I hen e ouch. Usually, I use Face une o sub le
pimple hiding, making my smile whi e , and small backg ound modi ica ion, bu
no hing ex eme. I don’ change any impo an aspec s o he pic u e. Then I op imize
he colo scheme h ough a il e on he app Faded o he b igh ness, con as e c.
h ough he iPhone pic u e op ions. Some imes I ask a iend o my boy iend o help
me choose he bes pic u e ou o my a o i es and hen I hink o a cap ion. I don’ like
w i ing any hing o pe sonal, so I ei he jus pu an emoji o google a basic quo e ha
ma ches he pic u e, and hen I pos i .”
Such long p ocesses going behind he pos s indica e ha he way hey p esen
hemsel es o hei ollowe s on Ins ag am is e y impo an o hem. No one o he wen y
esponden s said ha hey pos any pic u e, e e yone made a poin o men ion ha hey mus
like i , mus look good in i in o de o sha e i on Ins ag am. These answe s a e also is in line
wi h he cu en s pape s’ p esump ion ha e e yone p esen s hemsel es in hei bes way
on Ins ag am.
Some o he mos in e es ing answe s in he in e iews we e gi en o Q10 and Q11,
which we e aimed a unde s anding he di e ence be ween hei sel -p esen a ion on
Ins ag am and hei eal-li e pe sona. Based on he answe s, he esea che could assess
15
whe he he esponden s engage in a eal-, ideal- o alse- p esen a ion o hemsel es. An
example o a eal sel -p esen a ion is Fabio F. (m, 29) who s a ed:
“I would say people hink I a el a lo and ha e a nice sense o humo .”
“Yes, I guess ha ma ches me. I hink I am a nice and unny pe son, so I make su e ha
my pos s ma ch ha , and I also a el whene e I ge an oppo uni y o do so, so ha ’s
ue as well.”
Simila answe s we e mainly gi en by male, and olde esponden s. Whe eas mos
in e iewees answe s indica ed ha hey engage in ideal- sel -p esen a ion, such as S ilena
M. ( , 25) who answe ed:
“I hink abou his a lo because I ha e a lo o pic u es o mysel , e en showing a lo o
skin, so p obably people hink I am con iden and like seeing mysel and showing o
ou i s. Bu I smile in mos o my pic u es so hope ully people hink ha I am nice.
Maybe people also hink I ha e a lo o money because I a el qui e a lo , en a ca ,
and go o lo s o es au an s e c.”
“Mhh, well, I don’ ha e mysel and he way I look, bu I wouldn’ say ha I am as
con iden as I migh seem h ough my pos s. Bu yes, I like my ou i s and sha ing hem.
And I wouldn’ call mysel ich, bu since I can a o d hese kinds o nice a els and
some nice clo hes, I guess I can be pe cei ed as i , bu like I jus don’ pos my e e yday
li e as much as he nice s u and days.”
This answe shows ha she does no sha e any hing ha is no in line wi h he eal li e,
howe e , she chooses o pos pic u es o he sel and aspec s o he li e ha po ay he sel in
a good ligh , close o he ideal e sion o he sel . The e is a hin line be ween his ype o
ideal sel -p esen a ion, and na cissis ic sel -p esen a ion, which canno clea ly be classi ied
h ough hese ypes o in e iews. Las ly, h ee ou o he wen y esponden s’ answe s
indica ed some ype o alse sel -p esen a ion, as o example I ina C. ( , 20) who s a ed:
“I guess ollowe s ha don’ know me pe sonally hink ha I am an a ogan , mean
gi l, and con iden .”
16
“No, I am no like ha , I am he opposi e ac ually.”
This, and he o he simila answe s, we e in e es ing because hey desc ibed he alse
sel hey po ayed wi h a nega i e conno a ion h ough wo ds such as “spoiled”, “a ogan ”
and “mean”. Tha was somewha unexpec ed, since i was no in line wi h he p esump ion o
he p esen a ion o he bes sel . Howe e , when I ina C. ( , 20) was asked why she chooses
o p esen he sel in ha way she said:
“Well, i is he bes o me, wha I would like o ansmi is con idence, beau y and
pe ec ion. I only show he e y bes aspec s o mysel , and ha is ob iously e y
a i icial, i conceals my laws and is a away om he eal me, I choose o only show
my less human side.”
Acco dingly, in he eyes, his “a ogan , mean gi l” pe sona, s ill ep esen s he bes
sides o he sel , which will ecei e posi i e a en ion om he ollowe s, e en hough she
desc ibes he sel as he opposi e. In e es ingly, all esponden s ha desc ibed a alse sel -
p esen a ion o hemsel es on Ins ag am we e emale and ela i ely young (unde 24).
3.1.4 Discussion
Th ough his i s explo a o y s udy p ima y insigh s on he Ins ag am usage and use s’
beha io pa e ns on he applica ion we e ga he ed. Based on he ques ions ega ding he
ypes o accoun s ollowed, i was es ablished ha a leas hal o he ollowing o mos
Ins ag am use s consis o p i a e accoun s o iends, amily and acquain ances. In ega d o
he con en ollowed, he in-dep h in e iews con i med he esea che ’s assump ion ha
“Beau y & Fashion” con en is he mos popula among emales speci ically. While ollowing
“Fi ness” and “T a el” con en we e named by almos all esponden s and did no seem o
co ela e wi h gende .
In e es ingly, he esponses o emale esponden s also indica ed ha hey pu a lo
mo e e o in o hei Ins ag am pos s and p esen hemsel es in an ideal, and some imes
e en alse way. While all esponden s men ioned ha hey p esen he good aspec s o hem
and hei li es, especially emales indica ed ha hey el a need o “ i in” wi h he high
s anda ds p esen ed by o he s and hus a e e y conside ed wi h wha hey sha e. These
17
answe s a e in line wi h he p esump ions o he cu en s udy ha wha you ollow shapes
you pe cep ion he s anda d on he app and he e o e a ec s you own sel -p esen a ion.
These in-dep h in e iews also p o ed ha o many Ins ag am use s he applica ion is
a subs an ial pa o hei li es, o which hey also end o de o e an ex ensi e amoun o hei
ee ime. The eby, emales and use s below he age o 23 we e ound o spend signi ican ly
mo e ime on he applica ion. While he amoun o ime spen and le el o compulsion el o
go on he applica ion a e no a clea indica ion o Ins ag am addic ion, hese answe s can be
used as a i s es ima ion o his a iable.
The answe s collec ed and indings made h ough his i s s udy a e all in line wi h he
six hypo heses made in he cu en esea ch. Mo eo e , a end be ween emales ollowing
“Beau y & Fashion” con en and a he same ime demons a ing aspec s o Ins ag am
addic ion and ideal, na cissis ic and e en alse sel -p esen a ion was pe cei ed. Howe e , due
o p ima ily quali a i e na u e o he in-dep h in e iews, no signi ican ela ionships be ween
he ypes o ollowing, he le el o Ins ag am addic ion and sel -p esen a ion on he app could
be made a his poin . The e o e, he insigh s o his explo a o y s udy a e p ima ily used o
a deepe comp ehension o he disco e ed ela ionships be ween he a iables.
3.2 STUDY 2: QUESTIONNAIRE
3.2.1 S udy Design & Me hod
The second s udy was aimed o gain a clea e unde s anding o how he a iables in
ques ions a ec and in e ac wi h one ano he . The e o e, an online ques ionnai e was
conduc ed, in o de o a ain answe s o a la ge and di e se sample o Ins ag am use s. This
ques ionnai e was dis ibu ed h ough he esea che s Ins ag am accoun , whe eby he
esea che also ook ad an age o he snowball e ec , o he pos being sha ed by con ac s.
All esponses we e anonymized in o de o p omo e hones answe s, addi ionally, i was
speci ied ha he e a e no igh o w ong answe s (Casaló e al., 2011).
A he beginning he ques ionnai e assessed he ype o Ins ag am use ha he
esponden s a e. The e o e, hey we e asked o indica e 1. How many accoun s hey ollow

18
on Ins ag am, 2. Wha ype o accoun s hese a e – by gi ing a pe cen age es ima e o each o
he i e di e en ypes o accoun s, anging om “F iends & Family”, o e “Acquain ances”,
o “In luence s”. 3. Wha ype o con en hey engage wi h – by asking esponden s o choose
up o h ee ou o he wel e di e en ypes o opics (e.g.: “Beau y & Fashion”, “Comedy”,
and “Spo s”).
In he second sec ion, he esponden s’ sel -p esen a ion on Ins ag am was assessed
h ough a o Ins ag am adop ed e sion o he 17-i em Sel -P esen a ion on Facebook
Ques ionnai e (SPFBQ: Michikyan e . al., 2014). Addi ionally, a 5-i em assessmen o hei
Na cissis ic Sel -P esen a ion om Yu and Kim (2020) was added o u he insigh s on he
mo i a ions unde lying he ype o sel -p esen a ion hey exhibi . Responden s we e
p esen ed he scales and asked o s a e hei le el o ag eemen o a numbe o ques ions, on
a 9-poin Like scale. Based on he answe s o his pa o he ques ionnai e, he deg ee o
which he esponden s’ exp ess ace s o he eal-, ideal- and alse- sel h ough hei
Ins ag am pos s can be e alua ed.
In he hi d sec ion o he ques ionnai e, he esponden s Ins ag am usage and le el o
Ins ag am addic ion was measu ed. The e o e, he Ins ag am Addic ion Scale (IAS) de eloped
by Ki cabu un and G i i hs (2018), which is a modi ied e sion o he In e ne Addic ion Tes
(Young, 1998) was applied), by simply exchanging he wo d In e ne wi h Ins ag am. This scale
encompasses he applica ions’ social e ec and compulsion on he esponden s’ li e and
based on he esul s’ he le el o Ins ag am addic ion o he pa icipan s is measu ed. This
scale modi ica ion esul ed in a good C onbach α coe icien o .90, besides he EFA and CFA
esul s sugges ed ha he scale is alid and eliable in assessing Ins ag am addic ion le el
(Ki cabu un & G i i hs, 2017). The esponden s’ le el o Ins ag am addic ion was e alua ed
by s a ing i een s a emen s, o which he esponden s ha e o indica e hei le el o
ag eemen on a 9-poin Like scale.
Las ly, he esponden s’ demog aphics (gende , age, na ionali y, and le el o
educa ion) we e conside ed. A summa y o he scales and measu es applied in his s udy can
be e iewed in Appendix C, and he comple e Qual ics ques ionnai e can be ound in
Appendix G.
19
Th ough a ho ough analysis o he esponden s’ le el o Ins ag am addic ion and sel -
p esen a ion we e compa ed o he ypes and con en o he ollowed accoun s in o de o
ind co ela ions and clus e s o use s. The eby, his s udy assesses in wha way hei
Ins ag am ollowing, a ec s he use s’ consump ion and usage o he applica ion.
3.2.2 Sample Speci ica ions
The sample size o his second s udy was N=225, ou o which hi een did no pass he
a en ion check ha was in eg a ed in he Ins ag am Addic ion scale. The e o e, a sample size
o (N = 212) o he online ques ionnai e is conside ed alid. Since his esea ch is ocused on
Ins ag am’s co e use g oup, aged be ween 18 and 30, all esponden s ul illed his age
equi emen wi h a (Mage = 23.28). O he esponden s’ 76.8% we e emale, 22.7% male and
0.5% (one esponden ) p e e ed no o s a e hei gende . The su ey was dis ibu ed h ough
Ins ag am and hus accessible wo ld-wide. The e o e, he sample was ex emely di e se, as
he esponden s had hi y- h ee di e en na ionali ies, ou o which he mos common we e
Ge man (31.1%), Po uguese (19%) and Luxembou gish (10.4%). Also, he educa ion le el o
he esponden s a ied g ea ly, wi h 43.6%, 34.1% and 20.4% espec i ely ha ing comple ed
hei Bachelo s, High-School and Mas e s’ deg ee. Las ly, i should be no ed ha 85.8% o he
sample indica ed o ollow Celeb i ies on Ins ag am, and 81.0% ollow In luence s. Appendix
D.2 o e s a ull o e iew o he sample speci ica ions o his second s udy.
Thei answe s we e analyzed s a is ically h ough SPSS, and he in o ma ion ex ac ed
om his analysis was u ilized o he discussion and e alua ion o he hypo heses.
3.2.3 Measu emen Model
To explo e he ela ionships and a ec s be ween he a iables in ques ion, a pa ial
leas squa es s uc u al equa ion modeling (PLS-SEM) was conduc ed h ough Sma PLS 3
(Ringle, Wende, & Becke , 2015). The pa ial leas squa es (PLS) me hod was chosen due o i s
sui abili y o s udies wi h a small sample size wi h no es ic i e assump ions on he
20
no mali y. In his sec ion, i s he ini ial eg ession analysis is explained, hen he alidi y o
his measu emen model is assessed and a e wa ds he p oposed hypo heses a e es ed.
P io o he s uc u al equa ion modelling, a eg ession analysis o he ype o accoun s
and con en ollowed was conduc ed on SPSS. The eby he signi icance o he e ec s o
ollowing he di e en ypes o con en s and accoun s on he use s’ le el o Ins ag am
addic ion we e es ed sepa a ely. In e es ingly, ou o he ou ypes o accoun s s udied, only
ollowing In luence s was ound o ha e a signi ican e ec o =3.468 (
𝛽
=.039, p=.001).
Simila ly, ou o he wel e di e en ypes o con en conside ed he only signi ican e ec on
Ins ag am addic ion disco e ed was ela ed o ollowing Beau y & Fashion whe e =3.173 (
𝛽
=.263, p=.002). The e o e, mo ing o wa d in he esea ch he hypo hesized a iable “Types
o Accoun s Followed” was eplaced wi h “In luence s” and “Con en o Accoun s Followed”
was eplaced wi h “Beau y & Fashion”. A comple e o e iew o he eg ession analysis
conduc ed is p o ided in Appendix E - Resul s SPSS Analysis – S udy 2 (E.1 and E.2).
As sugges ed by Hai , Hul , Ringle, and Sa s ed (2016), he in e nal consis ency,
con e gen alidi y and disc iminan alidi y we e compu ed o assess he alidi y o he
measu emen model. The eby in e nal consis ency was assessed h ough he C onbach alpha
coe icien . Since his s udy was o explo a o y na u e, a alue o 0.6 can be conside ed he
minimum alue o he C onbach’s Alpha (Hai , Rishe , Sa s ed & Ringle, 2019). When i
comes o he Composi e Reliabili y, alues abo e 0.7 a e conside ed s a is ically signi ican .
The esul s a e displayed in he ollowing Table 1.
C onbach's
Alpha
ho_A
Composi e
Reliabili y
A e age
Va iance
Ex ac ed
(AVE)
Ins ag am Addic ion
0.830
Ins ag am Addic ion – Social E ec
0.755
0.763
0.818
0.297
Ins ag am Addic ion – Compulsion
0.627
0.644
0.769
0.462
Sel -P esen a ion
Ideal Sel -P esen a ion
0.574
0.596
0.748
0.382
False Sel -P esen a ion
0.675
0.679
0.793
0.435
Na cissis ic Sel -P esen a ion
0.701
0.725
0.806
0.461
Table 1 - Validi y o Measu emen Model
21
A e wa ds, he loadings and c oss-loadings o he indica o s we e analyzed o assess
he indica o eliabili y. Table 2 shows ha he loading o each indica o o sel -p esen a ion
is g ea e han all c oss-loadings, he eby hey ul ill he associa ed c i e ion o Hensele ,
Ringle and Sinko ics (2009) o indica o eliabili y. Howe e , i should be no ed ha he
loading and c oss-loading o he wo Ins ag am addic ion measu emen scales a e no as
dis inc and do no ul ill he a o emen ioned c i e ion.
False SP
Ideal SP
Na cissis ic
SP
IA_
Social E ec
IA_
Compulsion
FS1
0.591
0.133
0.333
0.220
0.055
FS2
0.696
0.309
0.480
0.294
0.225
FS3
0.679
0.179
0.251
0.317
0.322
FS4
0.648
0.411
0.498
0.221
0.156
FS5
0.677
0.240
0.388
0.279
0.221
IS1
0.011
0.567
0.286
0.176
0.080
IS2
0.192
0.548
0.295
0.149
0.101
IS3
0.314
0.435
0.270
0.142
0.109
IS4
0.381
0.758
0.416
0.206
0.154
IS5
0.266
0.725
0.424
0.160
0.026
NS1
0.442
0.455
0.704
0.273
0.257
NS2
0.203
0.283
0.547
0.260
0.117
NS3
0.474
0.377
0.771
0.274
0.178
NS4
0.415
0.436
0.799
0.336
0.274
NS5
0.491
0.320
0.526
0.199
0.188
SIA1
0.278
0.181
0.191
0.557
0.296
SIA2
0.090
0.224
0.286
0.274
0.225
SIA3
0.194
0.102
0.209
0.513
0.298
SIA4
0.207
-0.022
0.158
0.501
0.461
SIA5
0.220
0.118
0.150
0.490
0.420
SIA6
0.274
0.191
0.273
0.606
0.474
SIA7
0.195
0.071
0.215
0.546
0.295
SIA8
0.284
0.161
0.291
0.674
0.526
SIA9
0.136
0.136
0.142
0.527
0.403
SIA10
0.251
0.216
0.231
0.586
0.534
SIA11
0.240
0.167
0.202
0.622
0.372
CIA1
0.176
0.010
0.184
0.511
0.476
CIA2
0.257
0.126
0.258
0.524
0.735
CIA3
0.228
0.116
0.215
0.603
0.765
CIA4
0.185
0.122
0.172
0.416
0.704
Table 2: Loadings and C oss Loadings
28
4 GENERAL DISCUSSION
4.1 SUMMARY
The cu en s udy in es iga ed he esea ch gap on how who and wha one ollows on
Ins ag am may a ec hei le el o Ins ag am addic ion and he ype o sel -p esen a ion hey
exhibi h ough hei own p o iles on he applica ion. Applying a mixed-me hod app oach, he
esea che ga he ed quali a i e da a and insigh s ac oss wen y in-dep h in e iews wi h
Ins ag am use s, and es ed he six hypo heses h ough s uc u al equa ion modelling wi h
da a collec ed h ough an ex ensi e online-ques ionnai e.
The insigh s ga he ed h ough he in-dep h in e iews (N = 20) we e in line wi h he
heo e ical backg ound on Ins ag am addic ion and Sel -P esen a ion, as well as he six
hypo heses made. The eby, a end in ela ion o emale Ins ag am use s ollowing Beau y and
Fashion con en and a he same ime exhibi ing cha ac e is ics o Ins ag am addic ion and an
ideal, na cissis ic and e en alse sel -p esen a ion was i s disco e ed.
This disco e y was la e con i med by he s uc u al equa ion modelling o he da a
ob ained h ough he ques ionnai e (N = 212). In con as o wha was ini ially hypo hesized,
i was ound ha no all ypes o ollowing, bu solely Beau y & Fashion con en and accoun s
o In luence s ha e an e ec on hei ollowe s’ le el o Ins ag am addic ion and ype o sel -
p esen a ion.
4.2 THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS
Since no p io esea ch had s udied he speci ic impac ha he consump ion o he
con en and ypes o accoun s p ima ily ollowed on Ins ag am has on use s, he indings made
in he cu en esea ch ac as a basis o u u e s udies examining he e ec s o ollowing.
The i s co e inding o he cu en s udy is ela ed o he esul s o H2 and H3, which
indica e ha only some ypes o accoun s and con en ollowed ha e a signi ican e ec on
he le el o Ins ag am addic ion. Ou o he wel e ypes o con en and i e ypes o accoun s
s udied, only ollowing Beau y & Fashion con en and In luence s accoun s we e ound o ha e

29
a signi ican posi i e e ec on bo h he compulsion and social aspec o use s Ins ag am
addic ion. This inding sugges s ha Ins ag am use s ha p ima ily ollow Beau y and Fashion
con en and/o a highe pe cen age o In luence s, a e mo e likely o “being o e ly conce ned
and de o ing so much ime and e o o ( his) social media ha i impai s o he impo an
a eas o hei li e” (And eassen & Pallesen, 2014, p. 4054; And eassen, Pallesen & G i i hs,
2017).
A he same ime, i mus be conside ed ha pas esea ch has al eady ound ha
ce ain pe sonali y ai s a ec he excessi e use o social media (e.g., And eassen e al., 2012,
2017; Hong, Huang, Lin, & Chiu, 2014; Ki cabu un & G i i hs, 2017; Wilson, Fo nasie , &
Whi e, 2010). The e o e, he e may be a complex ela ionship be ween use s’ pe sonali y,
who use s choose o ollow, and hei le el o Ins ag am addic ion, which should be
in es iga ed by u u e esea ch. This s udy suppo s o he indings o he exis ing li e a u e
ha some demog aphics such as lowe age and emale gende inc ease he likelihood i
Ins ag am addic ion (And eassen e . al., 2017; Van Deu sen, Bolle, Hegne , & Komme s,
2015). In e es ingly, he esul s o he cu en s udy also showed ha hese demog aphics a e
also he mos likely o ollow Beau y and Fashion, as well as In luence con en .
I should be no ed ha based on p eceding indings on he causes o Ins ag am
addic ion, he cu en s udy conside ed low li e sa is ac ion and low sel -es eem as po en ial
mode a o s o he hypo heses es ed. Howe e , h ough he wo s udies no signi ican
mode a ing e ec o hese a iables was ound.
The second co e inding o he cu en s udy is ela ed o he ype o sel -p esen a ion
use s exhibi on Ins ag am, based on wha ype o accoun s hey ollow. He eby, ollowing
In luence s was ound o ha e a s ong, di ec and posi i e e ec o on p esen ing one’s alse
sel . Pas esea ch has de e mined ha such an exhibi ion o one’s alse sel may be
decep ional, explo a ional o s em om a desi e o imp ess o he s by con i ming o hei
pe cei ed expec a ions (Ha e e al., 1996; Michikyan e . al., 2014). The la e appea ing he
mos applicable o ollowing and po en ially imi a ing in luence s, who hemsel es equen ly
use hei p o iles o p esen an “ideal” unachie able by he a e age pe son ha ollows hem.
Mo eo e , he esul s o he cu en s udy also show ha he social e ec o Ins ag am
addic ion di ec ly e ec s ideal-, alse- and na cissis ic-sel -p esen a ion. Which, as discussed
30
abo e, is di ec ly and posi i ely a ec ed by ollowing In luence s as well as Beau y & Fashion
con en . The e o e, a numbe o indi ec e ec s be ween hese ypes o accoun s and
con en s ollowed on p esen ing any hing bu he eal sel on Ins ag am. Con i ming he
p oposed hypo heses, ha he consump ion o Beau y and Fashion con en and/o ollowing
he ca e ully cu a ed li es o In luence s esul s in use s also “a emp ing o c ea e, modi y
and main ain a ce ain sel -image” which de ia es om hei eal-o line-sel (B own, 2014).
The eby i should be no ed ha his sel -p esen a ion migh s em om a longing o
a i ma i e eedback h ough likes and commen s (Jackson & Luchne , 2018), which hese
use s also obse e he in luence accoun s ha hey ollow ecei ing.
Las ly, while he esul s o he numbe o accoun s ollowed we e no ound o ha e a
signi ican e ec on Ins ag am addic ion and hus H1 was no con i med, a highe numbe o
accoun s ollowed was ound o ha e a signi ican posi i e e ec on na cissis ic sel -
p esen a ion. This exagge a ion o one’s sel -concep may also be a ibu ed o he
a o emen ioned desi e o ecogni ion and a i ma i e eedback, which also was ound o
p o ide use s wi h se e al bene i s, such as inc ease in sel -es eem and e en ually well-being
(Ellison, S ein ield, & Lampe, 2007; Valkenbu g, Pe e , & Schou en, 2006).
4.3 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
This wo k has implica ions o p ac i ione s and policy make s. Fi s ma ke e s wi hin
he Beau y and Fashion space may be able o ake ad an age o he indings ha ollowe s o
such con en and In luence accoun s on Ins ag am, a e he mos p one o becoming
Ins ag am addic ed and shaping hei sel -p esen a ion owa ds a mo e ideal-, na cissis ic- o
e en alse- e sion o hemsel es. Conside ing ha he ollowe s o In luence s and Beau y
and Fashion con en a e adap ing hei sel -p esen a ion in o de o ma ch he “ideal”
p esen ed by he accoun s hey ollow, i is p obable ha hey will also ollow hei
ecommenda ions o become mo e like hem. The e o e, he ecommenda ions and
ad e isemen s ela ed o Beau y and Fashion con en and/o pos ed by In luence s, a e
expec ed o be especially e ec i e and p o i able. Consequen ly, b ands should especially
in es in Ins ag am ad e isemen s in hese con en ca ego ies and In luence sponso ships.
31
Besides, he indings o his pape p o ide insigh ul in o ma ion o Ins ag am, bu also
o he Social Ne wo k, use s. I use s ake hese indings in o accoun , hey could hope ully
o ego o lea e a s a e o Ins ag am addic ion by un ollowing a numbe o accoun s ha
con ibu e o his addic ion. Mo eo e , he indings could encou age use s o ocus on he
sel -p esen a ion o hei eal- ins ead o ideal-, na cissis ic- o alse- sel . Again, such a
ans o ma ion migh in ol e un ollowing ypes o accoun s ha subconsciously in lic hose
s anda ds on he use s. Luckily, use s a e in ull con ol o wha accoun s hey ollow, and wha
hey see while sc olling h ough Ins ag am. Thus, his esea ch sugges s ha i hey use his
powe wisely and apply he indings co ec ly, hey can achie e a mo e posi i e Ins ag am
expe ience.
A he same ime, he indings may be u ilized by policymake s and pa en s, ac ing as
a basis o educa ing young Ins ag am use s on he ac o s ha a e inc easing hei p obabili y
o su e om Ins ag am addic ion.
4.4 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
Se e al esea ch limi a ions o his s udy ha e been conside ed. One being he
collec ion o he esponden s o bo h s udies, which was andom bu based on accessibili y
o he esea che , and hence, he sample is no ully ep esen a i e o he whole popula ion
o Ins ag am use s. Since he cu en s udy ocused on use s aged be ween 18-30, he indings
can p ima ily be used o make in e ences o Gen Z and Millennials. While hese cu en ly
ep esen he main g oup o Ins ag am use s, u u e s udies could o ganize a mul i-g oup
analysis, o s udy he di e ences amongs age g oups. Fu he mo e, bo h he ques ionnai e
and in e iews, ely on es ima ions (e.g.: on he ype and opics o he accoun s ollowed) and
sel - epo ing made by he esponden s, which a e subjec o e o . These esponses migh
no be ully accu a e and he eby could ha e a ec ed he indings. Besides, h ough he in-
dep h in e iews he e could ha e been a bias in lic ed on he esponden s by he in e iewing
esea che . Mo eo e , due o he c oss-sec ional na u e o he s udies, and he da a being
collec ed jus a one poin in ime, i is no possible o de e mine causali y be ween he
32
a iables. Howe e , being well awa e o hese limi a ions, he esea che assu ed ha hey
we e conside ed and comp ised as much as possible.
Fu u e s udies should conside hese limi a ions and adjus hei esea ch models
acco dingly. I would be in e es ing o u he in es iga e hese indings h ough an
expe imen al esea ch design. The eby, u u e s udies should ocus on in es iga ing he
e ec s o ollowing Beau y and Fashion con en , and In luence s on Ins ag am addic ion.
Mo eo e , he signi ican ela ionship be ween he social aspec o Ins ag am addic ion and a
mo e ideal-, na cissis ic- and alse- sel -p esen a ion should be s udied in mo e dep h. Las ly,
u he s udies on he long- e m e ec s o bo h Ins ag am addic ion and ideal-, na cissis ic- o
alse- sel -p esen a ion on he psychological wellbeing o use s a e equi ed.
33
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44
21. How would you eel i you we e unable o log in o Ins ag am o he nex mon h?
22. Do you ha e any o he commen s you would like o add?
23. Can you please ake ou you phone, o check and ell me you ac ual sc een ime o
he Ins ag am app in he pas week?
24. How do you eel abou spending his amoun o ime on he app?
Thank you o aking he ime o be in e iewed by me oday.

45
6.1 IC: SCALES AND MEASURES - STUDY 2
Cons uc s
I ems
Measu emen i ems
Re e ences
Real Sel -
P esen a ion
(RS)
RS1
RS2
RS3
RS4
RS5
RS6
I ha e a good sense o who I am, and many o he hings I do on my
Ins ag am p o ile is a way o showing ha .
Who I am online is simila o who I am o line.
The way I p esen mysel on Ins ag am is how I am in eal li e.
I like mysel and am p oud o wha I s and o and I show i on my
Ins ag am
I eel like I ha e many sides o mysel and I show i on my Ins ag am
p o ile.
I change my pho os on my Ins ag am p o ile o show people he di e en
aspec s o who I am.
(Michikyan,
Sub ahmanyam,
& Dennis, 2014)
Ideal Sel -
P esen a ion
(IS)
IS1
IS2
IS3
IS4
IS5
I ha e a good sense o wha I wan in li e and using Ins ag am is a way o
exp ess my iews and belie s.
On Ins ag am I can you many aspec s o who I am much mo e han I
can in eal li e.
I only show he aspec s o mysel on Ins ag am ha I know people would
like.
I pos hings on my Ins ag am o show aspec s o who I wan o be.
Who I wan o be is o en e lec ed in he hings I do on my Ins ag am
p o ile (e.g., s a us pos s, commen s, pho os, e c.)
(Michikyan,
Sub ahmanyam,
& Dennis, 2014)
False Sel -
P esen a ion
(FS)
FS1
FS2
FS3
FS4
FS5
I am a comple ely di e en pe son online han I am o line.
Some imes I eel like I keep up a on on Ins ag am.
I compa e mysel o o he s on Ins ag am.
I y o imp ess o he s wi h he pho os I pos o mysel on my Ins ag am
p o ile.
I some imes y o be someone o he han my ue sel on Ins ag am.
(Michikyan,
Sub ahmanyam,
& Dennis, 2014)
Na cissis ic
Sel -
P esen a ion
(NS)
NS1
NS2
NS3
NS4
NS5
I end o pos on Ins ag am o a ac he in e es o o he s.
I lea e commen s on Ins ag am o a ac o he s’ a en ion.
I wan o s and ou on Ins ag am.
I wan o gain ame among my pee s on Ins ag am.
I wan my pos s o make me look cool among my pee s on Ins ag am.
(Yu & Kim, 2020)
Social E ec
o Ins ag am
Addic ion
(SIA)
SIA1
SIA2
SIA3
SIA4
SIA5
SIA6
SIA7
SIA8
How o en do you p e e he exci emen o Ins ag am ins ead o being
wi h you close iends?
How o en do you o m new ela ionships wi h ellow Ins ag am use s?
How o en do you become de ensi e o sec e i e when anyone asks you
wha you do on Ins ag am?
How o en do you g ades o school-wo k su e s because o he amoun
o ime you spend on Ins ag am?
How o en do you snap, yell, o ac annoyed i someone bo he s you
while you a e on Ins ag am?
How o en do you y o hide how long you’ e been on Ins ag am?
How o en do you choose o spend mo e ime on Ins ag am o e going
ou wi h o he s?
How o en do you eel dep essed, moody o ne ous when you a e no
on Ins ag am, which goes away once you a e back on Ins ag am?
(Ki cabu un &
G i i hs, 2018)
46
SIA9
SIA10
SIA11
How o en do you y o cu down he amoun o ime you spend on
Ins ag am and ail?
How o en do you check you Ins ag am be o e some hing else ha you
need o do?
How o en do youNS1 block ou dis u bing hough s abou you li e wi h
soo hing hough s o he Ins ag am?
Compulsion o
Ins ag am
Addic ion
(CIA)
CIA1
CIA2
CIA3
CIA4
How o en do you ind you sel an icipa ing when you will go on
Ins ag am again?
How o en do you ea ha li e wi hou he Ins ag am would be bo ing,
emp y, and joyless?
How o en do you lose sleep due o la e nigh log-ins o Ins ag am?
How o en do you ind you sel saying “jus a ew mo e minu es” when
on Ins ag am?
(Ki cabu un &
G i i hs, 2018)
SISE
SISE
I ha e high sel -es eem.
(Robins, Hendin &
T zesniewski,
2001)
Social
Sel -Es eem
SSE1*
SSE2*
SSE3
SSE4*
SSE5*
SSE6*
I am wo ied abou whe he I am ega ded as a success o ailu e.
I eel sel -conscious.
I eel pleased wi h mysel .
I am wo ied abou wha o he people hink o me.
I eel conce ned abou he imp ession I am making.
I am wo ied abou looking oolish.
(Hea he on &
Poli y, 1991)
Li e
Sa is ac ion
LS1
LS2
LS3
LS4
LS5
In mos ways, my li e is close o my ideal.
The condi ions o my li e a e excellen .
I am sa is ied wi h my li e.
So a I ha e go en he impo an hings I wan in li e.
I I could li e my li e o e , I would change almos no hing.
(Diene e al.,
1985)
47
APPENDIX D: SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS
D. 1 - S udy 1
Classi ica ion Ques ions
Resul s
Gende
Male
35.0%
Female
65.0%
Age
18
5.0%
19
0.0%
20
10.0%
21
5.0%
22
10.0%
23
25.0%
24
15.0%
25
0.0%
26
15.0%
27
5.0%
28
0.0%
29
10.0%
Na ionali y
Po uguese
40.0%
Ge man
30.0%
B azilian
10.0%
F ench
5.0%
Uk ainian
5.0%
Hunga ian
5.0%
Bulga ian
5.0%
Time Spen on Ins ag am
(h/week)
≤ 5
35.0%
> 5 and < 10
30.0%
≥ 10
35.0%
D.2 - S udy 2
Classi ica ion Ques ions
Resul s
Gende
Male
22.7%
Female
76.8%
Age
18
3.8%
19
2.4%
20
8.5%
21
9.0%
22
17.1%
23
23.7%
24
10.0%
25
6.6%
26
4.3%
27
4.7%
28
2.8%
29
1.9%
30
5.2%
Na ionali y
Ge man
31.3%
48
Po uguese
19.0%
Luxembou gish
10.4%
I alian
5.2%
Du ch
3.3%
F ench
2.8%
Belgian
2.8%
Ame ican
2.4%
Columbian
2.4%
O he s
20.4%
Educa ion Le el
High school
33.7%
Bachelo ’s deg ee
43.6%
Mas e 's deg ee
20.4%
Doc o a e deg ee
0.0%
O he
1,9%
Do you ollow celeb i ies on
Ins ag am?
Yes
85,8%
No
14,2%
Do you ollow in luence s on
Ins ag am?
Yes
81,0%
No
19,0%
Type o accoun s ollowed:
Family & F iends
43%
Acquain ances
25%
Celeb i ies
11%
In luence s
11%
O he s
11%
APPENDIX E: RESULTS SPSS ANALYSIS – STUDY 2
E.1 – Reg ession Analysis Types o Accoun s ollowed on Ins ag am Addic ion
Model Summa y
Model
R
R Squa e
Adjus ed R Squa e
S d. E o O
The Es ima e
1
.284a
.080
.063
1.08058
ANOVAa
Model
Sum o
Squa e
d
Mean
Squa e
F
Sig.
1
Reg ession
21.053
4
5.263
4.508
.002b
Residual
240.536
206
1.168
To al
261.589
210
a. Dependen Va iable: A e age_Addic ion
b. P edic o s: (Cons an ), O he s, Celeb i ies, In luence s, Acquain ances
49
Coe icien sa
Model
Uns anda dized
B
Coe icien s
S d. E o
S anda dized
Coe icien s
Be a
Sig.
1
(Cons an )
2.692
.210
12.805
.000
Acquain ances
.002
.004
.039
.549
.584
Celeb i ies
.010
.009
.080
1.135
.284
In luence s
.027
.008
.248
3.468
.001
O he s
-.003
.006
-.039
-.550
.583
a. Dependen Va iable: A e age_Addic ion
Excluded Va iablesa
Model
Be a In
Sig.
Pa ial
Co ela ion
Collinea i y
S a is ics
Tole ance
1
F iends & Family
.b
.
.
.
.000
a. Dependen Va iable: A e age_Addic ion
b. P edic o s in he Model: (Cons an ), O he s, Celeb i ies, In luence s, Acquain ances
E.2 - Reg ession Analysis – Con en o Accoun s ollowed on Ins ag am Addic ion
Model Summa y
Model
R
R Squa e
Adjus ed R Squa e
S d. E o O
The Es ima e
1
.322a
.104
.050
1.08805
a. P edic o s: (Cons an ), O he s, In o ma i e, Ca s & Elec onics, A & A chi ec u e,
Music & Film, Comedy, Na u e & Animal, Spo , T a el, Food, Li es yle, Beau y &
Fashion
ANOVAa
Model
Sum o
Squa e
d
Mean
Squa e
F
Sig.
1
Reg ession
27.185
12
2.265
1.914
.035b
Residual
234.405
198
1.184
To al
261.589
210
a. Dependen Va iable: A e age_Addic ion
b. P edic o s: (Cons an ), O he s, In o ma i e, Ca s & Elec onics, A & A chi ec u e,
Music & Film, Comedy, Na u e & Animal, Spo , T a el, Food, Li es yle, Beau y &
Fashion

50
Coe icien sa
Model
Uns anda dized
B
Coe icien s
S d. E o
S anda dized
Coe icien s
Be a
Sig.
1
(Cons an )
2.666
.331
8.064
.000
A & A chi ec u e
-.046
.252
-.013
-.182
.856
Beau y & Fashion
.587
.185
.263
3.173
.002
Ca s & Elec onics
.101
.409
.017
.248
.804
Comedy
.140
.199
.055
.707
.481
Food
-.055
.193
-.022
-.286
.775
In o ma i e
-.013
.216
-.005
-.061
-952
Li es yle
.258
.179
.114
1.443
.150
Music & Film
.138
.230
.049
.600
.549
Na u e & Animals
-.253
.237
-.079
-1.067
.287
Spo
-.037
.230
-.013
-.163
.871
T a el
.152
.180
.066
.847
.398
O he s
-.016
.319
-.004
-.051
-959
a. Dependen Va iable: A e age_Addic ion
51
APPENDIX F: SMART PLS – PATH COEFFICIENT RESULTS – STUDY 2
F.1 - Di ec E ec s - Mean, STDEV, T-Values, P-Values
O iginal
Sample (O)
Sample
Mean (M)
S anda d
De ia ion
(STDEV)
T S a is ics
(|O/STDEV|)
P Values
Beau y & Fashion ->
False SP
0.105
0.100
0.069
1.517
0.129
Beau y & Fashion ->
IA_Compulsion
0.259
0.263
0.070
3.677
0.000
Beau y & Fashion ->
IA_Social E ec
0.197
0.198
0.065
3.059
0.002
Beau y & Fashion ->
Ideal SP
0.101
0.102
0.074
1.357
0.175
Beau y & Fashion ->
Na cissis ic SP
0.096
0.091
0.077
1.243
0.214
IA_Social E ec ->
False SP
0.316
0.336
0.065
4.856
0.000
IA_Social E ec ->
Ideal SP
0.223
0.253
0.070
3.182
0.001
IA_Social E ec ->
Na cissis ic SP
0.361
0.389
0.072
4.993
0.000
In luence s ->
False SP
0.234
0.232
0.065
3.620
0.000
In luence s ->
IA_Compulsion
0.173
0.174
0.070
2.456
0.014
In luence s ->
IA_Social E ec
0.225
0.227
0.073
3.095
0.002
In luence s ->
Ideal SP
0.080
0.079
0.071
1.134
0.257
In luence s ->
Na cissis ic SP
0.046
0.040
0.074
0.620
0.535
Numbe Followed ->
IA_Compulsion
0.072
0.086
0.074
0.979
0.328
Numbe Followed ->
IA_Social E ec
0.065
0.075
0.081
0.811
0.417
F.2 - Indi ec E ec s - Mean, STDEV, T-Values, P-Values
O iginal
Sample
(O)
Sample
Mean (M)
S anda d
De ia ion
(STDEV)
T S a is ics
(|O/STDEV|)
P Values
Beau y & Fashion ->
False SP
0.062
0.066
0.025
2.505
0.012
52
Beau y & Fashion ->
Ideal SP
0.044
0.050
0.022
1.976
0.048
Beau y & Fashion ->
Na cissis ic SP
0.071
0.076
0.028
2.535
0.011
In luence s ->
False SP
0.071
0.077
0.029
2.439
0.015
In luence s ->
Ideal SP
0.050
0.058
0.026
1.930
0.054
In luence s ->
Na cissis ic SP
0.081
0.089
0.033
2.436
0.015
F.3 - S uc u al Equa ion Model including Indi ec Signi ican E ec s
No es: O de o he pa h coe icien s o Ins ag am Addic ion: (IA_Complusion, IA_Social E ec )
O de o he pa h coe icien s o Sel P esen a ion (Ideal SP, False SP, Na cissis ic SP)
* p <0.10; ** p<0.05; ***p<0.01.
53
APPENDIX G: COMPLETE QUALTRICS QUESTIONNAIRE - STUDY 2
S a o Block: De aul Ques ion Block
In o
Thank you o pa icipa ing in his s udy!
This su ey abou Ins ag am con ibu es o he academic esea ch and Mas e hesis o Kla a
Helene Mülle , s uden a Uni e sidade No a IMS. You answe s will be eco ded
anonymously o da a analysis pu poses.
Since his su ey is abou you pe sonal expe ience wi h Ins ag am, he e a e no igh o w ong
answe s. Please jus ead o ques ions ho oughly and make su e o answe hem o he bes
o you abili ies and hones ly.
You will ake app oxima ely 7 minu es o inish his su ey.
Decla a ion I decla e ha I am 18 o o e and ag ee o pa icipa e in his esea ch. I decla e
ha I was in o med ha my pa icipa ion in his s udy is olun a y and ha I can lea e his
su ey a any ime wi hou penal y, and all da a is con iden ial. I unde s and ha I will e alua e
esponses and ha his s udy does no o e se ious isks.
o I ag ee o pa icipa e (1)
o I do no ag ee o pa icipa e (2)
Page B eak
Ac i e. il e A e you an ac i e use o Ins ag am?
o Yes (1)
o No (2)
Page B eak
60
Page B eak
li e wi h soo hing hough s
abou Ins ag am? (11)
Please selec "9. Always". (12)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
How o en do you ind you sel
an icipa ing when you will go on
Ins ag am again? (13)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
How o en do you ea ha li e
wi hou he Ins ag am would be
bo ing, emp y, and joyless? (14)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
How o en do you lose sleep due
o la e nigh log-ins o
Ins ag am? (15)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
How o en do you ind you sel
saying “jus a ew mo e minu es”
when on Ins ag am? (16)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Mode a o s Please ead he ollowing s a emen s ca e ully and use he scale o indica e how much you ag ee
wi h hem.
1.
S ongly
disag ee
(1)
2.
(2)
3.
(3)
4.
(4)
5.
(5)
6.
(6)
7.
(7)
8.
(8)
9.
S ongly
ag ee (9)
I ha e high sel -es eem.
(1)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
In mos ways, my li e is
close o my ideal. (2)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
The condi ions o my li e
a e excellen . (3)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I am sa is ied wi h my
li e. (4)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
So a I ha e go en he
impo an hings I wan
in li e. (5)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I I could li e my li e o e ,
I would change almos
no hing. (6)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I am wo ied abou
whe he I am ega ded as
a success o ailu e. (7)*
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I eel sel -conscious. (8)*
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I eel pleased wi h
mysel . (9)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I am wo ied abou wha
o he people hink o me.
(10)*
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I eel conce ned abou
he imp ession I am
making. (11)*
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
I am wo ied abou
looking oolish. (12)*
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

61
Gende Wha is you gende ?
o Male (1)
o Female (2)
o O he (3)
o I p e e no o say (4)
Age Wha is you age?
________________________________________________________________
Na ionali y Wha is you na ionali y?
________________________________________________________________
Educa ion Wha is he highes le el o educa ion ha you ha e comple ed?
o High School (1)
o Bachelo (2)
o Mas e (3)
o Doc o a e (4)
o O he (5) ________________________________________________
End o Block: De aul Ques ion Block
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